DESIGN OF SCREW FASTENING

1.0 KIND OF THREADS

Figure 1. Thread Forms for Screws

1.1 V-Threads
The sharp crest and root of the V-thread , Figure 1(a), occasionally cut on lathes are
undesirable because the thin material is easily injured and because the concentration of the
stress at the root of the thread is large.
1.2 Sellers
William Sellers proposed (1864) the form in Figure 1(b) , with flat crest and root, which
partially removes the inherent weakness of the V-thread. The Sellers thread was the U.S.
standard for many years.
1.3 Whitworth
The Whitworth thread (1841), Figure 1(c), featuring rounded crests and roots, has been the
standard in Britain. It has better fatigue strength, because of the rounded root, than the
Sellers thread.
1.4 Unified Screw
The current U.S. Standard, shown in Figure 2, is in agreement with the international (USA,
Britain, Canada) Unified Standard. This standard has the 60o thread angle of the old
American standard and the optional rounded root of the British standard for an external
thread; the crest may be either flat or rounded, as shown. There are similar choices for the
internal thread, Figure 2 (b).

1
 Figure 2. Unified Screw Threads.

2.0 DEFINITIONS

2.1 Major Diameter

The major diameter is the diameter of the imaginary cylinder that bounds the crests of an
external thread and the roots of an internal thread; it is the largest diameter of the screw

2
 thread. This dimension has been called the “outside diameter,” a confusing term when
applied to threads internally.

2.2 Size
The size of a screw is its nominal major diameter.

2.3 Minor Diameter

The minor diameter is the diameter of the imaginary cylinder that bounds the roots of an
external thread or the crests of an internal thread. This dimension has been commonly
called the “root diameter.”

2.4 Pitch
The pitch P is the axial distance from a point on a screw thread to a corresponding point on
the adjacent thread.
1
Pinches 
number of threads per inch

2.5 Lead
The lead is the distance in inches a screw thread ( a helix) advances axially in one turn. On a
single-thread screw, the lead and pitch are identical; on a double-thread screw, the lead is
twice the pitch; on a triple-thread screw, the lead is three times the pitch.

2.6 Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.

2.7 Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
2.8 Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
2.9 Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and root.
2.10 Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
2.11 Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.

3.0 COMMON TYPES OF SCREW FASTENINGS

Following are the common types of screw fastenings :

3
3.1 Through bolts. A through bolt (or simply a bolt) is shown in Figure 3(a). It is a cylindrical bar with
threads for the nut at one end and head at the other end. The cylindrical part of the bolt is
known as shank. It is passed through drilled holes in the two parts to be fastened together and
clamped them securely to each other as the nut is screwed on to the threaded end. The through
bolts may or may not have a machined finish and are made with either hexagonal or square
heads. A through bolt should pass easily in the holes, when put under tension by a load along its
axis. If the load acts perpendicular to the axis, tending to slide one of the connected parts along
the other end thus subjecting it to shear, the holes should be reamed so that the bolt shank fits
snugly there in. The through bolts according to their usage may be known as machine bolts,
carriage bolts, automobile bolts, eye bolts etc.
3.2 Tap bolts. A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt. It is screwed into a tapped hole of one of the
parts to be fastened without the nut, as shown in Figure 3(b).
3.3 Studs. A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is screwed into a tapped
hole of the parts to be fastened, while the other end receives a nut on it, as shown in Figure
3(c). Studs are chiefly used instead of tap bolts for securing various kinds of covers e.g. covers of
engine and pump cylinders, valves, chests etc. This is due to the fact that when tap bolts are
unscrewed or replaced, they have a tendency to break the threads in the hole. This
disadvantage is overcome by the use of studs.
3.4 Cap screws. The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small size and a
variety of shapes of heads are available as shown in Figure 4.

3.5 Machine screws. These are similar to cap screws with the head slotted for a screw driver. These
are generally used with a nut.
3.6 Set screws. The set screws are shown in Figure 5. These are used to prevent relative motion
between the two parts. A set screw is screwed through a threaded hole in one part so that its
point (i.e. end of the screw) presses against the other part. This resists the relative motion
between the two parts by means of friction between the point of the screw and one of the

4
 parts. They may be used instead of key to prevent relative motion between a hub and a shaft in
light power transmission members. They may also be used in connection with a key, where they
prevent relative axial motion of the shaft, key and hub assembly.

The diameter of the set screw (d) may be obtained from the following expression:
d = 0.125 D + 8 mm
where D is the diameter of the shaft (in mm) on which the set screw is pressed.
The tangential force (in newtons) at the surface of the shaft is given by
F = 6.6 (d )2.3
∴Torque transmitted by a set screw,
D
T  F  N  m ... (D is in metres)
2
2 NT
and power transmitted (in watts), P  , where N is the speed in r.p.m.
60

4.0 LOCKING DEVICES

Ordinary thread fastenings, generally, remain tight under static loads, but many of these
fastenings become loose under the action of variable loads or when machine is subjected to
vibrations. The loosening of fastening is very dangerous and must be prevented. In order to prevent
this, a large number of locking devices are available, some of which are discussed below :

4.1 Jam nut or lock nut. A most common locking device is a jam, lock or check nut. It has about one-
half to two-third thickness of the standard nut. The thin lock nut is first tightened down with
ordinary force, and then the upper nut (i.e. thicker nut) is tightened down upon it, as shown in
Figure 6(a). The upper nut is then held tightly while the lower one is slackened back against it.

5
 In slackening back the lock nut, a thin spanner is required which is difficult to find in
many shops. Therefore to overcome this difficulty, a thin nut is placed on the top as shown in
Figure 6(b).
If the nuts are really tightened down as they should be, the upper nut carries a greater
tensile load than the bottom one. Therefore, the top nut should be thicker one with a thin nut
below it because it is desirable to put whole of the load on the thin nut. In order to overcome
both the difficulties, both the nuts are made of the same thickness as shown in Figure 6(c).
4.2 Castle nut. It consists of a hexagonal portion with a cylindrical upper part which is slotted in line
with the centre of each face, as shown in Figure 7. The split pin passes through two slots in the
nut and a hole in the bolt, so that a positive lock is obtained unless the pin shears. It is
extensively used on jobs subjected to sudden shocks and considerable vibration such as in
automobile industry.

4.3 Sawn nut. It has a slot sawed about half way through, as shown in Figure 8. After the nut is
screwed down, the small screw is tightened which produces more friction between the nut and
the bolt. This prevents the loosening of nut.

6
4.4 Penn, ring or grooved nut. It has a upper portion hexagonal and a lower part cylindrical as
shown in Figure 9. It is largely used where bolts pass through connected pieces reasonably near
their edges such as in marine type connecting rod ends. The bottom portion is cylindrical and is
recessed to receive the tip of the locking set screw. The bolt hole requires counter-boring to
receive the cylindrical portion of the nut. In order to prevent bruising of the latter by the case
hardened tip of the set screw, it is recessed.

4.5 Locking with pin. The nuts may be locked by means of a taper pin or cotter pin passing through
the middle of the nut as shown in Figure 10 (a). But a split pin is often driven through the bolt
above the nut, as shown in Figure 10 (b).

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 4.6 Locking with plate. A form of stop plate or locking plate is shown in Figure 11. The nut can be
adjusted and subsequently locked through angular intervals of 30° by using these plates.

4.7 Spring lock washer. A spring lock washer is shown in Figure 12. As the nut tightens the washer
against the piece below, one edge of the washer is caused to dig itself into that piece, thus
increasing the resistance so that the nut will not loosen so easily. There are many kinds of spring
lock washers manufactured, some of which are fairly effective.

5.0 STANDARD THREADS

There are a number of “standard threads, some quite specialized, concerning which, refer to the
standard. Table AT 14 and 5.1 (Faires) give certain data for some widely used threads. (Table 1 and
Table 2).
5.1 The coarse-thread series (designated UNC) is recommended for general use; where jar and
vibration are not important factors, where disassembly of parts is frequent, and where tapped
holes are in metals other than steel. Always use the coarse thread unless there is a reason for
using another.
5.2 The fine-thread series (designated UNF) is frequently used in automotive and aircraft work;
especially where jar and vibration (tending to loosen the nut) are present, where fine
adjustment is required with the use of castle nut, and where tapped holes are in steel (avoid
UNF in brittle materials).
5.3 The extra-fine thread series (designated UNEF) is particularly useful in aeronautical equipment;
suitable where thin-walled material is to be threaded, where fine adjustments are required, and

8
 where jar and vibration are excessive. Screws with these threads are likely to be made of heat-
treated alloy steel.
5.4 The 8-thread series (designated 8 UN), Table 1 (Table 5.1, ref.) is used on bolts for high-pressure
pipe flanges, cylinder-head studs, etc. There are several constant pitch series, for example, 12
UN (see under Fine, Table 2 (Table AT 14, ref.), 16 UN, 20 UN. These threads are useful because,
in the regular coarse thread, the pitch continuous to increase with size and it becomes
increasingly difficult to induce the desired the desired initial tension in the bolt, so necessary for
tight joint. Even for the 8 UN thread, impact wrenches or very large leverages are needed for
tightening to stresses of the order of the yield strength.
TABLE 1 . EXTRA-FINE AND 8-THREAD SERIES
Unified and American Standard.
EXTRA-FINE SERIES (NEF AND UNEF) 8-THREAD SERIES ( 8N AND 8 UN)
Size Basic Th./In. Minor Stress Size Minor Stress
Major (tpi) Dia. Ext. Area As DIa. Ext. Area As s
Dia. In. Th. sq. In. Th. q. In.
12 0.2160 32 0.1777 0.0270 1 0.8466 0.606
¼ 0.2500 32 0.2117 0.0379 1 1/8 0.9716 0.790
5/16 0.3125 32 0.2742 0.0625 1¼ 1.0966 1.000
3/8 0.3750 32 0.3367 0.0932 1 3/8 1.2216 1.233
7/16 0.4375 28 0.3937 0.1274
1½ 1.3466 1.492
½ 0.5000 28 0.4562 0.170 1 5/8 1.4716 1.78
9/16 0.5625 24 0.5114 0.214 1¾ 1.5966 2.08
5/8 0.6250 24 0.5739 0.268 1 7/8 1.7216 2.41
11/16 0.6875 24 0.6364 0.329
¾ 0.7500 20 0.6887 0.386 2 1.8466 2.77
2¼ 2.0966 3.56
13/16 0.8125 20 0.7512 0.458 2½ 2.3466 4.44
7/8 0.8750 20 0.8137 0.536 2¾ 2.5966 5.43
15/16 0.9375 20 0.8762 0.620
1 1.0000 20 0.9387 0.711 3 2.8466 6.51
1 1/16 1.0625 18 0.9943 0.799 3¼ 3.0966 7.6738
3½ 3.3466 8.96
1 1/8 1.1250 18 1.0568 0.901 3¾ 3.5966 10.34
1 3/16 1.1875 18 1.1193 1.009
1¼ 1.2500 18 1.1818 1.123 4 3.8466 11.81
1 5/16 1.3125 18 1.2443 1.244 4¼ 4.0966 11.38
1 3/8 1.3750 18 1.3068 1.370 4½ 4.3466 15.1
4¾ 4.5966 16.8
1 7/16 1.4375 18 1.3693 1.503
1½ 1.5000 18 1.4318 1.64 5 4.8466 18.7
1 9/16 1.5625 18 1.4943 1.79 5¼ 5.0966 20.7
1 5/8 1.6250 18 1.5568 1.94 5½ 5.3466 22.7
1 11/16 1.6875 18 1.6193 2.10 5¾ 5.5966 24.9
6 5.8466 27.1

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Table 2 (Table AT 14). UNIFIED AND AMERICAN SCREW THREADS – COARSE AND FINE
Selected values abstracted from ASA B1.1-1960, which should be referred to for details on proportions
and tolerances, and for other thread series; dimensions for a class 3 fit, external thread. The minor
diameter for the internal thread is not quite the same as for the external thread. The tensile stress area
is that area corresponding to a diameter that is approximately the average of the pitch and minor
diameter. Selected values of 12-thread series above 1 ½-in. size.
SIZE BASIC COARSE (UNC) FINE (UNF), AND 12 UN WIDTH ACROSS FLATS,
MAJOR Th./In. Minor Stress Th./In. Minor Stress REGULAR,
DIA. Dia. Area, Dia. Area, UNFINISHED; A in.
In. Ext. Th. As, Ext. Th. As, (Selected from ASA B
sq. In. sq. In. 18.2-1952.)

0 0.0600 80 0.0447 0.00180 For square heads and

1 0.0730 64 0.0538 0.00263 72 0.0560 0.00278 nuts, A is different in
2 0.0860 56 0.0641 0.00370 64 0.0668 0.00394 the smaller sizes
(below 7/8) from
3 0.0990 48 0.0734 0.00487 56 0.0771 0.00523
these values. See
4 0.1120 40 0.0813 0.00604 48 0.0864 0.00661
detail in the standard,
5 0.1250 40 0.0943 0.00796 44 0.0971 0.0083
6 0.1380 32 0.0997 0.00909 40 0.1073 0.01015
8 0.1640 32 0.1257 0.0140 36 0.1299 0.01474
10 0.1900 24 0.1389 0.0175 32 0.1517 0.0200
12 0.2160 24 0.1649 0.0242 28 0.1722 0.0258
Head Nut
¼ 0.2500 20 0.1887 0.0318 28 0.2062 0.0364 7/16 7/16
5/16 0.3125 18 0.2443 0.0524 24 0.2614 0.0580 ½ ½
3/8 0.3750 16 0.2983 0.0775 24 0.3239 0.0878 9/16 9/16
7/16 0.4375 14 0.3499 0.1063 20 0.3762 0.1187 5/8 5/8
½ 0.5000 13 0.4056 0.1419 20 0.4387 0.1599 ¾ ¾

9/16 0.5625 12 0.4603 0.182 18 0.4943 0.203 13/16 7/8

5/8 0.6250 11 0.5135 0.226 18 0.5568 0.256 15/16 15/16
¾ 0.7500 10 0.6273 0.334 16 0.6733 0.373 1 1/8 1 1/8
7/8 0.875 9 0.7387 0.462 14 0.7874 0.509 1 5/16 1 5/16

1 1.0000 8 0.8466 0.606 12 0.8978 0.663 1½ 1½

1 1/8 1.1250 7 0.9497 0.763 12 1.0228 0.856 1 11/16 1
11/16
1¼ 1.2500 7 1.0747 0.969 12 1.1478 1.073 1 7/8 1 7/8
1 3/8 1.3750 6 1.1705 1.155 12 1.12728 1.315 2 1/16 2 1/16
1½ 1.5000 6 1.2955 1.405 12 1.3978 1.581 2¼ 2¼

1¾ 1.7500 5 1.5046 1.90 12 1.6478 2.1853 2 5/8 2 5/8

10
 2 2.0000 4½ 1.7274 2.50 12 1.8978 2.8892 3 3
2¼ 2.2500 4½ 1.9774 3.25 12 2.1478 3.6914 3 3/8 3 3/8
2½ 2.5000 4 2.1933 4.00 12 2.3978 4.5916 3¾ 3¾
2¾ 2.7500 4 2.4433 4.93 12 2.6478 5.5900 4 1/8 4 1/8

3 3.0000 4 2.6933 5.97 12 2.8978 6.6865 4½ 4½

3¼ 3.2500 4 2.9433 7.10 12 3.1478 7.8812 4 7/8
3½ 3.5000 4 3.1933 8.33 12 3.3978 9.1740 5¼
3¾ 3.7500 4 3.4433 9.66 12 3.6478 10.5649 5 5/8
4 4.0000 4 3.6933 11.08 12 3.8978 12.0540 6

6.0 FITS OF THREADS

For threads, the defined tolerances are designated 1A, 2A, 3A for external threads, 1B, 2B, 3B
for internal threads.
Classes 1A and 1B have the widest tolerances and are used where quick and easy assembly,
even with bruised threads, is necessary, as in ordinance.
Classes 2A and 2B, with tolerances suitable for normal production practices, are the most widely
used. Clearance for this fit minimizes galling and seizing in highly tightened joints and in high-
temperature applications, and it also accommodates plating.
Classes 3A and 3B have the closest fit; allowance (but not the clearance) is zero. Use only to
meet exacting requirements.
Interference fits are defined in ASA standard B 1.12.

Identification symbols for use in drawings, shop and storeroom, cards etc., should be according
to the following examples.
(a) An externally thread, 1-in. diameter, unified coarse thread, 8 threads per inch, class 2A
tolerance is designated as follows:
1”-8UNC-2A
(b) An internal thread, 1-in. diameter, unified fine thread, 12 threads per inch, class 2B tolerance,
left-hand thread is designated
1”-12 UNF-2B-LH

7.0 DESIGNATION OF SCREW THREADS (ISO)

According to IS: 4218 (Part IV) 1976 (Reaffirmed 1996), the complete designation of the screw
thread shall include

1. Size designation. The size of the screw thread is designated by the letter `M' followed by the
diameter and pitch, the two being separated by the sign ×. When there is no indication of the
pitch, it shall mean that a coarse pitch is implied.
2. Tolerance designation. This shall include

11
 (a) A figure designating tolerance grade as indicated below:
‘7’ for fine grade, ‘8’ for normal (medium) grade, and ‘9’ for coarse grade.
(b) A letter designating the tolerance position as indicated below:
‘H’ for unit thread, ‘d’ for bolt thread with allowance, and ‘h’ for bolt thread without
allowance.
For example, A bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and with allowance on the threads and
normal (medium) tolerance grade is designated as M6-8d.

8.0 STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF SCREW THREADS (ISO)

The design dimensions of I.S.O. screw threads for screws, bolts and nuts of coarse and fine series are
shown in Table 3.

12
13
14
9.0 DESIGN OF BOLTS – INITIAL TENSION UNKNOWN

A mechanic with a typical set of wrenches will tighten a small bolt to a higher initial stress than
he will a larger one. Partly for this reason, the design stress for bolts and screws should be a function
of size when the computations consider only the external load.
The design stress for “well-tightened” bolts or screws may be used as

y 1
Design tensile strength =  d  As 2
6

Substitute this value of d into F = A, we find

3
 y As 2  3 
Fe  , D  in 
6  4 
From which a safe external tensile load Fe may be found, or the needed stress area As
determined for a particular external load. From a computed area As, determine the nominal size of
bolt from Table 1, 2, or 3. The constant 6 is not a factor of safety. The equation may be applied to
any thread series, although there are no tests to substantiate its use for other than a coarse thread.
AISC specified allowable tensile stresses as follows: 0.4y in general; for A 307, 14 ksi; for A 325,
40 ksi; for A 354, 50 ksi; values that serve as a guide for bolt sizes D  43 in .

15
Example No. 1
A 5000-lb. gear box is provided with a steel (as rolled B1113) eyebolt for use in moving it. What size bolt
should be used: (a) if UNC threads are used? (b) If UNF threads are used? (c) If the 8-thread series is
used? Explain the basis of your choice of design factor.

Given:
Fe = 5000 lb
Material = B1113, as rolled

Required:
Size of bolt if
(a) UNC threads
(b) UNF threads
(c) 8-thread series
Solution:
For B1113, as rolled (Table AT-7), y = 45 ksi = 45,000 psi
Using
y 1
d  As 2
6
3
 y As 2
Fe 
6
3
45,000 As 2
5000 
6
As  0.7631 in2
40.7631  3
D  0.9857 in  in
 4
There use,  d  0.4 y , D  43 in , basis of choice.
 d  0.445,000   18 ,000 psi
Fe 5000
As    0.2777 in2
d 18 ,000
Table AT 14 and Table 5.1 (Table 2 and Table 1)
(a) UNC Threads
3
Use D  in , As  0.334 in2 (answer)
4
(b) UNF Threads
3
Use D  in , As  0.373 in2 (answer)
4
(c) 8-Threads series
(d) Use D  1 in , As  0.606 in2 (answer)

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10. INITIAL TENSION AND TIGHTENING TORQUE

Initial tension – the stress or load induced by tightening operation which, with ordinary wrenches,
depends upon the work man, how he is feeling, the length of wrench used, as well as the condition
of the bolt or screw.

The relation between the applied torque T in-lb. and initial tension Fi lb. proposed by Maney is
 As received C  0.20
T  CDFi in  lb 
 Lubricated C  0.15
Where D is the nominal bolt size and C, called the torque coefficient, is taken as a constant for a
particular set of conditions. The equation is obtained from a force analysis of the thread plus an
allowance for friction between face of nut (or head of the screw if the head is being turned). The
value of C  0.2 is obtained when the coefficient of friction is taken as f  0.15 ; this value of C is
considered typical and is recommended for use unless another value is known to apply. The “as-
received” condition includes the remains of cutting fluid, for example, but no foreign materials.

If both ends of the bolts are accessible for the measurement of bolt length, the initial tension may
be estimated from the measured total elongation . Usually, there is an unknown factor in this
procedure, the effective strain length Le, which may be defined as that length which when divided
into the total elongation gives the unit elongation at some section of the bolt, as at the root section;
that is,  = d / Le. Knowing , we have  = E. The effective length is closely some function of the grip
and of the proportion of shank that is threaded.

Example No. 2
For bolted structural joints, specifications suggest that ½-in. bolts (high-strength material) be tightened
to an initial tension of Fi = 12,500 lb. What should be the approximate tightening torque? How does your
answer compared with T = 90 ft-lb., which is the value in the specification?

Given:
D = ½ in
Fi = 12,500 lb
T = 90 ft-lb = 1080 in-lb

Required: Approximate tightening torque

Solution:
T  CDFi in  lb
1
T  0.2 12,500   1250 in  lb  1080 in  lb - ok (answer).
2

17
11. MATERIALS AND STRENGTH OF THREADED PRODUCTS

The designer can use any desired material for bolts and screws, but he would use only “ordinary”
steel (ASTM A 307 and SAE Grade 1, minimum u = 55 ksi – equivalent to about 1015 for example), bolts
cold headed, without a justifying reason. The SAE and ASTM and several government agencies have
standardized specifications for screw-fastening materials. Among the most commonly used steels for
bolts are; AISI 1013, 1018, 1038, 1041, 1054, 1340, 4037, 4140, 4150, 50B40, 8635, 8735, 4340; but a
particular manufacturer’s processes may be more readily adapted to one steel than another.
Bolt design is often done with a proof load or proof stress p. In general, a proof load is some load
agreed to by the purchaser and vendor as a capacity to be met. For bolts and screws, there seems to be
no unique definition, but the proof stress sp in the SAE specification is usually close to 96% of the 0.2%
offset yield strength (which may not be the same as the yield strength of a standard tensile specimen).
See Table 4.

Table 4. Minimum Strengths (ksi) of Bolts (Selected Standard Specifications).

GRADE SIZES, INCL. p u y
¼-¾ 55 69
SAE Grade 2 7/8 -1 52 64
1 1/8 – 1 ½ 28 55
¼-¾ 85 120 88
SAE Grade 5,
7/8 -1 78 115 81
ASTM A325
1 1/8 – 1 ½ 74 105 77
¼-2½ 80 105 83
BB {
2½-4 75 100 78
ASTM 354 ¼-2½ 105 125 109
BC {
2½-4 95 115 99
BD ¼-1½ 120 150 125

If the threads are manufactured by rolling (rolled threads – large deformation of the material), as
opposed to cutting, the resulting surface is of the order of 4 – 32 in. When the material has u < 80 ksi,
there is little change in fatigue strength as compared to cut threads; but for higher strength steels, rolled
threads show a marked improvement in fatigue, as much as 2 or 3 times as great for u > 200 ksi. See
Table 5 (Table AT 12) for values of the strength reduction factor Kf, which include the effect of the
manufacturing method.

18
Table 5. Values of Kf for Screw Threads. For tension or bending. Not Kt.
KIND OF THREAD ANNEALED HARDENED
Rolled Cut Rolled Cut
Sellers, Amer. 2.2 2.8 3.0 3.8
Nat’l, Sq. Th
Whitworth 1.4 1.8 2.6 3.3
Rounded Roots
Dardelet 1.8 2.3 2.6 3.3

Many screws are made of stainless steel, nonferrous metals, and plastics (for example, Zytel and
Teflon) which are used for a reason – corrosion resistance, high or very low temperatures, light weight,
electrical conductance, insulation, etc. One manufacturer indicates that the breaking strength of ¼ to ¾-
in. aluminium bolts (2024-T4, 6061-T6) is about 62-64 ksi based on the stress area.

In the design procedure, one might decide upon proof stress. From the proof stress, the next
decision is the initial tightening stress. In structures, the tendency is to tighten the bolt to or beyond the
yield,  i   y , in high-strength material (which does not have a distinct yield point). After tightening
bolts to just above the yield strength, small plastic deformation in service reduced the clamping stress to
an optimum value. On the other hand, a review of the literature suggests that machine designers tend
toward an initial stress somewhat less than p or y; one finds values from 0.75y (by some automobile
manufacturers) to 0.9y or more. Typical values for bolts to be subjected to a tensile load are
 i  0.9 p or  i  0.85 y ,
[When proof stress available] [No proof stress]
which values we shall assume are satisfactory, especially with no gasket. In case of a soft-steel, a
material with a yield point, one must be careful not to tighten to the yield stress because of the
relaxation and lower clamping force that follows from the yielding. The higher-strength steels may
receive a permanent deformation, but relaxation does not occur at ordinary temperatures.

Having decided upon a suitable i, the initial tightening force is Fi = iAs; the equation T = CDFi, with
a proper value of C, can be used to estimate the tightening torque (or one can determine the angle
through which to turn the nut to produce i.

19
Example No. 3
The cylinder head of a 10 x 18 in Freon compressor is attached by 10 stud bolts made of SAE Grade 5.
The cylinder pressure is 200 psi. (a) What size bolts should be used? (b) What approximate tightening
torque should be needed to induce a tightening stress i of 0.9 times the proof stress?

Given:
p = 200 psi
n = 10 bolts
Material = SAE Grade 5
 i  0.9 p
Size of cylinder = 10 x 18 in
Required:
(a) Size of bolt
(b) Tightening torque

Solution:
Table 4, SAE Grade 5, assume  y  88 ksi  88,000 psi

(a) Size of bolts

   
p Dc2  200 10 2
Fe  
4  4
  1571 lb
n 10
y 3
Fe  As 2 , D  3 in
6 4
88,000 3
1571  As 2
6
As  0.2255 in2
Table AT 14, UNC Threads
5 3
Use D  in , As  0.226 in2 , D  in
8 4
Therefore  y  88 ksi and above equation is valid.
5
Then D  in , UNC Threads (Answer)
8

(b) Tightening torque

T  0.2DFi
Table 4, SAE Grade 5,  p  85 ksi  85,000 psi
 i  0.9 p  0.985,000   76,500 psi

20
Fi   i As  76 ,500 0.2260   17,289 lb
 5
T  0.2DFi  0.2 17,289   2161 in  lb (Answer)
8

12. ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF BOLTS FOR JOINTS

An oft-heard rule of thumb when the parts to be joined are relatively rigid is tighten the bolt (or
screw) so that the initial tension is greater than the applied external load, a rule that should yield safe
designs if the bolts or screws are known to be tightened to the required initial tension. However, an
engineer is more comfortable with an analysis that guides him in the correct direction. First, we shall see
what load is required to open a joint, such as the one suggested by Figure 13.

Figure 13 Head Bolted on Vessel. Internal pressure is p.

As the nut is tightened, the load on the bolt increases, and the deformation of the bolt increases.
Within the elastic range, Hooke’s law applies, and the force-deformation curve for the bolt is a straight
line, represented by OAM in Figure 14. Also, the connected members deform (in compression), and if
they too are elastic, their force-deformation curve is straight, represented by CA in Figure 14. The more
rigid a member, the steeper is its F- curve, because it takes a larger force to produce a particular
deformation. Usually the connected members are more rigid than the bolt, as shown in Figure 14 with 
> . The slope CDA is negative and represents a compressive deformation.

21
 Figure 14. Forces on a Screw Fastening. The slopes of the F- lines are kb = F/b, kc = F/dc.
Suppose, when the external load Fe is applied, that plastic deformation of the bolt
occurs, idealized for good strength material as PQ; Fe is then represented by DQ, the
effective Fi is reduced to some value GK because of the resulting permanent
deformation.

Suppose we stop tightening at a point A. The load on the bolt and on the connected part is Fi, the
initial tightening load. The initial elongation of the bolt is , and the corresponding compressive
deformation of the connected parts is dc. To get the external load that would cause a joint such as that
in Figure 13 to open, assume that the bolts do not bent, which is equivalent to assuming that the head
and flange do not bend, and let an external load Fe be applied. The bolt elongates more , say to B,
Figure 14, and the deformation of the connected parts decreases the same amount, . The load on the
bolt increases an amount of Fb; the load on the connected parts decreases a greater amount Fc if they
are more rigid. For elastic deformations, the bolt elongation continues along the lone OM, and the
compressive deformation decreases along AC. The joint will be on the point of opening when the
deformation of the connected parts becomes zero, at C, because if the bolt is stretched any further, the
connected parts can no longer expand to maintain the surfaces in contact. At the instant marked by C,
the total elongation of the bolt is represented by the distance OC, and the total load on the bolt is CM =
Fo, the limiting load for opening of the joint, which is also the external load at this limiting condition.
Since the triangles OGA and OCM are similar,
Fo  i   c    c 
 or Fo  Fi  i 
Fi i  i 

22
 With the parts acting as springs (Hooke’s law), their deformations in terms of their spring constant
from k = F/d, are di = Fi/kb for the bolt and c = Fi/kc for the connected parts. Using these values, we have
 k k   kc 
Fo  Fi  b c  or Fi  Fo  
 kc   kb  kc 
In these expressions, Fo is the external load that would place the joint on the point of opening when
the bolt had been tightened to a value of Fi; or if Fo is a known maximum external load, then Fi is the
minimum initial tightening load that must be used. Practically, Fi should be greater than this value, 1.2 to
2 times as great when there is no gasket. That is, let Fo = QFe, where Fe is some actual external load, and
find
 kc 
Fi  QFe  
 kb  kc 

In Figure 14, suppose a bolt is tightened to the Fi shown and an external load Fe is applied to the
joint, all elastically. The bolt stretches an additional  and the total load Ft on it is marked by point B,
with a change of for Fb corresponding to an increase of deformation . The change of load on the
connected parts becomes Fc = HD = Fe – Fb. From  = F/k, the change in deformation is equal to the
change in force divided by the corresponding spring constant; that is,
F F  Fb Fb
  c  e 
kc kc kb
Solving for Fb from the last two parts, we get
 kb 
Fb  Fe  
 kb  kc 
Then the total load on the bolt is, Figure 14.
 k 
Ft  Fi  Fb  Fi   b Fe
 kb  kc 

Similarly, the net compressive force on the connected parts is found to be

 kc 
Fc  Fi   Fe
 kb  kc 
A negative answer from this equation indicates no force on the connected parts. If the stiffness kc of
the connected parts cannot be determined with assurance, it is always on the safe side to use the term
in parentheses as unity; that is, Ft = Fi + Fe. When the external load Fe varies, the total load Ft varies in
accordance with previous equation; the mean load is Fm = Fi + Fb/2 and the alternating component Fa =
Fb/2. The nominal stress for any F is o = F/As.

The foregoing analyses are inadequate when the bolt is subjected to significant bending moments;
hence, when the gasket is inside of the bolt circle, the flanges must be heavy enough that bending is
small. Also the bolts should be close enough together that virtually uniform pressure is induced between
the faces. From one code, we conclude that the spacing or pitch P of bolts should be: P  7D for fluid

23
pressures less than 50 psi; P  3.5D for fluid pressures of about 200 psi, where D is the size of bolt.
Observe that the foregoing analysis ignores the deflection of the bolt in the nut and the deflections of
the threads, all of which would have an effect on k.

Example No. 4
A 1 1/8-in. steel bolt A passes through a yellow brass (B36-8) tube B as shown. The length of the tube is
30 in. (virtually the unthreaded bolt length), the threads on the bolt are UNC, and the tube’s cross-
sectional area is 2 sq. in. After the nut is snug it is tightened ¼ turn. (a) What normal stresses will be
produced in the bolt and in the tube? Assume that washers, nut, and head are rigid. (b) What are the
stresses if an axial load of 5 kips is now applied to the bolts end? Compute the bolt load that just results
in a zero stress in the tube.

Figure
Given:
Bolt – 1 1/8 in UNC
Bolt Material A – Steel
Connected Parts B – Yellow Brass (B36-8)
L = 30 i n
Fe = 5 kips = 5000 lbs

Required:
(a) Normal stresses in the bolt and the tube.
(b) Stresses if an axial load of 5 kips is now applied to the bolts end.
(c) Bolt load that just results in a zero stress in the tube.

Solution:
For Yellow brass, B36-8,
E  15 10 6 psi
Steel bolt
E  30 10 6 psi
Table 2 ( Table AT 14), 1 1/8 in., UNC
Dr  0.9497 in.

24
As  0.763 sq.in.
Th in  7
L  30 in.
i

p
1
p  in.
7
1
  turn
4
 1  1  1
 i      in.
 4  7  28
Fi L
i 
AbE b
1 Fi 30 

28    1 2
  1  30  10
 4  8 
6
 
Fi  35,500 lb
Fi 35,500
(a) Bolt:  b    46,527 psi
As 0.763
Fi
Tube: sc 
Ac
Ac  2 sq.in.
Fi 35,500
c    17,750 psi
Ac 2
(b) Fe  5000 lb

kc  

Ac E c 2 15  10 6 
 1,000 ,000 lb in
L 30

 
2
   1 
  1  30  10
6
AbE b  4  8 
kb    994 ,000 lb in
L 30
Bolts:
 k 
Ft  Fi   b Fe
 kb  kc 
 994 ,000 
Ft  35,500   5000   38 ,000 lb
 994 ,000  1,000 ,000 
Ft 38 ,000
t    49 ,800 psi
As 0.763

25
Tube:
 kc 
Fc  Fi   Fe
 kb  kc 
 1,000 ,000 
Fc  35,500   5000   33,000 lb
 994 ,000  1 ,000 ,000 
Fc 33,000
c    16 ,500 psi
Ac 2
(c) For zero stress in the tube
 k k   994 ,000  1,000 ,000 
Fo   b c Fi   35,500   70 ,787 lb
 kc   1,000 ,000 

13. ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND GASKETS FOR CONNECTED PARTS

The elastic constant kb is determined from kb = AbEb/Lb; or if two diameters are involved on the bolt,
use the equivalent spring constant. kb = k’. The subscript b is a reminder that each variable applies to the
bolt.
For the connected parts, the same principle holds, but for parts of indefinite extent (area), their
deformation at some distance from the bolt is less than that in the immediate vicinity of the bolt. In this
event, the usual procedure is to assume some equivalent area of the connected parts Ac, and use kc =
AcEc/Lc. One such estimation is
 De2  D2
Ac  
4 4
where D is the nominal diameter of the bolt hole, De is an “equivalent: diameter of the plate area
considered to be in compression; take it as
h
De  Nut or head width across flats 
2
h
De  Dimension A, for example, Table AT14   ,
2
where h is the grip of the bolt, which is the total thickness of the plates being clamped. If it is clear
exactly what area is in compression, do not use the above equations.

If the connected members are composed of two or more kinds of material – for example, a gasket
between connected parts – the spring constant for the connection is
1 1 1 1
   
kc k1 k2 k3
Where k1, k2, k3 are the spring constants for the individual components being clamped; k1 = A1E1/L1, etc.

26
 If needs can be met economically without a gasket, this is the best solution. Next best is the use of
as thin a gasket as possible. However, there must be enough thickness to let the gasket material flow
into the roughness of the flange surfaces and to take care of some slight unparallelism of the mating
surfaces. The amount of pressure on the gasket material, called the flange pressure, to cause it to
respond in this manner is different for each material. For non-metallic gaskets, it has been found that
they should have a certain minimum amount of compression, as 62% for a certain cork gasket; this
compression corresponds to a certain required minimum flange pressure. Then the bolts must be
designed and so tightened as to meet those requirements. Smoley recommends the use of an
“apparent” flange pressure pg, which is said to be an upper probability limit such that if the initial bolt
tension Fi is computed from this pressure and then if the bolts are tightened with a torque T = 0.2DFi,
the required minimum flange pressure is assured. Certain apparent pressures are: for X, a cork-and-
rubber mixture, pg = 1500 psi; for Y, a cork composition, pg = 2700 psi; for Z, an asbestos base, pg = 3300
psi. For a first approximation after a suitable gasket material has been selected, one might proceed as
follows: estimate the area of gasket; multiply this by its minimum apparent flange pressure to get the
total apparent load on the gasket; decide upon a suitable number of bolts and find the load per bolt Fb;
the size of bolt is determined from As = Fb/, where  = 0.75y, say. When the apparent flange pressure
with its built-in margin of safety is being used, it would appear reasonable to assume that Fi = Fb and
compute bolt torque from T = CDFi. The bolts must also be capable of carrying the external loading.

The modulus of elasticity for the non-metallic materials is ordinarily not constant over a wide range
of stress; some typical values of E and gasket thickness h are: rubber gasket, E = 7500 psi, h = 3/16 in.;
vellumoid gasket, E = 19,000 psi, h = 1/16 in.; copper-clad asbestos gasket, E = 20,000 psi, h = 1/8 in.

Example No. 5
The member C shown is part of a swivel connection that is to be clamped by a 1-in. bolt D to the
member B, which has large dimensions in the plane perpendicular to the paper. Both B and C are
aluminum alloy 2024-T4, HT aged. The bolt is made of AISI C1113, cold-drawn steel; consider the
unthreaded shank to be 2 in. long; it is well tightened with a torque of 250 ft-lb.; UNC threads,
unlubricated. (a) Estimate the initial tension by equation, assume elastic action, and compute the bolt
elongation and the total deformation of B and C. Let the effective strain length be 2 in. (b) After
tightening an external axial force Fe of 5000 lb. is applied to member C. Determine the total normal
stresses in the bolt and in B and C. (c) Determine the load required to “open” the connection.

27
 Figure
Given:
Bolt material: AISI C1113, cold-drawn steel.
Connected Parts B and C: Aluminum Alloy 2024-T4, HT aged.
L = 2 in
T = 250 ft-lb = 3000 in-lb
Fe = 5000 lb
UNC Threads, unlubricated.

Required:
a. Initial tension, bolt elongation, total deformation of B and C.
b. Total normal stresses in the bolt and in B and C
c. Determine the load required to “open” the connection.

Solution:
For aluminum alloy, 2024-T4 HT aged,
E  10.6  10 6 psi
 y  47 ksi
For AISI C1113, cold-drawn steel,
E  30 10 6 psi
 y  72 ksi

(a) T  0.2DFi
D  1 in.
T  250 ft  lb  3000 in  lb
Fi  15,000 lb
Deformations: L  2 in.
Table 1 (Table AT 14), 1-in. UNC Bolt,
A s  0.66 sq.in.

Ab  12  0.785 sq.in.
4

28
Bolt:
Fi L 15,000 2
i    0.00127 in
AbEi 0.785  30  10 6  
Member B and C
FL
c  i
Ac E c
 
Ac  De2  D2
4 4
h
D e = (Nut or head width across flats) +
2
Table AT 14
1
A  1 in
2
1 2 1
De  1   2 in.
2 2 2
 2  2
Ac  De  D
4 4

 
Ac  2.52  12  4.1234 sq.in.
4
FL 15,000 2
c  i   0.000686 in.
Ac Ec 4.1234  10.6  10 6  
(b) Fe  5000 lb
 kb   b 
  5000  
0.000686
Fb  Fe    Fe  
k 
 b ck  
 b c  0.000686  0.00127 
Fb  1754 lb
Bolt:
Ft  Fi  Fb  15,000  1754  16 ,754 lb
Ft 16 ,754
b    29 ,132 psi
As 0.606
Member B and C
 kc 
Fc  Fi  Fe  
 kb  kc 
 c 
Fc  Fi  Fe  
 b  c 
 0.00127 
Fc  15,000  5000    11,754 lb
 0.00127  0.000686 
F 11,754
c  c   2851 psi
Ac 4.1234

29
(c) Fo = opening load
     0.00127  0.000686 
Fo  Fi  i c   15,000   23,102 lb
 i   0.00127 

Example No. 6
A 30,000-lb. body is to be mounted on a shaker (vibrator). The shaker will exert a harmonic force of
F  30,000 sin2 t f lb. on the body where f cps is the frequency and t sec. is the time. The frequency
can be varied from 5 to 10,000 cps. The harmonic force will exert a tensile load on the bolts that attach
the body to the shaker when F is positive. Determine the minimum number of ½-in.-UNF bolts that must
be used for N  2 based on Soderberg line. The material of the bolts is to be AISI 8630, WQT 1100 oF;
the material of the body that is to be vibrated is aluminum alloy, 2014-T6 and the joint is not to open for
an external force that is 1.25 times the maximum force exerted by the shaker. It may be assumed that
the equivalent diameter of the material in compression is twice the bolt diameter.

Figure

Given:
F  30,000 sin2 t f lb.
Q = 1.25
N = 2 (Soderberg)
Bolt: 1/2 –in UNF bolts
Bolt Material: AISI 8630, WQT 1100 F.
Body Material: Aluminum Alloy, 2014-T6

Required: n = minimum number of bolts.

Solution:
Fe min  0
Femax  30 ,000 lb
 kc 
Fi  QFe  
 kb  kc 
Q  1.25

30
 AbE b
kb 
Lb

Ab  D2
4
Eb  30 10 6 psi
Lb  L
Ac E c
kc 
Lc
 
Ac  De2  D2
4 4
De  2D

Ac  2D2   D2  3 D2  3Ab
4 4 4
E c  10.6  10 psi , (Aluminum 2014-T6)
6

Lc  L

kb 

AbE b Ab 30  10 6


Lb L

kc 

Ac E c 3Ab 10.6  10 6


Lc L
 kc 
Fi  QFe  
 kb  kc 

Fi  1.25 30 ,000 

3 10.6  10 6  
  19 ,296 lb
6

 30  10  3 10.6  10
6


 kb 
Fb   Fe
 kb  kc 
Fb1  0
 kb   30  10 6 
Fb2   Fe   30 ,000   14 ,563 lb
 kb  kc   6 
 30  10  3 10.6  10 
6

1
Fm  Fi  Fb2  Fb1   19,296  1 14 ,563  0  26,578 lb
2 2
1 1
Fa  Fb2  Fb1   14 ,563  0  7282 lb
2 2
F
m  m
nAs
Fa
a 
nAs

31
For ½-in.-UNF (Table AT 14)
As  0.1419 sq .in.
Fm 26 ,578 187 ,300
m   
nAs 0.1419 n n
Fa 7282 51,318
a   
nAs 0.1419 n n

For AISI 8630, WQT 1100 oF

K f  3.3 (Table AT 12, Hardened) (Table 5)
 u  137 ksi
 y  125 ksi
 n  0.5 u  0.5137   68.5 ksi  68 ,500 psi

For axial loading with size factor

 n  0.8 0.8568 ,500 psi   46 ,580 psi

Soderberg Equation, N  2
1  m K f a
 
N y n
1 187 ,300 3.351,318 
 
2 125 ,000 n 46 ,580 n
n  10.3

Minimum number of bolts = 10 bolts

14. SETSCREWS

Set screws, Figures 15, 16, and 17 are used to prevent relative motion between two parts that tend
to slide over one another. They are obtainable with several combinations of points and heads, the more
common point forms being shown in Figure 18. An unprotected square head should not be used on
moving parts, since a workman may catch his clothes on the projecting parts and be injured. Slotted set
screws for a screw driver or hollow set screws, Figures 16 and 17, are preferable for safety. The knurled
point of set screw is designed to transmit loosening under vibration. Set screws generally have coarse
threads.

32
Table 6 gives the capacity in pounds of tangential force for a cup-point set screw (a). This point
penetrates somewhat into the shaft material, which should be softer than the screw point by at least 10
points, Rockwell C, or else the capacity is greatly reduced. Without spotting holes, the relative capacities
for other points, with an index of 1 for a cup point (a), are: cone point (d), 1.07; flat or dog point (c),
0.92; oval point, 0.9. The cone point and dog points are often assembled with the point in a drilled hole,
in which case, relative motion is a matter of shearing the point, and Table 6 does not apply. Also if the
set screw has a slotted head, the tightening or seating torques indicated are not attained (perhaps only
half the table capacity). Lubricating the threads, plating them, the plating acting as a lubricant, increases
capacity because, with less friction in the threads, the normal force will be greater. Sometimes, trouble
with set screws loosening can be remedied by enlarging the hole and using a larger screw. Typically, the
size of set screw is about ¼ times the shaft diameter. Two set screws on the same side of the shaft, side
by side, virtually double the capacity for one screw, but at 180o apart, the increase is only about 30%
because of the simultaneous loss of friction between shaft and hub that exists opposite one screw; this
friction thus contributes significantly to holding capacity.

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Table 6. HOLDING CAPACITY OF CUP-POINT SET SCREWS
Approximate “ultimate” values of the tangential holding force at the surface of shaft when the
tightening torque is as given; for cup points with hardness about Rc = 45-50, on a shaft of hardness
about Rc = 15. A factor of safety should be applied. (Taken from Standard Pressed Steel Co. Pamphlet.)

SCREW TIGHTENING HOLDING SCREW TIGHTENING HOLDING SCREW TIGHTENING HOLDING

SIZE TORQUE, FORCE lb. SIZE TORQUE, FORCE lb. SIZE TORQUE, FORCE
in-lb in-lb in-lb lb.
0 0.5 50 8 20 385 ½ 620 3000
1 1.5 65 10 33 540 9/16 620 3500
2 1.5 85 ¼ 87 1000 5/8 1225 4000
3 5 120 5/16 165 1500 ¾ 2125 5000
4 5 160 3/8 290 2000 7/8 5000 6000
5 9 200 7/16 430 2500 1 7000 7000
6 9 250

Example No. 7
An eccentric is to be connected to a 3-in. shaft by a setscrew. The center of the eccentric is 1 ¼ in. from
the center of the shaft when a tensile force of 1000 lb. is applied to the eccentric rod perpendicular to
the line of centers. What size set screw should be used for a design factor of 6?

Given:
Shaft diameter = 3 in
Center distance b/w shaft and eccentric = 1.25 in
Tensile Force = 1000 lb
Design factor = 6

Required:
Size of set screw

Solution:
 1.25 
Tangential force = 1000 lb    833 lb

 32
Holding force = 6 833   5000 lb
Table 6, use Screw size ¾ in. - answer

Example No. 8
A lever 16 in. long is to be fastened to a 2-in. shaft. A load of 40 lb. is to be applied normal to the lever at
its end. What size of set screw should be used for a design factor of 5?

Given:
Length = 16 in

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Shaft diameter = 2 in
Load = 40 lb
Design factor = 5

Required:
Size of set screw

Solution:
Torque = 16 40   640 in  lb
2640 
Tangential force =  640 lb
2
Holding force = 5640   3200 lb
Table 6, use Screw size 9/16 in. - answer

15. DEPTH OF TAPPED HOLE AND CLEARANCE AROUND BOLD HEAD AND NUT.

The length of thread contact in a tapped hole should be a minimum of about 1.5D in. for cast iron
and other brittle materials, and about D inches for steel or wrought iron (D = nominal size). If a tapped
hole cannot go all the way through the piece, the hole to be tapped should be drilled at least an extra
D/4 inches deep to allow tool clearance at the bottom. The designer should be sure that heads or nuts
to be tightened have sufficient clearance for a wrench and are readily accessible.

16. BOLTS AND SCREWS IN SHEAR

Whenever the bolts are to carry a shearing load the holes should be accurately sized and the bolts
preferably have a close fit, which necessitates reamed holes and finished bolts. The tightening-up stress
is usually neglected in the case of shear if the bolts are larger than ½ in., but if desired, the resultant
maximum stresses due to combined shear and tension may be found. If through bolts are used, arrange
for the shear to be across a major diameter, but the shear may be across the minor diameter, especially
for studs and cap screws. If the bolts are well tightened, friction contributes considerably to the holding
capacity, so that the actual shear stress is small.
When the location of a bolt is such that it would normally be in shear, it is better practice to use
dowel pins, Figure 19 to carry the shearing load. With dowels, it is not necessary to take extra
precautions to get a close fit for the bolts.

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17. DARDELET RIVER-BOLT.

The Dardelet rivet-bolt, which has a self-locking thread, Figure 20, is used in place of rivets in
assembling steel structures. As suggested by Figure 20, the thread has a wide, tapering root. At the deep
end of this root, the tapered crest of the nut thread has clearance, and the nut turns easily on the bolt.
When the nut is drawn tight, the two tapered surfaces are pressed together, Figure 20, and friction
holds the nut in place.

- End -

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