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Overview of ethanol fermentation. One glucose molecule breaks down into two
pyruvate molecules (1). The energy from this exothermic reaction is used to bind
inorganic phosphates to ADP and convert NAD+ to NADH. The two pyruvates are
then broken down into two acetaldehyde molecules and give off two CO2
molecules as a waste product (2). The acetaldehyde is then reduced into ethanol
using the energy and hydrogen from NADH; in this process the NADH is oxidized
into NAD+ so that the cycle may repeat (3).
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, and/or
alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, but also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, as
in the case of lactic acid fermentation. Fermentation is also used more broadly to
refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the
goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur
is often remembered for his insights into fermentation and its microbial causes.
The science of fermentation is known as zymology.
Fermentation takes place in the lack of oxygen (when the electron transport chain
is unusable) and becomes the cell’s primary means of ATP (energy) production.[1]
It turns NADH and pyruvate produced in the glycolysis step into NAD+ and
various small molecules depending on the type of fermentation (see examples
below). In the presence of O 2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in
respiration. This is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more
ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding
fermentation when oxygen is available. Exceptions include obligate anaerobes,
which cannot tolerate oxygen.
Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of food and beverages
since the Neolithic age. For example, fermentation is employed for preservation in
a process that produces lactic acid as found in such sour foods as pickled
cucumbers, kimchi and yogurt (see fermentation in food processing), as well as for
producing alcoholic beverages such as wine (see fermentation in winemaking) and
beer. Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, such as
humans. Auto-brewery syndrome is a rare medical condition where the stomach
contains brewers yeast that break down starches into ethanol; which enters the
blood stream.[3]
Definitions
To many people, fermentation simply means the production of alcohol: grains and
fruits are fermented to produce beer and wine. If a food soured, one might say it
was 'off' or fermented. Here are some definitions of fermentation. They range from
informal, general usage to more scientific definitions. [4]
Examples
Chemistry
Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidized), but
are considered waste products, since they cannot be metabolized further without
the use of oxygen.
Ethanol fermentation
The chemical equation below shows the alcoholic fermentation of glucose, whose
chemical formula is C6H12O6.[8] One glucose molecule is converted into two
ethanol molecules and two carbon dioxide molecules:
Before fermentation takes place, one glucose molecule is broken down into two
pyruvate molecules. This is known as glycolysis.[8][9]
Aerobic respiration
Glucose could theoretically be converted into just CO 2 and H2, but the global
reaction releases little energy.
Acetic acid can also undergo a dismutation reaction to produce methane and
carbon dioxide:[14][15]
History
The use of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed since the Neolithic
and has been documented dating from 7000–6600 BCE in Jiahu, China,[16] 6000
BCE in Georgia,[17] 3150 BCE in ancient Egypt,[18] 3000 BCE in Babylon,[19] 2000
BCE in pre-Hispanic Mexico,[19] and 1500 BC in Sudan.[20] Fermented foods have
a religious significance in Judaism and Christianity. The Baltic god Rugutis was
worshiped as the agent of fermentation. [21][22]
The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared between 1837 and
1838 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Swann, and
F. Kuetzing, each of whom independently concluded as a result of microscopic
investigations that yeast is a living organism that reproduces by budding. It is
perhaps because wine, beer, and bread were each basic foods in Europe that most
of the early studies on fermentation were done on yeasts, with which they were
made. Soon, bacteria were also discovered; the term was first used in English in
the late 1840s, but it did not come into general use until the 1870s, and then largely
in connection with the new germ theory of disease
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, showed that fermentation
is initiated by living organisms in a series of investigations. [11] In 1857, Pasteur
showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused by living organisms. [24] In 1860, he
demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly thought to be
merely a chemical change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms
in food spoilage led to the process of pasteurization.[25] In 1877, working to
improve the French brewing industry, Pasteur published his famous paper on
fermentation, "Etudes sur la Bière", which was translated into English in 1879 as
"Studies on fermentation". [26] He defined fermentation (incorrectly) as "Life
without air",[27] but correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause
specific types of fermentations and specific end-products.
French chemist Louis Pasteur was the first known zymologist, when in 1856 he
connected yeast to fermentation.[7] Pasteur originally defined fermentation as
"respiration without air". Pasteur performed careful research and concluded:
Contributions to biochemistry
Nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the
absence of living yeast cells. While studying this process in 1897, Eduard Buchner
of Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, found that sugar was fermented even
when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture,[9] by a yeast secretion that he
termed zymase.[10] In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his
research and discovery of "cell-free fermentation."
One year prior, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of
NAD+.[11]
Uses
Bean-based[edit]
Cheonggukjang, doenjang, miso, natto, soy sauce, stinky tofu, tempeh, oncom,
soybean paste, Beijing mung bean milk, kinama, iru
Grain-based[edit]
Batter made from rice and lentil (Vigna mungo) prepared and fermented for baking
idlis and dosas
Amazake, beer, bread, choujiu, gamju, injera, kvass, makgeolli, murri, ogi, sake,
sikhye, sourdough, sowans, rice wine, malt whisky, grain whisky, idli, dosa, vodka
Vegetable based[edit]
Fruit based[edit]
Wine, vinegar, cider, perry, brandy, atchara, nata de coco, burong mangga, asinan,
pickling, vişinată
Honey based[edit]
Mead, metheglin
Dairy based[edit]
Cheese, kefir, kumis (mare milk), shubat (camel milk), cultured milk products such
as quark, filmjölk, crème fraîche, smetana, skyr, yogurt
Fish based[edit]
Bagoong, faseekh, fish sauce, Garum, Hákarl, jeotgal, rakfisk, shrimp paste,
surströmming, shidal
Meat based[edit]
Chin som mok is a northern Thai speciality made with grilled, banana leaf-
wrapped pork (both skin and meat) that has been fermented with glutinous rice
Tea based[edit]
Alaska has witnessed a steady increase of cases of botulism since 1985.[13] It has
more cases of botulism than any other state in the United States of America. This is
caused by the traditional Eskimo practice of allowing animal products such as
whole fish, fish heads, walrus, sea lion, and whale flippers, beaver tails, seal oil,
birds, etc., to ferment for an extended period of time before being consumed. The
risk is exacerbated when a plastic container is used for this purpose instead of the
old-fashioned, traditional method, a grass-lined hole, as the botulinum bacteria
thrive in the anaerobic conditions created by the air-tight enclosure in plastic.[13]