The Vocal Principles of Garcia As Represented by His Pupils - Bata

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LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School
1979
The Vocal Principles of Garcia as Represented by

His Pupils: Bataille, Marchesi, and Stockhausen.
James Richard Joiner
Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
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Joiner, James Richard, "The Vocal Principles of Garcia as Represented by His Pupils: Bataille, Marchesi, and Stockhausen." (1979).
LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 3443.
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8013124
JOINER, JAMES RICHARD
THE VOCAL PRINCIPLES OF GARCIA AS REPRESENTED BY HIS PUPILS :

BATTAILLE, MARCHESI, AND STOCKHAUSEN
The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col.
PH.D. 1979
University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WCIR 4EJ, England
Copyright «so
by
JOINER, JAMES RICHARD
All Rights Reserved
TH E V O C A L P R I N C I P L E S OF G A R C I A
AS R E P R E S E N T E D B Y HIS PUPILS:
B A TTAILLE, MARCHESI, AND STOCKHAUSEN
A Dissertation
S u b m i t t e d to the G r a d u a t e F a c u l t y of the
L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and
Agricultural and Mechanical College
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s for the de g r e e of
D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y
The Scho o l o f M usic
by
Ja m e s R i c h a r d Jo i n e r
B.M., M i s s i s s i p p i College, 1964
M. C . M . , S o u t h w e s t e r n B a p t i s t T h e o l o g i c a l Semi n a r y , 1968
M.M., L o u i s i a n a Sta t e Univer s i t y , 1974
D e c e m b e r 1979
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N ......................................... 1
II. THE R E S E A R C H A N D TEACHING PRINCIPLES

OF G A R C I A ......................................... 8
A S u r v e y of P e d a g o g i c a l A p p r o a c h e s
a n d t h e i r R e l a t i o n s h i p s To V o i c e
S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h Pr i o r to G a r c i a . . . . 8
Ga r c i a ' s R e s e a r c h and Its I n f l u e n c e
U p o n His T e a c h i n g P r i n c i p l e s ............... 13
A C a t e g o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n of G a r c i a ' s
T e a c h i n g ....................................... 29
III. THE R E S E A R C H A N D TEACHING PRINCIPLES

OF B A T T A I L L E ....................................... 69
Biographical Material ........................ 69

B a t t a i l l e ' s P u b l i c a t i o n s ...................... 73
B a t t a i l l e ' s R e s e a r c h ........................... 79
A C a t e g o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n of B a t t a i l l e ' s
T e a c h i n g ....................................... 83
IV. THE T E A C H I N G P R I N C I P L E S OF M A R C H E S I .......... 115
Biographical Material ....................... 115

Marchesi's Publications ...................... 118
A Categorical Description of Marchesi's
T e a c h i n g ....................................... 130
V. THE T E A C H I N G P R I N C I P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N . . . . 173
Biographical Material ....................... 173

S t o c k h a u s e n ' s P u b l i c a t i o n s .................... 183
A C a t e g o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n of
S t o c k h a u s e n ' s T e a c h i n g ...................... 187
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
F U R T H E R ST U D Y .................................... 217
A t t i t u d e s an d A p p r o a c h e s in Gene r a l . . . . 217
A t t a c k .................................... 219
V o i c e Qualities, Vowels, and D i c t i o n . . . 226
Br e a t h i n g and C o o r d i n a t i o n ................. 228
S u m m a t i o n .................................. 230
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for F u r t h e r S tudy .......... 231
SE L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y .................................. 233
A P P E N D I X I; T R A N S L A T I O N OF THE R E P O R T ON
GA R C I A ' S M E M O I R E S U R LE VOI X
H U M A I N E ............................. 242
A P P E N D I X II: T R A N S L A T I O N OF A N E X T R A C T F R O M
BATTAILLE'S NOUVELLES R E C H E R C H E S . . 254
VITA 266
LIST OF FIGURES
1. GARCIA: R E G I S T E R RA N G E S F O R E A C H V O I C E
C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ..................................... 41
2. G ARCIA: M O V E M E N T S OF T HE L A R Y N X A N D
SOF T P A L A T E IN R E L A T I O N TO V O C A L
T I M B R E S ............................................ 56
3. BATTAILLE'S AUTOLARYNGOSCOPE ...................... 75
4. B A T T A I L L E ' S D R A W I N G S OF T H E G L O T T I S
DURING CHEST AND FALSETTO
P R O D U C T I O N ......................................... 92
5. B A T T A I L L E ' S RA N G E S F O R TH E F O U R M A J O R
V O I C E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S .............................. 102
6. MARCHESI: PORTAMENTO EXERCISES .................... 121
7. MARCHESI: PORTAMENTO VOCALISE .................... 122
8. MA R C H E S I : C A D E N Z A W R I T T E N F O R N E L L I E
M E L B A ................................................. 129
9. MARCH E S I : S T U D I E S U S I N G G R U P P E T T O S
A N D M O R D E N T S .......................................... 137
10. R E C I T A L P R O G R A M OF M A R C H E S I ' S O P E R A
AN D C O N C E R T CLASSES; D E C E M B E R 1900 ............ 145
11. M A R C H E S I : VOICE CLASSIFICATIONS AND RANGES . . . 151
12. MAR C H E S I : D E S I G N A T I O N S OF R E G I S T E R L I M I T S . . . 154
13. MARCH E S I : P O R T A M E N T O E X E R C I S E S .................... 159
14. MARC H E S I : F U N D A M E N T A L SCA L E E X E R C I S E S .......... 160
15. M A R CHESI: A D V A N C E D SCA L E E X E R C I S E S ............... 161
16. M ARCHESI: S CALE E X E R C I S E S F O R L I G H T SOPRANO. . . 162
17. M A R CHESI; E X E R C I S E S OF M U L T I P L E F I G U R E S . . . . 163
18. MARC H E S I : SCAL E S WITH O R N A M E N T A T I O N ........... 164
iv
19. E X E R C I S E A C A N O N E IN U N I S O N ..................... . 189
20. IMITATIVE EXERCISE F OR HIGH AND LOW VOICE . . . 190
21. S T O C K H A U S E N ' S T A B L E O F THE F O U R V O I C E

CLASSIFICATIONS AND PITCHES COMMON
TO A L L ............................................ 200
22. STOCKHAUSEN'S TABLE OF REGISTERS .............. 201
23. STOCKHAUSEN : PORTAMENTO EXERCISES

F O R THE M E D I U M V O I C E ........................... 204
24. STOCKHAUSEN: P O R T A M E N T O E X E R C I S E S
F O R S P E C I F I C V O I C E S ............................. 205
25. E X A M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N ' S SCALE EXERCISES . . . 206
26. STOCKHAUSEN: SCA L E S T U D I E S E X C E R P T E D

F R O M B A R O Q U E A R I A S ............................. 207
27. STO C K H A U S E N ' S "SING E R ' S A L P H A B E T " .............. 212
28. FANT ' S V O W E L D I A G R A M W I T H X - R A Y T R A C I N G . . . . 213
29. EXA M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N ' S U S E OF V O W E L S

W I T H V O C A L E X E R C I S E S ........................... 215
30. C O M P A R A T I V E R E G I S T E R RA N G E S ..................... 221
ABSTRACT
Ma n u e l P a t r i c i o R o d riguez Garcia (1805-1906) was
in a uniq u e p o s i t i o n in the his t o r y of vocal p e d a g o g y .
Wh i l e his t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s conti n u e d the bel ca n t o
tra d i t i o n p a s s e d to h i m by his father, he was v e r y m u c h
a p a r t of the c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t erest in s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v o c a l production. Highly successful
as a teacher, his stu d e n t s g r aced the o p e r a a nd c o n c e r t
halls of Eu r o p e a n d the United States for m a n y decades.
This i n v e s t i g a t i o n is conce r n e d w i t h the G a r c i a
teach i n g m e t h o d o l o g y , the influences w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d
to it, and its a p p l i c a t i o n and a d a p t a t i o n b y h is p u p i l s
who b e c a m e t e a chers. The Ga r c i a p u p i l s c h o s e n for this
study wer e s e l e c t e d on the ba s i s of the i r h i s t o r i c a l
import a n c e as b o t h s i ngers and teachers, and a c c o r d i n g
to the s i g n i f i c a n c e a nd ava i l a b i l i t y of t heir p u b l i s h e d
m a t e r i a l s on v o cal pedagogy. Three p e o p l e c l e a r l y
fu l f i l l e d the a bove criteria: M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s ! (1821-
1914), a h i g h l y r e g a r d e d performer, w h o s e m e t h o d and
v o c a l i s e s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y published; Charles Battaille
(1822-1872), a medical d o ctor w h o sang w i t h the O p e r a
Com i q u e and Thé'âcre L y r i q u e and who p u b l i s h e d h i s r e s e a r c h
on the s i n g i n g v o i c e in two volumes; and J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n
(1826-1906), the n o t e d i n t e r p r e t e r of the li e d e r of
Schub e r t , S c humann, an d Brahms, and s i n g i n g t e a c h e r in
leading German institutions, i n c l u d i n g his ow n si n g i n g
s c hool in F r a n k f u r t - a m - M a i n .
In this study, the m e t h o d s an d w r i t i n g s of t h e s e
t e a c h e r s are e x a m i n e d and their p e d a g o g i c a l c o n t e n t s are
p r e s e n t e d in the follo w i n g cat e g o r i e s : breathing; attack;
re g i s t r a t i o n ; resonance, vowel color, an d diction; and
ov e r a l l c o o r d i n a t i o n of the v o c a l m e c h a n i s m . An a n a l y s i s
of the a t t i t u d e s and approaches o f e a c h tea c h e r in r e g a r d
to the above c a t e g o r i e s is provi d e d , a n d c o m p a r i s o n s are
made between th e i r m e t h o d s and t h o s e of Garcia. Occasional
r e f e r e n c e is m a d e in cases w h e r e c u r r e n t sc i e n t i f i c r e
s ear c h has a d d e d n e w insight to the p h y s i o l o g i c a l
pr i n c i p l e s h e l d b y some of the t e a c h e r s .
Conclusions are drawn f r o m the s t u d y a c c o r d i n g to
the b e l i e f s a n d p r o c e d u r e s of e a c h t e a c h e r in r e g a r d to
each of the a b o v e categories. In gener a l , all of the
teach e r s w e r e f o u n d to stress e f f i c i e n t phonation, well-
c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h p r o p e r b r e a t h i n g a n d b r e a t h control.
The y w e r e e q u a l l y con c e r n e d w i t h t h o r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t of
the voc a l scale and the b l e n d i n g of registers, sufficient
for the s tudy o f bel c anto litera t u r e . They placed
c o n s t a n t e m p h a s i s u p o n vocal freedom, f l e xibility, and
control, as o p p o s e d to volu m e of sound. Finally, they
were c o n c e r n e d with, v oice q u a l i t i e s as a f f e c t e d by
vii
laryngeal p o s i t i o n and m o u t h p o s i t i o n , a n d w i t h vowel
c o l o r s a n d t h eir infl u e n c e u p o n t he vo c a l scale and
vocal interpretation. The s t u d y a l s o m a k e s p o s s i b l e
s o m e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the bel
canto t r a d i t i o n to the t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s u s e d b y these
t e a chers, as w ell as the c o n t r i b u t i o n s m a d e to their
teaching contemporary scientific insight. Contemporary
science was f o u n d to have m a d e its g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u
t i o n in the a r eas of p h o n a t i o n a nd v o i c e qual i t i e s .
T e a c h i n g m e t h o d o l o g y in o t h e r areas, particularly re
g i s t r a t i o n a n d v o cal f lexibility, was apparently
strongly influenced by traditional app r o a c h e s . The
appendices in c l u d e two t r a n s l a t i o n s of n o t e w o r t h y
p u b l i c a t i o n s of the period: an a c c o u n t b y Henri
D u t r o c h e t of G a r c i a ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n of the M é m o i r e sur
la v o i x h u m a i n e to the F r e n c h A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s in
1840, a nd an e x t r a c t fro m B a t t a i l l e ' s N o u v e l l e s
recherches sur la p h o n a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d in 1861.
I. INTRODUCTION
Ma n u e l P a t r i c i o R o d r i g u e z Garcia (1805-1906) is
c r e d i t e d by some w r i t e r s as b e i n g t h e f i r s t s i n g e r to
i n v e s t i g a t e in d e p t h t h e s c i e n c e o f h u m a n v o ice p r o d u c t i o n . ^
In a d d i t i o n to b e i n g h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d in m e d i c a l c i r c l e s of
his day,^ his h i s t o r i c a l p o s i t i o n as a s u c c e s s f u l t e a c h e r
o f p r o m i n e n t s i n g e r s is e n h a n c e d b y t he le n g t h y list of s u c
ce s s f u l sing e r s w h o came un d e r h i s t u t elage. Among these
w e r e J e n n y Lind (1820-1887), Henrietta Nissen (no dat e s
available), Catherine Hayes ( 1 8 2 5 - 1 8 6 1 ), M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s i
(1821-1914), J o h a n n a W a g n e r (1828-1894), Jul i u s S t o c k h a u s e n
(1826-1906), Charles Battaille (1822-1872), and C h a r l e s
Santley (1834-1922). Two different perspectives have become
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h M a n u e l G a r c i a ' s h i s t o r i c a l position. Robert
B o nington, a m o n g others, has r e g a r d e d h i s t e a c h i n g as t he
cu l m i n a t i o n of the bel c a n t o t e a c h i n g m e t h o d and the b e g i n -
^ I n t e r n a t i o n a l C y c l o p e d i a o f M u s i c and M u s i c i a n s ,
1 0 t h ed., s.v. " S i n g i n g , " b y O s c a r Thompson.
tion, 1905, in W i l l i a m H. Woglom, D i s c o v e r e r s for M e d i c i n e

(New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1949), 98-99
Music (London: F a b e r a n d Faber, 1973), 60-63.
2
G a r c i a as th e f a ther o f a "modern s c i e n t i f i c s y stem" of
vocal teaching.^
T h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of this stu d y h a s b e e n to i n v e s
t i g a t e th e e f f e c t of G a r c i a ' s r e s e a r c h u p o n hi s t e a c h i n g
p r i n c i p l e s an d to c o m p a r e t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w i t h th o s e
f o u n d in t h e m e t h o d s a n d w r i t i n g s of s e l e c t e d pupils.
Th e c r i t e r i a u s e d for p u p i l selection were their historical
i m p o r t a n c e as b o t h sin g e r s an d tea c h e r s a n d e v i d e n c e of
t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v o c a l p e d a g o g y in t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n of
m e t h o d s an d w r i t i n g s c o n c e r n i n g this subject. A f t e r a ll
G a r c i a p u p i l s w e r e s u b j e c t e d to the s e cr i t e r i a , th r e e n ames
c l e a r l y d o m i n a t e d the f i e l d and w e r e c h o s e n for the study:
C h a r l e s Batt a i l l e , a medical doctor who san g w i t h the Opera
C o m i q u e and T h e a t r e L y r i q u e a n d w h o p u b l i s h e d his r e s e a r c h
on the s i n g i n g v o i c e a n d his t e a c h i n g m e t h o d in two volumes;
Mathilde Marchesi, h i g h l y r e g a r d e d as a c o n c e r t si n g e r in
En g l a n d a n d as an o p e r a p e r f o r m e r on t h e cont i n e n t , who
ta u g h t at t h e V i e n n a a n d P aris C o n s e r v a t o r i e s , and w h o s e
m e t h o d an d v o c a l i s e s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y p u b l i s h e d ; and Juli u s
St o c k hausen, t h e n o t e d i n t e r p r e t e r of t h e l i e d e r of Schubert,
Schumann, and Brahms, a n d sing i n g t e a c h e r in l e a d i n g G e r m a n
institu t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g his own s i n g i n g s c h o o l in F r a n k f u r t -
am-Main.
In the p r e s e n t study, t h e m e t h o d s a n d w r i t i n g s of the
^ D a n i e l G. Mason, gen. ed.. The A r t o f M u s i c , 12

vols. (New York: The N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y of M u sic, 1915),
vol. 5: The V o i c e and V o c a l M u s i c , b y D a v i d C. Taylor, 56-
57.
3
above Garcia t e a c h e r s ha v e b e e n e x a m i n e d a n d their peda
gogical contents have been presented in g e n e r a l teaching
approaches a nd in t he fo l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : b r e a thing;
at t a c k ; registration; resonance, v o wel c o l o r , a nd diction;
and overall c o o r d i n a t i o n of the v o c a l m e c h a n i s m . No a t t e m p t
was made to in c l u d e stylistic interpretation in the above
categories. W h i l e the sources c o n s u l t e d d e a l t at length
with this subject, it w a s felt that n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p e r
formance practice is a r e s e a r c h a rea o u t s i d e the p r o v i n c e
of this study, w h i c h is s p e c i f i c a l l y p e d a g o g i c a l in a p p r o a c h
and natu r e .
The o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l on each
G a r c i a t e a c h e r w as d e t e r m i n e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g to
t he d a t e w h e n the t e a c h e r s b e g a n t h e i r v o i c e st u d y w i t h
G arc i a . Following biographical material and descriptions
o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h a n d publ i c a t i o n s , an a n a l y s i s of the
attitudes and a p p r o a c h e s of ea c h t e a c h e r a c c o r d i n g to the
above categories is pres e n t e d . As a p a r t o f this process,
comparisons ha v e b e e n m a d e b e t w e e n t he m e t h o d s o f Gar c i a
and t he o t h e r teachers. In i n s t a n c e s w h e r e c u r r e n t s c i e n
ti f i c r e s e a r c h has a d d e d n e w i n s i g h t to t he p h y s i o l o g i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s h e l d by some of the t e a chers, brief reference
is made.
It is h o p e d t h a t this s t udy o f the a s s i m i l a t i o n of
a teacher's principles in the w o r k s o f h is students contri
butes to o u r k n o w l e d g e of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f conc e p t s
f r o m t e a c h e r to student. It is f u r t h e r h o p e d that
4
i n f o r m a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from this s t u d y w i l l be h e l p f u l in
d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r there was, in fact, a Garcia "school"
o f teach i n g , as c l a i m e d by A m e r i c a n s i n g e r and Ga r c i a
p u p i l A n n a S c h o e n - R e n e ,^ or w h e t h e r , in r eality, Gar c i a ' s
t e a c h i n g had n o t a b l e influence, b u t p e r m i t t e d his p u p i l s
their own reactions and a d a p t ations.
Defi n i t i o n s
Pe d a g o g i c a l Terms
bel canto (It., beautiful singing). The s tyle of s i n g i n g
w h i c h f l o u r i s h e d in It a l y f r o m the s e v e n t e e n t h to
the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c entury. It c o n s i s t e d of an
e m p h a s i s on b e a u t y of tone, c a r e f u l phrasing, an
eve n v o c a l scale, and c o m m a n d o f voc a l flexi b i l i
ty, in c o n t r a s t to the d r a m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n and
d e c l a m a t o r y styles w h i c h e v o l v e d in later
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v ocal m u sic.
passaggio. Vocal t r a n s i t i o n are a s b e t w e e n registers,
solfeggio. V o c a l e x e r c i s e s sung to a v o w e l or to the
s y l l a b l e s of solmization, t h e s e b e i n g used in s t e a d
of a text.
v o c a l exercise. B a s i c vocal d r i l l s d e s i g n e d to a c c o m p
lish a s p e c i f i c purpose,
vo calize. A vocal piece which often employs si m i l a r p a t
terns as the v ocal exercise, b u t is set w i t h i n a
Ânna Schoe n - R e n e , A m e r i c a ' s M u s i c a l I n h e r i t a n c e :

M e m o r i e s and R e m i n i s c e n c e s (New York: G. P. P u t n a m ' s Sons,
1941), 198-205.
5
larger, more developed musical scheme. Vocalises
w e r e d e s i g n e d to a c c o m p l i s h the same p e d a g o g i c a l
p u r p o s e as v o cal e x e r c i s e s b y p r o v i d i n g p r a c t i c e
material of a more i n t e r e s t i n g nature.
A n a t o m i c a l Terms
a r y t e n o i d c a rtilages. Paired cartilages l o c a t e d on the
s u p e r i o r b o r d e r of the c r i c o i d ca r t i l a g e . The
v o c a l folds run b e t w e e n the t h y r o i d c a r t i l a g e and
t he a r y t e n o i d s . M a n y of t he b i o l o g i c a l and no n -
b i o l o g i c a l fun c t i o n s of the l a r y n x are c o n t r o l l e d
t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t s of the a r y t e n o i d c a r t ilages,
c a r t i l a g i n o u s glottis. The p o r t i o n of the gl o t t i s
b o u n d e d b y the v o c a l p r o c e s s e s a n d the m e d i a l sur
faces of the arytenoids,
c r i c o i d c a rtilage. A ring-shaped cartilage lo c a t e d
im m e d i a t e l y s u p e r i o r to the u p p e r m o s t t r a cheal
rings. It forms the lower p a r t o f the laryn g e a l
f ramework.
epi g l o t t i s . A l e a f - s h a p e d cart i l a g e , l o c a t e d just above
the t h y r o i d cartilage, which prevents food fr o m
e n t e r i n g the l a r y n x d u r i n g d e g l u t i t i o n ,
extrinsic lar y n g e a l muscles. Muscles which originate o u t
side the l a r y n x a nd w h i c h a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for s u p
p o r t of the lar y n x and for f i x i n g it in position,
fauces. The p o r t t h r o u g h w h i c h t he o r a l c a v i t y c o m m u n i
cates w i t h the p h a r y n g e a l a n d n a s a l cavities.
The fauces are b o u n d e d l a t e r a l l y b y the p a l a t i n e
arches, a b o v e b y the s o f t pa l a t e , and b e l o w by
the d o r s u m of the tongue,
g lottis. The s p a c e b e t w e e n the v o c a l folds,
in t r i n s i c l a r y n g e a l m u s c l e s . M u s c l e s w h i c h h a v e both
attachments within the larynx. The intri n s i c
mu s c l e s are l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e for c o n trol of
sound p r o d u c t i o n ,
m e m b r a n o u s g lottis. The a n t e r i o r p o r t i o n of the g lottis
bounded laterally by the vocal lig a m e n t s and m u s
c u lar p o r t i o n of the v o c a l folds,
p harynx. The m u s c u l o - m e m b r a n o u s tub e e x t e n d i n g from the
base of the skull to t h e level of the s i xth c e r
vical v e r t e b r a b e h i n d a n d the c r i c o i d c a r t i l a g e in
phonat i o n . The p r o d u c t i o n of s o u n d s b y the v i b r a t i o n of
the v o c a l folds,
t h y r o i d cartilage. The la r g e s t c a r t i l a g e of the larynx.
It a r t i c u l a t e s w i t h t he c r i c o i d c a r t i l a g e l a t e r
ally, in such a w a y t h a t v a r i o u s m o v e m e n t s are
p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n the t wo car t i l a g e s . The voc a l
folds a re a t t a c h e d b e t w e e n the arytenoid carti
lages a n d the i n t e r i o r s u r f a c e o f the t h y r o i d
cartilage.
v e n t r i c l e of M o r g a g n i . The c a v i t y of t he larynx, bounded
above by the v e n t r i c u l a r o r f a lse v o cal folds a n d
be l o w by the true v o c a l folds- It was d e s c r i b e d
in d e t a i l in 1741 by M o r g a g n i , h e nce its name.
7
v e s t i b u l e of the g lottis. The p o r t i o n of t h e laryngeal
ve n t r i c l e ab o v e the v ocal folds.
II. TH E R E S E A R C H A N D T E A C H I N G P R I N C I P L E S OF G A R C I A
A S u r v e y of P e d a g o g i c a l A p p r o a c h e s and
T h e i r R e l a t i o n s h i p s to V o i c e Scie n c e
R e s e a r c h P rior to G a r c i a
A l t h o u g h n a t i o n a l pride and p r e f e r e n c e s p e r v a d e the
h i s t o r y of s i n g i n g and v oice pedagogy, w r i t e r s of several
n a t i o n a l i t i e s h a v e view e d M a n u e l Ga r c i a as b o t h the c u l m i
n a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c progr e s s a n d the h e r a l d of a n e w era
in the a p p l i c a t i o n of scie n t i f i c findi n g s to v o i c e traning.
In 1915 D a v i d C. T a y l o r saw the use of the l a r y n g o s c o p e
by G a r c i a as "the b e g i n n i n g of the m o d e r n s c i e n t i f i c syst e m
of t r a i n i n g the voice" and G a r c i a as "the voc a l t e a c h e r who
c o n t r i b u t e d m o s t to the p r o m u l g a t i o n of the s c i e n t i f i c
i d e a . J a n e A r g e r gav e F r e n c h s c ience and t e a c h i n g c r i t e
ria a la r g e p a r t of the credit for the su c c e s s of the
r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h i n g of G a rcia and his students, "whose
s c i e n t i f i c rules, p u t into p r a c t i c e b y n u m e r o u s teachers,
h a v e g iven us the b est singers u p to our own day.
^Taylor, 56-57.
^ A l b e r t L a vignac, gen. e d . , E n c y c l o p é d i e de la m u s i
q u e et d i c t i o n n a i r e du c o n s e r v a t o i r e , il vols, in 2 parts.
P h y s i o l o g i e v o c a l e et aud i t i v e t e c h n i q u e v o c a l e et i n s t r u
m e n t a l , s.v. " E v o l u t i o n de la t e c h n i q u e v o c a l e , " by J ane
A r g e r , 990.
9
Arnold Gearing f ound in G a r c i a ' s t e a c h i n g the b l e n d of p h y s
i ol o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e and s ound t e a c h i n g w h i c h M e r senne,
Bacilly, a n d B e r a r d had c a l l e d for m a n y yea r s b e f o r e .^
However, before Garcia there were apparently mixed
f e elings t o w a r d the u s e f u l n e s s of p h y s i o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e
to sin g i n g teac h e r s . P h i l i p Duey, in his h i s t o r y o f the
bel c anto era, cit e s the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e fro m B o n t e m p i 's
h i s t o r y as p r o o f of a r e l a t i v e d i s i n t e r e s t in s c i e n c e on
the part of t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y teachers: .
T he p h y s i o l o g i s t s e x p o u n d th e s e d i f ferences,
c aus e d b y posit i o n , p a ssage, shape, air, e x p i
ration, a n d all the c o n d i t i o n s of the larynx;
ba s e d on t h e immut a b l e f o u n d a t i o n of i n c o n
t esta b l e reason. O u r o p i n i o n is, that e v e r y
thing w h i c h is d e r i v e d f r o m e x p e r i e n c e has no
need of r e a s o n i n g . . . W h i l e t h e y go on
i n v e s t i g a t i n g n a t u r e in o r d e r to find it out
w i t h reason, we . . . s h a l l be c o n t e n t to
u n d e r s t a n d it w i t h the t e a c h i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e
itself.^
On the o t h e r hand, the r e w a s a p p a r e n t l y some u t i l i z a t i o n
of known s c i e n c e in the e d u c a t i o n o f bel c anto singers.
T he Bon t e m p i h i s t o r y and A r t e a g a ' s o p e r a t i c h i s t o r y d e s
c ribe the r e q u i r e d st u d y of c u r r e n t p h y s i o l o g i c a l laws by
^Die M u s i k in G e s c h i c h t e a nd G e g e n w a r t , s.v.
" G e s a n g s p a d a g o g i k , " b y Arnold" G e ering, 1925.
cited by P h i l i p A. Duey, Bel C a n t o in Its G o l d e n A ge: A

S tudy of Its T e a c h i n g C o n c e p t s (New York: K i n g ' s C r o w n
Press, 1951), 127.
si n g i n g s t u d e n t s of t h e p e r i o d . ^ J. F. A g r i c o l a (1720-
1774), in hi s 1757 e n l a r g e m e n t of To s i ' s imp o r t a n t singing
treat i s e , p r o v i d e d in the fir s t chap t e r a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p
t i o n of the l a r y n x an d its functions, and asserted:
The k n o w l e d g e of the voc a l o r g a n s is always

ve r y u s e f u l to the t e acher and in m a n y cases
indisp e n s a b l e . F o r even w h e n na t u r e has
ad o r n e d a s i n g e r w i t h the bes t qualities, the
k n o w l e d g e of p h y s i o l o g y is n e c e s s a r y to p r e
v e n t all d a m a g e s tha t m i g h t be d o n e th r o u g h
ignorance. Bu t w h e n a t e a c h e r finds natu r a l
faults a nd d e f e c t s in a voice, ho w can he s u c
c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e w i t h t h e m if he is u n a c q u a i n t
ed w i t h the seat o f the evil.°
Long before Garcia began teach i n g in Paris, sing
ing tea c h e r s w e r e •e x p r e s s i n g an i n t erest in voi c e p r o d u c
tio n and p h y s i o l o g i s t s w e r e e x p l o r i n g its secrets. Taylor
f ound the t r e a t i s e D e la fo r m a t i o n de la v o i x de l ' h o m m e ,
1741, by A n t o i n e F e r r e i n (1693-1769), a F r e n c h ph y s i c i a n ,
to be the f irst w o r k on v ocal p h y s i o l o g y to r e c e i v e a t t e n
t ion by per s o n s i n t e r e s t e d in singing. Ferrein appears
to be the first to h a v e given the name of v ocal cor d s to
the edges of the g l o t t a l m u s c l e s . ^ Jean Baptiste Berard
(1710 - ? ) , in 1755, b e c a m e the f irst singer to w r i t e a
^Bontempi, H istori a M u s i c a , and E s t e b a n A r t eaga,

Rivol u z i o n i del t e a t r o m u s i c a l e ita l i a n o (1783-88), c i t e d
by L e n n o x B r o w n e an d E m i l Behnke, Voice, Song, and S p e e c h
(New York: G. P. P u t n a m ' s Sons 190?), 4. Br o w n e and
Behnke cit e t h e s e p a s s a g e s to support th e i r c o n c e p t i o n of
G a rcia as the h e r a l d of a n e w a g e of "scientific" t e a c h i n g
of singers.
^J. F. A g r i c o l a , A n l e i t u n g zur S i n g k u n s t (1757),

c ited by B r o w n a n d Behnke, 5.
^Taylor, 56.
11
complete tre a t i s e w h i c h included, in a d d i t i o n to c o n t e m p o r
a r y p e r f o r m a n c e practice, a d e s c r i p t i o n of t e a c h i n g p r o
cedures and philosophy, and an e l e m e n t a r y des c r i p t i o n , with
drawings, of t he p r i m a r y v o c a l and r e s p i r a t o r y organs.
Berard was i n t e r e s t e d in sons à c a r a c t è r e (expressive
s o u n d s ) , a c h i e v e d by e f f e c t i v e m a n a g e m e n t of exhalation.
He a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s in th i c k n e s s , l e ngth and
t e n s i o n of the voc a l cords c a u s e d the d i f f e r e n t v o ice
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .^
F r e n c h gains in v o i c e sc i e n c e w e r e d e s t i n e d to fill
a void which had been occupied in F r a n c e o n l y by Italian
methodology. A t the b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h ce n t u r y the
o l d fe u d c o n c e r n i n g F r e n c h a nd It a l i a n s i n g i n g s tyles still
persisted. A r g e r b e l i e v e d t h a t n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w r i ters
confused national musical style w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e , to the
d e t r i m e n t of F r e n c h singers: "To the s e gent l e m e n , French
declamation s e e m e d t oo full of shouts, whereas Ital i a n
air s a l o n e w e r e m e l o d i c a nd singable. Ther e f o r e , the F r e n c h
shouted while the I t a lians s a n g . T h e r e s u l t w as that
French s ingers were sen t to Italy f or t r a i n i n g in the
I t a l i a n m e thod, w h i c h w a s sai d to h a v e existed in re a l i t y
o n l y by oral tradition, and w h ich, to Arg e r , was "simply a
c o m b i n a t i o n of good sen s e on the p a r t of the m a s t e r c o m b i n e d
Je a n B a p t i s t e Berard, L ' A r t d u C h a n t (1755), t r a n s .

S i d n e y M u r r a y (Milwaukee: P ro M u s i c a Press, 1969), 24.
w i t h the i n e x h a u s t i b l e p a t i e n c e of the s t u d e n t . T h e
infatuation with I t a l i a n st y l e and t e c h n i q u e e x i s t e d to
s uch a d e g r e e th a t I t a l i a n t e a c h e r s w e r e b r o u g h t to the
P a ris c o n s e r v a t o r y , where l e ssons w e r e t a u g h t in I talian
o r in It a l i a n a nd F r e n c h a l t e r n a t e l y . ^ ^
In e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y France, i n t e r e s t in
v o c a l sc i e n c e flowed f r o m two d i r e c t i o n s . Singing teachers
w e r e n ot t o t a l l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h a m e t h o d that w as an I t a l i a n
tr a d i t i o n and b e g a n to l o o k tow a r d F r e n c h s c i ence for the
answers. Simultaneously, French science was in the e a r l y
stages of w h a t w a s to b e c o m e a f l u r r y of a c t i v i t y and i n v e s
ti g a t i o n into the h u m a n v o i c e as u s e d in b o t h so n g and
speech. Some of the e a r l y w o r k s w h i c h r e v i v e d an i n t e r e s t
in the s t udy of p h o n a t i o n w e r e b y Du t r o c h e t , who in 1806
c o m p a r e d gl o t t a l a c t i o n to lips p l a y i n g a h o r n , ^ ^ Ma g e n d i e ,
r e n d u s , the J o u r n a l of the F r e n c h A c a d e m y of Sciences,
r e f l e c t this g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t a l m o s t f r o m its i n c e p t i o n in
1835 on. The J o u r n a l ' s i n d e x for the f i r s t t h i r t y - o n e v o l
umes lists such t i t l e s as t h e s e p r i o r to G a r c i a ' s entr i e s
in 1840:
Ballard, "Considerations s ur la v o i x h u m a i n e et sur
les moy e n s p r o p r e s à lui d o n n e r p l u s de force et d 'i n t e n s i t é ,"
^Îbid.
l^ T aylor 56.
^Ârger, 990.
1836-1837 (three e n t r i e s ) .
C a g n i a r d - L a t o u r , "Sur la p r e s s i o n a l a q u e l l e l'air
c o n t e n u d a n s la t r a c h é e - a r t è r e est soumis p e n d a n t l'ac t e
de la p h o n a t i o n , " 1836.
L au r e n t , "Sur 1' e n s e i g n e m e n t m é t h o d i q u e de 1 ' a r t i c u

l a t i o n de la v o i x , " 1837, 1839 (two entries).
Nonat, "Re c h e r c h e s sur le m é c a n i s m e de la v o ix,"

1839.
Sechaud, " C o n s i d e r a t i o n s p h y s i o l o g i q u e s sur la

14
v o i x h u m a i n e et son m é c a n i s m e p e n d a n t le c h a n t , " 1839.
A r g e r li s t s two o t h e r w o r k s independently published prior
to Garcia:
Debay, H y g i e n e de la v o i x et g y m n a s t i q u e des
or g a n e s v o c a u x , 1823.
M a l g a i g n e , N o u v e l l e t h é o r i e de la v o i x h u m a i n e ,
1831.^^
It m u s t be n o t e d t h a t n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v o i c e
tea c h e r s wer e awa r e of t hese d e v e l o p m e n t s and, if t h e y wer e
n o t r e a d i n g them, t h e y w e r e at lea s t e x p r e s s i n g an int e r e s t
in them. A r g e r speaks of s u c h w o r k s as bei n g "popula r i z e d "
by physiologists and as b e i n g "placed in pag e s at the d i s
p osal of artists.
G a r c i a ' s R e s e a r c h an d Its Influence

u po n his T e a c h i n g P r inciples
Biographical Material
D o m e n i c o Corri (1746-1825), a p u p i l of N i c o l o
Comp tes rendus h e b d o m a d a i r e s des séa n c e s de

l 'Ac a d é m i e des s ciences : Ta b l e G é n é r a l 32 (1835-50) , 1009.
^Ârger, 990.
14
Porpora (1686-1766), h e l d a p o s i t i v e v i e w t o ward s c i e n t i f i c
k n o w l e d g e and b o r r o w e d t h i s p r e d i c t i o n :
T h e late c e l e b r a t e d Dr. S a m u e l Arno l d , v e r y

se n s i b l y obser v e d , t h a t t he a n a t o m y of the v o i c e
would, p e r h a p s n e v e r be c l e a r l y e x p l a i n e d till
some p h y s i c i a n sho u l d s t u d y the s u b j e c t — w h o was
al s o a good m u s i c i a n . ^ '
A s t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d a wned, the fields of s c i ence and
s i n g i n g a w a i t e d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of a b i l i t i e s found in M a n u e l
The Garcia f a m i l y o f m u s i c i a n s has b een d e s c r i b e d
b y H e n r y Chorley, a c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t s critic, as
. . . r e p r e s e n t a t i v e arti s t s , w h o s e power, g e nius

and o r i g i n a l i t y h ave i m p r e s s e d a p e r m a n e n t trace
on t he r e cord of the m e t h o d s of v o c a l exe c u t i o n
and ornament.
T h e G a r c i a r e c o r d of v o c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t b e gan w i t h M a n u e l
Garcia's father, M a n u e l d el P o p o l o V i n c e n t e G a r c i a (1775-
1832), a leading t e n o r o f t he day, for w h o m Rossini wrote
the part of A l m a v i v a in II B a r b i e r e di S i v i g l i a in 1816.
The o l d e r Gar c i a w a s r e p o r t e d l y g i v e n t he I t a lian s i n g i n g
methods in 1811 b y G i o v a n n i A n z a n i (1744-1826), a leading
It a l i a n t e n o r . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e y o u n g e r Manuel, two
o t h e r G a r c i a c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n from the i r f a t h e r
and b e c a m e r e n o w n e d f i g u r e s in t h e art of singing. Maria
T r e a t i s e on V o c a l M u s i c (London: C h a p p e l and Co., 1810),

in E d w a r d Foreman, e d . , T h e P o r p o r a T r a d i t i o n (Minneapolis:
Pro M u s i c a Press, 1968), 27.
e d . , s.v. "Garcia F a m i l y , " b y J u l i a n Marshall.
^^Charles Lunn, T h e P h i l o s o p h y of V o i c e (London:

Bailliere, T i n d a l l and Cox, 1900), 174-175.
15
Félicita (1808-1836), a c o ntralto, wa s k n o w n to the singing
w o r l d as M a l i b r a n and was a n a c c l a i m e d p e r f o r m e r o f Bellini,
Rossini, Mozart, and M e y e r b e e r P a u l i n e Viardot-Garcia
(1821-1910), for w h o m B r a h m s w r o t e the "Alto Rhap s o d y , " Op.
53, w a s e q u a l l y well kno w n as a t e a c h e r
The y o u n g e r Manuel, b o r n in 1805, r e c e i v e d ha r m o n y
i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m F etis and s i n g i n g les s o n s f r o m his father.
He sang b a r i t o n e roles w i t h the f a m i l y ope r a c o m p a n y in N e w
York C i t y a n d Mexi c o Cit y f r o m 1825-1828. However, reviews
of the i r p e r f o r m a n c e s gave m u c h m o r e a c c l a i m to the o t her
Gar c i a s and c o m p a n y m e m b e r s than to the y o u n g b a r i t o n e
F o l l o w i n g this A m e r i c a n tour, the y o u n g e r G a r c i a ' s inter
est t u r n e d to teaching. He a s s i s t e d his fa t h e r in tea c h i n g
in Par i s and in 1830 took c o u r s e s in v o c a l p h y s i o l o g y at
m i l i t a r y ho s p i t a l s in that city. His e n t h u s i a s m for the su b
ject is r e f l e c t e d in his si s t e r P a u l i n e ' s acc o u n t s of his
h a b i t o f b r i n g i n g home the w i n d p i p e s of v a r i o u s a n i m a l s
into which, she was i n s t r u c t e d to b l o w w i t h bel l o w s . The
r esu l t s w e r e "clucks, b l eatings, and r oars t h a t w e r e a l most
^ ^ G r o v e ' s , 5th e d . , s.v. " M a i l b r a n , " by J u l i a n

Marshall.
^ ^ I b i d . , s.v. " V i a r dot-Garcia, Pauli n e , " by Mrs.

Juli a n Marshall.
Ibid., s.v. "Garcia, M a n u e l P a t r i c i o Rodr i g u e z , "

b y J u l i a n Marshall.
^^Julius Mattfeld, A H u n d r e d Yea r s of G r a n d Ope r a

in N e w York 1825-1925 (New York; N e w Yor k P u b l i c Library,
1927, 13-16.
hi s o w n t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e in Paris. His p h y s i o l o g i c a l
s t u d y co n t i n u e d , however, and c o n t r i b u t e d to his p o s i t i o n
as a u n i q u e fi g u r e in the w o r l d of singing:
H e w a s no m e r e sing i n g teacher, but a m a n w i t h

a c o n s u m i n g i n t e r e s t in the a n a t o m y and p h y s
i o l o g y of t h e larynx; a ma n w h o had d i s s e c t e d it
on c o u n t l e s s o c c a s i o n s and p o n d e r e d o v e r it d a y
a n d night, and w h o w a s no d o u b t at le a s t as
f a m i l i a r as m a n y a p h y s i c i a n of his time.
In 1840 G a r c i a p r e s e n t e d the M é m o i r e sur la v o i x
h umaine before the F r e n c h A c a d e m y o f Sciences, which "laid
the foundation for all s u b s e q u e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on the
v o i c e . I n the same y e a r the f i r s t of n u m e r o u s e d i t i o n s
of his sin g i n g treatise. T r a i t e c o m p l e t e de l'art d u c h a n t ,
was p u b l i s h e d . I n 1842 he w a s a p p o i n t e d p r o f e s s o r of
s i n g i n g at the P a r i s C o n s e r v a t o i r e , ^ ^ and five y e a r s l ater
h e p u b l i s h e d P a r t II of the T r a i t e . He w a s a p p o i n t e d
^'^William H. Woglom, D i s c o v e r e r s for M e d i c i n e (New

Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1949), 95. "Almost l i f elike"
m a y be an o v e r s t a t e m e n t . R e s o n a t i n g c a v i t i e s a b o v e the
g l o t t i s a r e necess a r y , eve n in l o w e r animals, for g i v i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c q u a l i t i e s to the voice. See P e t e r B. De n e s
a nd E l l i o t N. Pinson, T h e Sp e e c h Chain: T h e P h y s i c s and
B i o l o g y of Spok e n L a n g u a g e (Garden City, N e w York: A n c h o r
P r ess, 1973), 47-50, 58.
^ ^ I b i d . , 90.
^ ^ I b i d . , 89. T his e v a l u a t i o n is g i v e n b y s e veral

s ources, n o n e of w h i c h cr e d i t the source.
^^M a n u e l Garcia, A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e on the A r t of

S inging: Par t II (Paris: T h e A u thor, 1847); trans. a nd
ed. by D o n a l d V. P a s c h k e (New York: D a Cap o Press, 1975),
260-261.
17
p r o f e s s o r of s i n g i n g at the Royal A c a d e m y of M u s i c in Lo n d o n
in 1850 a n d r e t a i n e d the p o s t u ntil his r e t i r e m e n t in 1895.^^
Garcia's monumental s t u d y of the larynx w i t h the l a r y n g o
sc o p e o c c u r r e d in S e ptember, 1854. His d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n
of t h a t event, " O b s e r v a t i o n s on the H uman V o i c e , " a p p e a r e d
in the P r o c e e d i n g s o f the Royal Society of L o n d o n in 1855.^^
Garcia r e m a i n e d ac t i v e in voice t e a c h i n g and in the
musical a n d s c i e n t i f i c circ l e s of L o ndon to the e n d o f his
lon g life. His Hints on Singing (ca. 1877) b r i n g s s o m e of
his t e a c h i n g p r i n c i p l e s up to d ate w i t h his l a t e r r e s e a r c h
a nd e x p e r i e n c e . His o n e - h u n d r e d t h b i r t h d a y w a s m a r k e d by
f e s t i v i t i e s w h i c h b e g a n at the R oyal Me d i c a l a n d C h i r u r g i c a l
Society in L o ndon. Addresses were presented by representa
tives of the R o y a l A c a d e m y of Music, the R oyal C o l l e g e of
Music, a n d f r o m l a r y n g o l o g i c a l socie t i e s f r o m v a r i o u s c o u n
tries. D u r i n g the b a n q u e t s an d festivities, G a r c i a wa s
i n v e s t e d w i t h t he Ro y a l O r d e r of A l f o n s o XII in the n a m e of
the K i n g of Spain. The Ge r m a n E m p e r o r c o n f e r r e d the G r e a t
Gold M e d a l for S c i e n c e and h o n o r a r y m e m b e r s h i p w a s c o n f e r r e d
by m o s t o f th e f o r e i g n s o c i e t i e s represented. G a r c i a d ied
P r o c e e d i n g s of the Royal S o c i e t y of L o n d o n , 8, 13 (1855),

399-410.
^ ^ M a n u e l Garcia, H ints on S i n g i n g , ed. H e r m a n n

K lein (New York: E. A s c h e r b e r g an d Co., 1894). T here is
some c o n t r a d i c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the ori g i n a l dat e of this
work. See n . , p. 28.
G a r c i a ' s R e s e a r c h a nd P u b l i c a t i o n s
G a r c i a ha d been t e a c h i n g p r i v a t e l y in P a r i s for ten
y e a r s b y t h e time he w r o t e the M é m o i r e . Garcia presented
t h i s w o r k to the A c a d e m y in 1840. It w a s p u b l i s h e d seven
years l a t e r . I n the M é m o i r e , he c o n c e n t r a t e d u p o n vo c a l
registration, vocal qualities, a nd t h e i r p h y s i o l o g i c a l
causes. In this first p u b l i c a t i o n G a r c i a p l a c e d his d e f i n i
ti o n of r e g i s t r a t i o n w h i c h w a s d e s t i n e d to b e c o m e a basis
for m o s t s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h on th e subject.
By t h e w o r d register, w e u n d e r s t a n d a ser i e s of
c o n s e c u t i v e and h o m o g e n o u s s ounds g o i n g f r o m low
to high, p r o d u c e d by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the same
m e c h a n i c a l principle, a n d w h o s e n a t u r e d i f f e r s
fro m a n o t h e r series of s o u n d s e q u a l l y c o n s e c u
tiv e a n d h o m o g e n o u s p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r m e c h a n
ical p r i n ciple. Al l the s ounds b e l o n g i n g to
the same r e g i s t e r are c o n s e q u e n t l y of the same
nature, w h a t e v e r m a y b e the m o d i f i c a t i o n s of^g
t i m b r e or of force to w h i c h o n e subje c t s it.
G a r c i a d i d not at t e m p t to d i s c u s s the u n d e r l y i n g p h y s i
o l o g y of r e g i s t r a t i o n at l e n g t h in the M é m o i r e . Detailed
p h y s i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l a p p e a r e d f or the first t i m e in the
" O b s e r v a t i o n s on the Hu m a n V o i c e , " 1855. G a r c i a ' s con c e r n
with voice qualities in t he M é m o i r e w as r e s t r i c t e d to t wo
E. D u verger, 1847).
^^Wi l l a r d R. Zemlin, -S p e e c h and H e a r i n g S c i e n c e ;

A n a t o m y and P h y s i o l o g y (Englewood Cliffs, N. J . : P r e n t i c e -
Hall, 1968), 192.
S i n g i n g (excerpts), trans. D o n a l d V. Paschke (By the T r a n s

lator, 1970) , xxvi.
19
p r i n c i p a l colors; c l e a r timbre, p r o d u c e d by a g e n e r a l c o n
t raction of t h e v o c a l tract, p a r t i c u l a r l y l o w e r i n g the soft
p a l a t e and r a i s i n g t h e larynx; and s o m b e r timbre, caused
b y an e l o n g a t i o n and e n l a r g e m e n t o f the tract, w i t h a r a i s e d
p a l a t e and l o w e r e d l a r y n x . T o g e t h e r w i t h an i n t e r e s t in
the glottal attack, registration and voice qualities were
desti n e d to o c c u p y the bulk o f G a r c i a ' s r e s e a r c h t h r o u g h o u t
his career.
The M é m o i r e w a s p r e s e n t e d to the A c a d e m y of Sci e n c e s
on Novem b e r 16, 1840. A r e p o r t on t h e M é m o i r e is f ound in
the Acade m y ' s m i n u t e s of A p r i l 12, 1941. By that time,
Garc i a had b e e n c a l l e d in by the A c a d e m y ' s investigating
committee to d e m o n s t r a t e his t h e o r i e s w i t h his v o i c e s t u
dents. The M é m o i r e w a s acc e p t e d b y th e A c a d e m y som e t i m e
after A pril 19, 1 8 41.^®
The r e p o r t o n the M é m o i r e , w r i t t e n by Hen r i Du-
trochet, fi r s t set for t h the c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t am o n g s c i e n
tific bodies in v o i c e re g i s t e r s and v a r i o u s v o i c e qualities,
indicating t h a t i n t e r e s t in the s e f a c t o r s a b o u n d e d b e f o r e
Garcia's fir s t p u b l i c a t i o n . ^ ^ Dutrochet described how
Garcia's s t u d e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d d i s t i n c t i v e r e g i s t e r c h a r a c
teristics by s i n g i n g the same s ound f irst in o ne r e g i s t e r
Hen r i Dutroc h e t , "Rapport sur le M é m o i r e sur la

voi x h u m a i n e , p r é s e n t e a 1 'Académie d e s Sciences; p a r M.
Manuel Garcia", C o m p t e s rendus 12, 1 (1841), 638-639. A
translation of t h i s repo r t is p r o v i d e d in A p p e n d i x I, p. 242.
20
a nd then in a nother. The stu d e n t s also d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i r
fac i l i t y in b l e n d i n g fro m one r e g i s t e r into a n o t h e r to i n
cr e a s e the v o c a l c o m p a s s and in s i n g i n g the same p i t c h in
full vo i c e and falsetto. In o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w o n e
register differs fro m the ot h e r in m e c h a n i c a l p r inciple,
Garc i a had a s i n g e r choo s e a p i t c h in the v ocal c o m p a s s com
m o n to both r e gisters. The s i n g e r su s t a i n e d the not e in full
voi c e for as l o n g as p o s s i b l e w h i l e time was m e a s u r e d w i t h a
metronome. W h e n the same not e w a s sun g in falsetto, however,
it c ould be s u s t a i n e d o n l y for a m u c h s h orter time frame.
This e x p e r i m e n t pr o v e s that, in a g iven time-

period, and for the p r o d u c t i o n of the same scale
degree, the voc a l in s t r u m e n t d i s p e n s e s m o r e air
in p r o d u c i n g the false t t o tha n in p r o d u c i n g the
full v oice or che s t voice.
The react i o n by D u t r o c h e t and the o t h e r c o m m i s s i o n e r s w a s
a p parently m o s t e n t h u s i a s t i c in r e g a r d to the m o d i f i c a t i o n s
in vocal m e c h a n i s m w h i c h G a rcia t h e o r i z e d for va r i o u s v o i c e
qualities :
It is e a s i l y seen, a c c o r d i n g to this account,

that one and the same m e c h a n i s m c ould not
explain the fo r m a t i o n of all the mus i c a l sounds
that can be p r o d u c e d b y the h u m a n vocal organ.
This org a n can t ruly be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g alone
capable of r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s s e m b l y of i n s t r u
ments d i f f e r e n t one fro m the other, and c a pable
of m y s t e r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h oc c u r and
are e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h an a d m i r a b l e speed a c c o r d i n g
recent r e p l i c a t i o n of this e x p e r i m e n t could be found.

D u t r o c h e t 's a c c o u n t did n o t p r o v i d e any th e o r y or e x p l a n a
tion for the r e s u l t s of the expe r i m e n t . It is p o s s i b l e
that Garcia's s t u d e n t w a s s u s t a i n i n g the p i t c h in a v e r y
breathy f a ] s e t t o , w h i c h w o u l d a c c o u n t for the s h orter
length of time it c ould be sustained.
D u t r o c h e t ' s r e p o r t b r o u g h t up one p o i n t w h i c h w a s
d e s t i n e d for c o n t r o v e r s y . He r e m a r k e d t h a t G a r c i a ' s find
ings c o n c e r n i n g lar y n g e a l m o v e m e n t r e l a t e d to the s o m b e r
timbre were n o t new. He c i t e d a r eport p r e s e n t e d to the
A c a d e m y June 1, 1840 b y D i d a y an d P e t r e g u i n w h i c h fo u n d
t h a t the so m b e r voice w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a low la r y n x
p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h o u t its scale. D i d a y a n d P e treguin, how
ever, a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d this g u a l i t y to be u s e f u l o n l y
in the ch e s t r egister. On the b a s i s of G a r c i a ' s fin d i n g s
co n c e r n i n g its u s e f u l n e s s w i t h b o t h r e gisters, Dutrochet
a c c o r d e d Ga r c i a a p a r t in its d i s c o v e r y .
Garcia, h o wever, did n o t let the m a t t e r lie. In
the next volu m e of the C o m p t e s r e ndus h i s l e t t e r a p p e a r e d
as s e r t i n g the o r i g i n a l i t y of his research. He c l a i m e d to
h a v e b e e n u s i n g the s o m b e r t i m b r e as a p a r t of his t e a c h
ing p r o c e d u r e for seve r a l years. He c i t e d the n a m e s of
s c ientists w i t h w h o m he d i s c u s s e d it in 1832 a n d n a m e d for
me r students w h o could a t t e s t to his u s i n g it as a p a r t of
his t eaching t e chnigue. G a r c i a t o o k issue w i t h D i d a y a n d
P e t r e g u i n 's r e f e r e n c e to the so m b e r t imbre as "a n e w spe c i e s
of s i nging v o i c e . " He b e l i e v e d it to be "a f u n d a m e n t a l
t i m b r e , e m p l o y e d of n e c e s s i t y in the two r e g i s t e r s ."..43
Îbid., 642-643.
^C o m p t e s rend u s 12, 2 (1841), 693.
22
Diday i m m e d i a t e l y respo n d e d , c l a i m i n g f i r s t t h a t there was
l es s p r o v e n fact in G a r c i a ' s theory tha n in theirs, which
h e f e l t w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y different. He t h e n s t a t e d tha t
t h e i r w o r k w a s p u b l i s h e d five and o n e - h a l f m o n t h s p r i o r to
Garcia's a n d b y v i r t u e of p u b l i c a t i o n d a t e the c l a i m to the
i dea w a s rightfully t h e i r s .^4 The m a t t e r a p p a r e n t l y ends
with thi s l a s t e n try.
Manuel Garcia's sec o n d m a jor p u b l i c a t i o n o n si n g i n g
w as h i s C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e o n the A r t o f S i n g i n g , Par t I of
which was publi s h e d in 1840. D o n a l d V. P a s c h k e has pro
v i d e d a p u b l i c a t i o n c h r o n o l o g y of P a r t s I a nd II;
E c o l e de G arcia; T r a i t e c o m p l e t e de l ' A r t d u C h a n t . Paris:

the a u t hor, 1840.
T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n c o n t a i n e d o n l y P a r t I.
E c o l e de G arcia; T r a i t e co m p l e t e de l ' A r t d u C h a n t . Paris:

the a uthor, 1847.
P a r t I a p p e a r s here in its s e c o n d e dition. P a r t II
in its f i r s t edition.
E c o l e de Garcia; T r a i t e c o m p l e t e de l ' A r t d u C h a n t . ;
M a y e n c e : B. S c h o t t ' s Sons, 184 7.
P a r t I a n d P a r t II are in s e p a r a t e v o l u m e s w i t h
s e p a r a t e p a g i n a t i o n . . . The p r e f a c e of P a r t I
i n c l u d e s a l e n g t h y e x t r a c t from the M é m o i r e . B o t h
p a r t s h a v e p a r a l l e l F r e n c h and G e r m a n texts.
N o v e a u T r a i t é s o m m a i r e de l ' A r t du C h a n t . Paris:
M. R i c hard, 1856.
T he a u t h o r r e f e r r e d to this as the f o u r t h e d i t i o n
of h i s m e t h o d . It w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y a b r i d g e d fr o m the
e a r l i e r e d i t i o n s , and it r e f lects some v e r y s l i g h t
a l t e r a t i o n s as a r e s u l t o f his u se of the lary n g o s c o p e .
This v e r s i o n c o n t i n u e d to be r e p r i n t e d t h r o u g h o u t the
author's lifetime.
English Translations
G a r c i a ' s C o m p l e t e Sch o o l of S i n g i n g . London: Cramer, n.d.

N o t r a n s l a t o r is indicated.
T he A r t of S i n g i n g y P a r t I . Boston: O l i v e r D i t s o n Co.,
(18— ?), n.d.
This is a n e a r l y d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n of the 1856
t e x t . . . T h e o d o r e P r e s s e r r e p r i n t e d this v e r s i o n
in the 1 9 4 0 's.
G a r c i a ' s T r e a t i s e on the A r t of S i n g i n g , ed. A l b e r t Garcia.

London: L e o n a r d a nd Company, 1924.
Th i s is e s s e n t i a l l y a t r a n s l a t i o n o f the 1856 v e r
sion. T h e e d i t o r (a g r a n d s o n o f t he author) f u r t h e r
a b r i d g e d the w o r k a nd r e p l a c e d some of the m u s i c a l
ex a m p l e s w i t h those used in the e a r l i e r editions.
The 184 0 e d i t i o n of P a r t I c o n t a i n e d an au t h o r ' s
p r e f a c e w h i c h e x p l a i n e d that the m e t h o d be i n g set f o r t h
was essentially t h a t of his father, the r e p o r t to the
F r e n c h A c a d e m y of Sc i e n c e s on Ga r c i a ' s M é m o i r e , a b r i e f
d e s c r i p t i o n of the v o c a l organs, and an e x t r a c t fr o m the
Mémoire itself P a r t I was d e s i g n e d to p r o v i d e the means
by w h i c h a v o c a l i n s t r u m e n t c o u l d be d e v e l o p e d for the p e r
forma n c e of m u s i c of G a r c i a ' s day.'^^ ^ h e w o r k p r e s e n t s an
interesting union of physiological e x p l a n a t i o n s and t r a d i
t ional tech n i c a l e mphases, w i t h m a n y v o c a l i s e s d e s i g n e d for
spec i f i c p u r p o s e s . Ga r c i a was o b v i o u s l y see k i n g a j u s t i f i c a
tion in c u r r e n t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h f or tradi t i o n a l teaching.
His s tated i n t e n t i o n w a s "to re p r o d u c e fhisj fathe r ' s method,
a t t e m p t i n g o n l y to give it a m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l fo r m to
co n n e c t r e s u l t s w i t h causes.
^^Garcia, A Co m p l e t e T reatise, P a r t II, ed. Paschke,

260-261.
^^Garcia, A Complete Treatise (excerpts), xviii.

47,
Garcia, A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , P a r t II, ed. Paschke,
Taylor, 57.
24
P a r t II, a p p e a r i n g first in 1847, was i n t e n d e d as a
m a n u a l o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p e r f o r m a n c e pract i c e . Thereby,
it wa s an a p p l i c a t i o n of the t e c h n i c a l a p p r o a c h e s e m b odied
in P art I. As such, it was an important, detailed treat
m e n t of p e r f o r m a n c e practice, p a r t i c u l a r l y for the mu s i c of
Ci m arosa, Mozart, Rossini, D o n i z e t t i and Bellini. In a d d i
t i o n to his conc e r n w i t h the tec h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of voices,
Garcia was also p a r t i c u l a r a bout c a r e f u l s t y l i s t i c p e r f o r m
ance."^^ Exa m p l e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s p e c i f i c p a s sages
f r o m the w o r k s of the above co m p o s e r s are a b u n d a n t in Part
II. G a r c i a ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i v e con c e r n s e m b r a c e cadenzas,
ornaments, tempo, ph r a s i n g , and v oice q u a l i t i e s u s e d for
c o m m u n i c a t i o n of s p e c i f i c emotions. B oth Part I and Part
II w e r e d e s t i n e d to u n d e r g o some d e g r e e of m o d i f i c a t i o n as
a r e s u l t of G arcia's e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h the l a r y n goscope.
Gar c i a ' s n e x t publica t i o n , " O b s e r v a t i o n s on the
Hu m a n V o i c e , " (1855), w h i c h a n n o u n c e d his stu d i e s w i t h the
la r y n g o s c o p e , w a s a r e l a t i v e l y o b j e c t i v e study in spite of
his b o y i s h e x c i t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g the event.
One S e p t e m b e r day, in 1854, I w a s s t r o l l i n g in

the Palais Royal, p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the ev e r -
r e c u r r i n g w i s h so o f t e n r e p r e s s e d as u n r e a l i z
able, w h e n s u d d e n l y I saw the two m i r r o r s o f the
l a r y n g o s c o p e in t heir r e s p e c t i v e posi t i o n s , as if
a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t b e f o r e my eyes. I went straight
to Charriere, the s u r g i c a l - i n s t r u m e n t maker, a nd
asking if he h a p p e n e d to p o s s e s s a small m i r r o r
w i t h a long handle, w a s i n f o r m e d that he h a d a
little den t i s t ' s mirror, w h i c h h a d b e e n o n e o f the
failures of the Lo n d o n e x h i b i t i o n o f 1851. I
b o u g h t it for six francs. H a v i n g o b t a i n e d also a
h and mirror, I r e t u r n e d hom e at once, v e r y i m p a
tient to b e g i n my e xperiments. I placed against
the uvula the little m i r r o r (which I ha d h e a t e d in
w a r m w a t e r and ca r e f u l l y d r i e d ) ; then, fla s h i n g
upo n the sur f a c e w i t h a h and m i r r o r a ra y o f sun
light, I sa w at once, to m y g r e a t joy, the g lottis
op e n b e fore me, and so fully exposed, t hat I cou l d
pe r c e i v e a p o r t i o n of the trachea. When my excite
m e n t had s o m e w h a t subsided, I b e g a n to e x a m i n e
w h a t was p a s s i n g be f o r e m y eyes. The m a n n e r in
wh i c h the g l o t t i s silen t l y o p e n e d a n d shut, and
m o v e d in the act of p h o n a t i o n f i l l e d me w i t h
wonder.
G a r cia's "Observations on the H u m a n V o i c e , " w a s ba s e d
on his s tudy o f his o w n l arynx a n d t h a t o f o t h e r s d u r i n g
op e n i n g and cl o s i n g of the glo t t i s t o g e t h e r w i t h the m o v e
m e n t s of s pecific cartilages, l i g a ments, and m u s c l e fibers
in the pro c e s s of v oice r e gistration. In the " O b s ervations"
G a r c i a m ade an u n p r e c e d e n t e d a p p l i c a t i o n of the t h e o r y of
s o u n d p r o d u c t i o n of reeds to the h u m a n voc a l i n s t rument.
He th e o r i z e d h u m a n v oice p r o d u c t i o n to take p l a c e "by the
c o m p r e s s i o n s an d reg u l a r e x p l o s i o n s of the air, or the s u c
c e s s i v e and r e g u l a r e x p l osions w h i c h it p r o d u c e s in p a s s i n g
t h r o u g h the g l o t t i s . In 1862 H e r m a n n H e l m h o l t z was d e s
t i n e d to conc u r in a d e s c r i p t i o n of the voi c e in his chap t e r
o n ree d pipes:
^°St. Cl
s cope," L a r y n g o s c o p e 15 (1905), 181; c i t e d by Woglom, 89.
^^Manuel Garcia, "Obs e r v a t i o n s o n the H u m a n V o i c e , "

P r o c e e d i n g s of the Royal Soci e t y o f London, 8 , 13 (1855),
399-410.
^^Garcia, " Obse rvations," 404.
W h e n the voi c e is heard, the v o c a l c o r d s act as
m e m b r a n o u s tongues, a n d like all t o n g u e s p r o d u c e a
seri e s of d e c i d e d l y d i s c o n t i n u o u s and s h a r p l y s e p a
ra t e d p ulses of air, w h i c h on b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d as
a s um of simple v i b r a t i o n s , m u s t c o n s i s t of a ver y
large nu m b e r of them, a n d hen c e be r e c e i v e d by the
e a r as a v e r y long se r i e s of p a r t i a l s b e l o n g i n g to
a c o m p o u n d m u s i c a l t o n e . 53
Garcia, however, a p p e a r e d to h a v e b e e n m o r e t aken
w i t h p h y s i o l o g y than a c o u stics. The r e m a i n d e r of the
" O b s e r v a t i o n s " c o n s i s t e d of p l a u s i b l e c o n j e c t u r e s c o n c e r n
ing the for m a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t r e g i s t e r s b a s e d m a i n l y on
his d issections, observations, and s e n s a t i o n s w h i l e s i n g
ing. T hese r e marks w e r e an a t t e m p t to a s s i g n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for the va r i e t i e s in g l o t t a l size a n d a p p e a r a n c e to speci f i c
laryngeal m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t s . T h e last t o p i c in the
" O b s e r v a t i o n s " c o n c e r n e d a i r p r e s s u r e an d its effe c t s on
p h o n a t i o n . This c o n c e r n w i t h the a c t i o n o f the glot t a l
lips in singing e v e n t u a l l y g a v e b i r t h to G a r c i a ' s t e a c h i n g
emp h a s i s on e f f i c i e n t phon a t i o n , e m b o d i e d in the c o n c e p t
of the coup de g l o t t e .
The 1856 e d i t i o n of P a r t I, following soo n a f t e r the
" O b s e r v a t i o n s ," was a b r i d g e d b o t h in a p p r o a c h an d detail.
In spite of his e n t h u s i a s m for his r e c e n t disco v e r i e s ,
Ga r c i a appa r e n t l y w i s h e d to k e e p his Tr a i t e o n the level of
Ph y s i ological B asis for the Th e o r y o f M u s i c (1862); r e p r i n t

of 1877 ed. (New York: D o v e r P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1954), 103.
55,
■"Ibid., 409.
^^See p. 31 of this study.
27
the a v e r a g e re a d e r . Physiological material in the la t e r
edition was m ore e l e m e n t a r y and m o r e conc i s e . S p e c i fically,
the d e s c r i p t i o n s of the lungs and t r a c h e a in the e a r l i e r
edition were omitted, l eaving a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n of th e i r
function. T h e c a r t i l a g e s of the l a r y n x w e r e n o t m e n t i o n e d
a nd o n l y a d e s c r i p t i o n of function at the g l o t t i s e s s e n -
remained.^^
Sections of the Traite w h i c h s h o w e d the m o s t o b v i o u s
influence .of the "Observations" w e r e t h o s e d e v o t e d to f o r
mation of sound at the glottis, registration, a nd f o r m a t i o n
of timbres. These s e c tions were e l u c i d a t e d b y d i s t i n c t
references to g l o t t a l m o v e m e n t s q u i t e o b v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d
d u r i n g the a u t h o r ' s use of the l a r y n g o s c o p e w h i l e singing.
By c o m p a r i s o n , similar descriptions in t he e a r l i e r M é m o i r e
and f i r s t e d i t i o n of the TraitI w e r e restricted by neces
sity to e x t e r i o r laryngeal movements which accompany p h o n a
tion a nd s i n g i n g o f a s c e n d i n g and d e s c e n d i n g p a s s a g e s .
A l t h o u g h t he t h r u s t of Pa r t II w as style a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
practice, i n d i c a t i o n s of Garcia's teaching procedures are
ev i d e n t in t he work. A c o m p a r i s o n o f the 1872 e d i t i o n w i t h
that of 1847 reveals the influence of the "O b s e r v a t i o n s . "
S u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n s w i l l treat t h e s e a r e a s of c o ntrast.
H e r m a n n Klein, w h o e d ited G a r c i a ' s la s t p u b l i c a t i o n ,
57
M a n u e l G arcia , The A r t of S i n ging, P a r t I. Boston:
O l i v e r D i t s o n Co., (1856?), n . d . , 5-7.
58ibid., 7.
^ ^ G arcia, A C o m p l e t e T r e atise (excerpts), xxxviii-xli.
28
H in t s on S i n g i n g , d i s l i k e d his t e a cher's c h o i c e of titles.
Garcia's s e l e c t i o n of w o r d s seemed to d e s i g n a t e a m uch more
c o n c i s e v e r s i o n of his m e t h o d than w a s a c t u a l l y the case.
Hi n t s on S i n g i n g , p u b l i s h e d w h e n Ga r c i a w a s ninety, sligh t l y
r e v i s e d some of his t e a c h i n g prin c i p l e s in lig h t of his long
The c o n t e n t s of this v o l u m e c onsists o f a gr e a t deal

m ore than m ere 'hints.' Apa r t from b e i n g his last
w o r d on the subject, t h e y e m b o d y all the p r o f o u n d
knowledge, the p e n e t r a t i n g o b s ervation, the rich
experience, the l o g i c a l d e d u c t i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n s
of t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of a c e n t u r y o f acti v e d e v o t i o n
to the stu d y and p r a c t i c e of v o c a l sc i e n c e . ® ^
Garcia's preface to the w o r k st a t e d his d e sire to
b r i n g his A r t of S i n g i n g up to date w i t h the c u m u l a t i o n of
y e a r s of r e s e a r c h and e x p e rience. He took a p p r o p r i a t e pride
in his d i s c o v e r y of the laryngoscope, bu t s t a t e d that its
use and a k n o w l e d g e of a n a t o m y and p h y s i o l o g y m a y be of
m o r e value to teac h e r t h a n p u p i l . A fu r t h e r p a r a g r a p h
did m o r e than lament t he c u r r e n t tas t e a nd "decadence" in
the art of singing. It o f f e r e d i n s i g h t i nto Garci a ' s goals
and a p p r oaches :
I have also a d d e d s e veral e x e r c i s e s to give the
His Times (Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1908; r e p r i n t ed.. New

York: Da Capo Press, 1976), 259.
^^Manuel Garcia, H ints on S i n g i n g ed. H e r m a n n Klein

(New York: E. A s c h e r b e r g a nd Co., 1894). A l t h o u g h several
r e ferences give 1894 as the d ate of this work, Kle i n s tated
in its pref a c e that the w o r k ha d b e e n b e f o r e the p u b l i c for
s eventeen years. See p. ii.
■Îbid., iii.
p u p i l the o p p o r t u n i t y of a p p lying the p r e c e p t s set
forth. At the p r e s e n t da y the a c q u i r e m e n t of f l e x i
bility is n o t in g r e a t esteem, and w e r e it not, p e r
haps, for the v e n e r a b l e Handel, d e c l a m a t o r y m usic
w o u l d re i g n alone. This is to be r e gretted, for n o t
o n l y m u s t the art suffer, bu t also the y o u n g fresh
voices, to w h i c h the b r i l l i a n t f lorid style is the
m o s t congenial; the h a r d e r and m o r e s e t t l e d organs
b e i n g b e s t suit e d for decl a m a t i o n . ® ^
H i n t s on S i n g i n g , un l i k e Garci a ' s o t h e r publ i c a t i o n s ,
a d o p t e d a q u e s t i o n - a n d - a n s w e r approach, "en d e a v o r i n g to f o r e
see the d i f f i c u l t i e s l i k e l y to o ccur to an e a r n e s t s t u
dent.
P a r t I of H ints c o n s i s t e d of a n a t o m i c a l drawings,
de s c r i p t i o n s of function, and dis c u s s i o n s of m a t t e r s of
vocal technique; regi s t r a t i o n , voice qualit i e s , attack,
b reat h i n g , and e x e r c i s e s to a c c o m p l i s h t hese ends. Par t II
w a s d e v o t e d to ar t i c u l a t i o n , p hrasing, expre s s i o n , and the
various styles of singing.
A C a t e g o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n of Gar c i a ' s Tea c h i n g
D i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n hav e long e x i s t e d c o n c e r n i n g
G a r c i a ' s p o s i t i o n in the h i s t o r y of v oice teaching. David
C. Taylor, w r i t i n g in 1915, and A r n o l d Rose, in 1962,
d e c l a r e d G a r c i a to be an i n i t i a t o r of a n e w o b j e c t i v e m e t h o d
or a "scientific s c h o o l ."®® On the o t h e r hand, Charles Lunn,
w r i t i n g in 1900, a n d R o b e r t Donington, as late as 1974,
®"Îbid., iv.
^^Garcia, Hi n t s o n S i n g i n g , iv.
Taylor, 57-58; A r n o l d Rose, The S i n g e r an d the

Voice (London: F a b e r and Faber, 1962), 28-29.
30
r e g a r d e d G a r c i a to be the last t e a c h e r o f t he bel c a n t o
line.Donington f u rther d e c l a r e d G a r c i a ' s pup i l M a t h i l d e
M a r c h e s i to be "the b e g i n n i n g of the e n d . T h e inevitable
c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n b y w r i t e r s of the l a t t e r p e r s u a s i o n was
t ha t a m a j o r factor in G a r c i a ' s s u ccess w a s his r e l i a n c e
upon the bel c a n t o m e t h o d g i v e n h i m b y his father. A com''
p a r i s o n of th e two s c i e ntific works, the M é m o i r e an d the
" O b s e r v a t i o n s ," w i t h Par t s I a n d II o f the T r a i t e a n d Hints
on S i n g i n g r e v e a l s t hose t e a c h i n g a reas w h i c h w e r e m o s t
i n f l u e n c e d b y his s c ientific re s e a r c h . The dominant influ
ences on o t h e r p e d a g o g i c a l a reas m a y be r e l e g a t e d to a n o t h e r
source, p o s s i b l y the bel c a n t o tradition.
Th r e e areas of int e r e s t ar e d o m i n a n t in the t w o s c i
e n t i f i c w orks, the M é m o i r e and " O b s e r v a t i o n s ," a n d t h e i r
influ e n c e o n G a r c i a ' s p e d a g o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s is evident.
T h e s e are the coup de g l o t t e , re g i s t r a t i o n , and voice qual
ities. In e a c h of the s e three a r e a s he w a s i m p r e s s e d w i t h
the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a of h i s research, a nd u s e d this m a t e r i a l
in his p e d a g o g i c a l w r i t i n g s to j u s t i f y t h e o r i e s a n d p r o c e
dures. All thr e e are a s can be t r a c e d t h r o u g h his p u b l i c a
tions.
^^Lunn, 174-77; Ro b e r t D o n i n g t o n , A P e r f o r m e r ' s Guide

to B a r o q u e M u s i c (London: F a b e r a n d Faber, 1974), 60-62.
The c o u p de gl o t t e
A l t h o u g h c o n c e p t s o f effi c i e n t , well-coordinated
a t t a c k o r p h o n a t i o n h ad lo n g b e e n a p a r t of s i n g i n g p e d a
gogy, G a r c i a ' s termi n o l o g y , if n o t his e n t i r e a p p r o a c h
w e r e u n i que.
p r o d u c t of h is f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h the a c t i o n of t he v o c a l
organs in the c r e a t i o n of h u m a n sound. T he d e s c r i p t i o n
in t h e 1 847 T r a i t e , Part I, is p è r h a p s t he m o s t c o mplete:
. . . t he l o w e r j a w s h o u l d be a l l o w e d to fall by
i ts o w n weight, w h i l e the c o r n e r s of t h e li p s r e
tire slightly . . . The tongue should be loose
a n d m o t i o n l e s s , w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t to r a i s e it
at e i t h e r e x t r emity; t h e m u s c l e s o f t he t h r o a t
sh o u l d be r e l a x e d . . . T h e p u p i l b e i n g t h u s
p r e p a r e d , sho u l d d r a w in b r e a t h slowly, a n d then
p r o d u c e t h e sounds b y a neat, r e s o l u t e a r t i c u l a
t i o n or str o k e o f t he g l o ttis, u p o n t h e b r o a d
I t a l i a n v o w e l A ( a ) . If t h i s m o v e m e n t be p r o p e r l y
ex e c u t e d , t h e s o und w i l l c o m e o u t b r i g h t a n d
r o u n d . . . The g l o t t i s is p r e p a r e d f or a r t i c u l a
ti o n by c l o s i n g it, w h i c h c a u s e s m o m e n t a r y a c c u m u
l a t i o n of a i r below; a n d it is th e n o p e n e d b y a
su d d e n a nd v i g o r o u s stroke, s i m i l a r t o t h e a c t i o n
o f the lips w h e n s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z i n g t he l e t t e r P.
(A r t o f Singing, P a r t I , 11.)'^
Eight years later G a r c i a f o u n d c o n f i r m a t i o n of his
t h e o r y of g l o t t a l a t t a c k in his l a r y n g o s c o p i c o b s e r v a t i o n s .
^ ^ R i c h a r d Mill e r , E n g l i s h , F r e n c h , G e r m a n a n d I t a l
ian T e c h n i q u e s o f Singing: A S t u d y in N a t i o n a l T o n a l P r e - '
f e r e n c e s a nd H o w T h e y R e l a t e to F u n c t i o n a l E f f i c i e n c y (Me-
tuchen, N e w Jersey; S c a r e c r o w P ress, 1977), 1-6.
^ % e r e a f t e r , r e f e r e n c e s to all m a t e r i a l a p p e a r i n g in
p e d a g o g i c a l s e c t i o n s of th i s w o r k w i l l be c i t e d in t wo ways.
M a t e r i a l d r a w n direct-ly f r o m w r i t i n g s a nd m e t h o d s o f t he
p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h e r w i l l be c i t e d in p a r e n t h e s e s in t he text.
M a t e r i a l d r a w n f r o m all o t h e r t y p e s of p u b l i c a t i o n s for
c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s a nd a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be
c i t e d in footnotes.
32
In a d i s c u s s i o n of a ir p r e s s u r e in the "Observations y"
he stated:
The i n t e n s i t y of the s o u n d c a n o n l y d e p e n d on
t h e q u a n t i t y of a ir w h i c h goes to e a c h sharp
ex plosion. I s a y s h arp e x plosion, as an e x p ress
co ndition: the g l o t t i s sho u l d c l o s e i t s e l f p e r
f e c t l y after e v e r y vi b r a t i o n ; for if the air found
a c o n s t a n t pass a g e , as in the n o t e s o f falsetto,
t h e n the g r e a t e s t m o v e m e n t s of t he glottis, a n d
t h e g r e a t e s t w a s t e of air, w o u l d p r o d u c e p r e c i s e l y
t h e w e a k e s t notes. ( " O bservations," 409.)
C o n t r o v e r s y c o n c e r n i n g t h e cou p de g l o t t e a b o u n d e d
d u r i n g t h e lat t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. The
m o s t v o c a l o p p o n e n t s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y P a r i s teachers, chief
a m o n g t h e m b e i n g the b a r i t o n e V i c t o r Maurel. In 1892
M a u r e l a t t a c k e d the c o n c e p t in le c t u r e sess i o n s and n e w s
papers. W h i l e K l ein d i d n o t d e f e n d t he co u p de g l o t t e
in d e t a i l e d terms, he b e l i e v e d t h a t M a u r e l a t t a c k e d the
c o n c e p t f r o m a v i e w p o i n t of m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and m i s d i r e c t i o n ,
a nd e x a g g e r a t e d its u s e in singing.
T wo ye a r s later in H i n t s o n S i n g i n g , t he s e c t i o n on
g l o t t a l a t t a c k w a s e n l a r g e d to fu r t h e r su p p o r t the c o u p de
glotte. G a r c i a h ere d e f i n e d it as b e i n g s i m i l a r to a cough,
b u t e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t b e c a u s e it o n l y r e q u i r e s " delic ate
^ ^ H e r m a n n Klein, T h i r t y Y e a r s of M u s i c a l Li f e in
London (New York: The C e n t u r y Co., 1903), 370-371.
33
ac t i o n of the lips and n o t the i m p u l s e of a i r . ( H i n t s ,
13.) G a r c i a furt h e r sug g e s t e d tr y i n g the stroke w i t h the
m o u t h s hut in o r d e r to sense the "lightness of the m o v ement.
(H i n t s , 13-14.) W hile G a r c i a s u g g e s t e d the i m p o r t a n c e of
ph y s i c a l f e e l i n g in sensing the stroke, his pup i l Klein,
in a t t e m p t i n g to e x plain the st r o k e in a c c e p t a b l e terms,
a p p e a r e d to c o n t r a d i c t by a d d i n g t hat t h e r e sh o u l d be o n l y
"mental c o g n i z a n c e , not an ac t u a l p h y s i c a l sensation."
(H i n t s , 13.) N e i t h e r should it be felt in the throat, nor
s hould the c o u g h anal o g y be t a k e n b e y o n d its us e as an aid
"in l o c a t i n g the p o s i t i o n an d r e a l i s i n g the f u n c t i o n s of
the gl o t t i c lips." (H i n t s , 13.) Throughout both Part I
and Hints o c c a s i o n a l r e m i n d e r s o c c u r tha t the c o u p de
gl o t t e is a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
ot h e r ar e a s of sin g i n g technique.
Registration
Garcia's inter e s t in t he t onal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
va r i o u s v o i c e regi s t e r s wa s no t unpr e c e d e n t e d . O n e of the
G a r c i a m a y be a p p l y i n g the ter m cou p de gl o t t e

h e r e to w h a t is c u r r e n t l y k n o w n as the s oft attack. In
an e f fort to e x p l a i n himself, G a r c i a a c t u a l l y u s e d an i n
acc u r a t e ratio n a l i z a t i o n . In c u r r e n t terms, "cough"
ca n n o t r e f e r to the same a c t i o n as "delicate a c t i o n of t h e
lips and n o t the impulse of a ir," since a c o u g h is a h a r d
a t t a c k r e q u i r i n g an e x treme d e g r e e o f e x p l o s i o n o f the
v o c a l folds. See Zemlin, 114-115, and R i c h a r d L u c h s i n g e r
and G o d f r e y E. Arnold, V o i c e - S p e e c h - L a n g u a g e . Clinical
C o m m u n i c o l o g y ; Its P h y s i o l o g y a n d P a t h o l o g y (Belmont,
C alifo r n i a : W a d s w o r t h Co., Inc., 1965), 85-86.
34
f i r s t refereîïnces to this p h e n o m e n o n o c c u r r e d in 1200 ,
when Jerome :of M o r a v i a urged singers n o t to int e r m i n g l e
" d i f f e r e n t I d i n d s of v o i c e s . . . w h e t h e r it be che s t
w i t h hea d orr t h r o a t w i t h h e a d . T h e tea c h e r s of the
b e l c anto p e s r i o d in p a r t i c u l a r spent a gr e a t am o u n t of
t ime teachin:g stude n t s to b l e n d v a r i o u s are a s of t heir
v o i c e s an d tro use the d i f f e r e n t r e g i s t e r s w i t h taste.
In tkiS M é m o i r e , G arcia d e l i n e a t e d thr e e registers,
chest, falserkto-head, and c ontra-bass. He t r e a t e d chest
an d f a l s e t t c ^ h e a d in detail, n o t i n g t h a t w i t h i n the range
g to d^ for all voice classifications either register
m a y be used. (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxvi.)
The c hest w i c e a lone pro c e e d s b e l o w thi s compass, and
the falsettc-head alo n e lies abo v e it. The q u a l i t y of
the c hest voice in w o m e n was n o t e d to be p e n e t r a t i n g and
^^William J a m e s Henderson, E a r l y H i s t o r y of S i n g i n g
(London: Lccgmans, G r e e n and Co., 1921), 28-29.
74 Drsy, 112-125.
35
b r i l l i a n t w i t h a c o mpass w h i c h m a y in c l u d e the int e r v a l
of a 13th;
bu t n o r m a l l y shou l d be m u c h m o r e r e s tricted:
W i t h men, Ga r c i a found the chest to be loud, round, and
cl e a r a n d to enco m p a s s two octaves. W h e n t h e c h e s t no t e s
p o s s i b l e in m a l e voices are c o m b i n e d in a s i n g l e compass,
the f o l l o w i n g is the result: (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxx.)
A p p a r e n t l y the t e r m f a l s e t t o - h e a d w a s in u s e by
si n g e r s and teachers b e f o r e Garcia. A c c o r d i n g to a f o o t
n o t e in the M é m o i r e , G a rcia t o l e r a t e d the t e r m in in
t r o d u c t o r y m a t e r i a l but lat e r f ound it p r o b l e m a t i c a l .
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxv.) He s u b s e q u e n t l y sp l i t the
d e s i g n a t i o n and, curiously, use d fal s e t t o t o d e s i g n a t e
the f o l l o w i n g c o m p a s s in f e male voices: (A C o m p l e t e
T r e a t i s e , xxxi.)
A c c o r d i n g to H e r m a n Klein, t he f a l s e t t o was an a r c h a i c
t e r m for the m e d i u m r e g i s t e r o f the f e m a l e voice. It
w a s used in this w a y b y G a r c i a and h i s contemporaries
"because its m e c h a n i s m c o r r e s p o n d s to t h a t of the acu t e
fals e t t o sounds w h i c h the m a l e v o i c e is ca p a b l e of p r o
duc t i n g . " (H i n t s , 8 .) G a r c i a d e s i g n a t e d the q u a l i t i e s
of the fal s e t t o in b o t h m e n a nd w o m e n as be i n g weak,
covered, s i m i l a r to the l o w ton e s of the flute a nd o f
simi l a r compass: (A C o m p l e t e Tr e a t i s e , xxxi.)
Gar c i a r e s e r v e d t he t e r m h e a d v o i c e for that
d i s t i n c t i v e and b r i l l i a n t p a r t of the w o m a n ' s v o i c e
e ncompassing:
37
and a m u c h s m a l l e r range in men. He found tha t m e n
g e n e r a l l y lose the head v o i c e d u r i n g the v o i c e change,
a lt h o u g h a f e w m a y retain the f i r s t m a j o r third. Ga r c i a
used the f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m to s u m m a r i l y d e s i g n a t e r e g i s t e r
extents: (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxxii.)
ne/j’
f t/iices chest
1 1
■fa^S etto
UMeM’
s ,/0ices ,--b£±i---
che^T
G a r c i a the n left the s u b j e c t of r e g i s t r a t i o n to
explain two r a t h e r u n usual typ e s of p roduction. His
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the c o n t r a - b a s s r e g i s t e r as u s e d b y the
Russian b a s s o p r o f u n d o s m a y w e l l be that type of p r o d u c
tion c a l l e d t o d a y the vocal fry. His d e s c r i p t i o n a nd
that of c u r r e n t v o i c e s c i e n t i s t s are c o m p a r a b l e . (A
Complete T r e a t i s e , xxxiii.) The o t h e r type of p r o d u c
tion c o n c e r n e d i n s p i r a t o r y voice, or p h o n a t i o n as ai r is
inhaled into lungs. (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxxiv.)
G a r c i a c l o s e d the s e c t i o n on r e g i s t r a t i o n w i t h a
st a tement w h i c h implied, if n o t hi s o n g o i n g intention,
at lea s t hi s c u r i o s i t y in the p h y s i o l o g y of vo c a l r e g i s
tration:
found in Zemlin, 197-198.
A c c o r d i n g to the physio l o g i s t s , t he sounds are
p r o d u c e d w h e n the air c o n t a i n e d in the lungs exits,
by the r e s u l t of its ac t i o n on the lo w e r ligam e n t s
of th e glottis. T h e re d u c t i o n of the v e ntricles,
the r e d u c t i o n of t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e l a r y n x and
the t e n s i o n of the w a l l s of the voc a l tub e adapt
t h e m s e l v e s to the c o n t r a c t i o n and p r o g r e s s i v e
t e n s i o n of the vo c a l ligaments. U n t i l the present,
o n l y the p r o d u c t i o n of the chest r e g i s t e r has bee n
e x p l a i n e d b y these p rinciples. T he f a l s e t t o - h e a d
r e g i s t e r ha s been t r e a t e d o n l y imperfe c t l y ; that
of t h e c o n t r a - b a s s has not been studied. (A
C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxxv.)
T h e n e x t m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t in G a r c i a ' s th e o r y of
r e g i s t r a t i o n w a s e m b o d i e d in the "Observations.” Here he
was c o n c e r n e d w i t h the s p e c i f i c m e c h a n i s m of eac h reg i s t e r
as o b s e r v e d w i t h the laryngoscope, or b y d i ssection.
He o b s e r v e d that the c hest r e g i s t e r w a s p r o d u c e d by
a c o m p l e t e l y c l o s e d glottis, in c l u d i n g the i n t e r c a r t i l a g i -
n ous portion. He found that the lateral c r i c o a r y t e n o i d
m u s c l e s b r i n g the voc a l p r o c e s s e s into d e e p c o n t a c t and
t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e the r e s i s t a n c e of the g l o t t i s to the air
pressure:
It is to the ex t e n t of this r e s i s t a n c e that we

a t t r i b u t e th e fo r m a t i o n of the c h e s t - r e g i s t e r , so
d i s t i n c t b y its p a r t i c u l a r amplitude. To it we
a t t r i b u t e a l s o the slown e s s of the b e a t s of the
glottis, a n d the c o n s e q u e n t low p i t c h of the sounds,
a p i t c h w h ich, eve n in the h i g h e s t t e n o r voices, is
at l east an oc t a v e lo w e r t han the h e a d n o t e s of
o r d i n a r y soprani. ("Observations," 408.)
T h e f a l s e t t o wa s a l s o f ound to be p r o d u c e d w i t h a
cl o s e d g l o t t i s , bu t w i t h the ext e r n a l f i b e r s of the lateral
c r i c o a r y t e n o i d m u s c l e s r e m a i n i n g inactive. D ue to ac t i o n
of the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d s , the g l o t t a l lips m a k e c o n t a c t onl y
39
b y their e dges a nd o f f e r little air resist a n c e . H erein
l ies the r e a s o n for the w e a kness or "veiled" q u a l i t y of
t h e s e sounds w h i c h G a r c i a reported in the M ^ o i r e .
In the e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h he c o n d u c t e d for the
"O b s ervations" w h i l e u s i n g his o w n voice, G a r c i a found
the mal e h e a d v o i c e to begin a round c^, w h e r e the
glot t i s be g i n s to v i b r a t e exclus i v e l y by t h e ligaments.
T he c r i c o t h y r o i d m u s c l e exerts i ncreased t e n s i o n on the
v o c a l l i g a m e n t s a n d an acc e l e r a t i o n of t h e i r m o v e m e n t
takes p l a c e . ( " O b s e r v a t i o n s , " 408-409.)
T h e b u l k of the "Observations" was d e v o t e d to an
a naly s i s of ch e s t a n d f alsetto production. Differences
b e t w e e n the two r e g i s t e r s wer e found in g l o t t a l le n g t h
and efficiency. G a r c i a o b s erved the g l o t t i s in f a l setto
to be longer tha n t h e c h e s t for the same p i t c h , loos e r
w i t h re s u l t a n t air-waste, and its e l l iptic s u r f a c e to be
greater.("Observations," 403-405.)
to the p h y s i o l o g y c u r r e n t l y a s sociated w i t h f a l s e t t o p r o
duction. It has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d that the c r i c o t h y r o i d
m u s c l e be a r s the chi e f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for f a l s e t t o p r o
duction. See L u c h s i n g e r an d Arnold, 75.
description. In a s t u d y of the i ntrinsic l a r y n g e a l m u s

cles, it was found that, in s h ifting fro m h i g h c h e s t
v o i c e to lo w falsetto, a g e n e r a l i z e d r e l a x a t i o n o f all
laryngeal m u s c l e s ta k e s place. A s p i t c h is i n c r e a s e d in
falsetto, however, g r e a t e r overall m u s c l e a c t i v i t y takes
place. See T h o m a s G a y et al., " E l e c t r o m y o g r a p h y of the
Intrinsic L a r y n g e a l M u s c l e s Du r i n g P h o n a t i o n , " A n n a l s of
Otology, P h inology, a n d L a r y n g o l o g y , 81 (1972), 406.
In the 1856 A r t o f S i n g i n g G a r c i a d r e w upo n the
Mémoire for i n t r o d u c t o r y m a t e r i a l on r e g i s t r a t i o n an d
the " O bservations" for e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e i r p h y s i o l o g i c a l
cause. Garci a ' s d e v e l o p e d t a b l e of r e g i s t e r ra n g e s for
each voice classification is f ound in F i g u r e 1 of this
w o r k as it a p p e a r e d in t h e A r t of S i n g i n g .
Some n e w m a t e r i a l on gl o t t a l a c t i o n in u p p e r
n o t e s app e a r e d in the A r t of Si n g i n g for the fir s t time;
It s o m etimes h a p p e n s , tha t whe n the female

s o prano v oice a t t e m p t s to sound the n otes 3 1 4
and d o 5 [h^ and c^ 'J, it u n c o n s c i o u s l y ris e s to
r e 5 an d mig £ d ^ a n d J , in a t hin but p u r e t o n e ,
and w i t h less e f f o r t t han w o u l d be r e q u i r e d for
t r y i n g the n o t e s belo w . (A r t of S i n g i n g ) , 6 .)
Garcia's e x p l a n a t i o n o f t he m e c h a n i s m for this p h o n o m e n o n
is c o m p a r a b l e to tha t w h i c h p h y s i o l o g i s t s c u r r e n t l y d e s
c r i b e as "damping" the g lottis. The p o s t e r i o r p o r t i o n s
of th e voc a l folds are f i r m l y appro x i m a t e d , leaving a
small chink t h r o u g h w h i c h the air escapes. Current laryn
g o s c o p y has shown us t h a t in m a l e s the small a p e r t u r e v i
b r a t e s at a hig h rat e of speed, p r o d u c i n g w h a t is t o d a y
c a l l e d the falsetto. In females, however, no v i b r a t i o n
o c c u r s at the chink. Rath e r , the h i g h p i t c h is c r e a t e d
b y the es c a p e of a i r b e t w e e n th e folds, hen c e the t e r m
"whistle" r e g i s t e r for t h i s m e c h a n i s m . G a r c i a , limited
at the t ime by c r u d e i n s t r u m e n t s , c l a i m e d v i b r a t i o n s at
th e c hink for b o t h m a l e s a n d females.
78zemlin, 195-196.
TaUe o f Scczlet fo r the differaU tnJlivcUed Voicet.
Taisciu). Hea
(Basae-Taille.) .
\îrauina. , t
(Haota-Cootra. )}?ig ^
FaUeoo. Head.
F I G U R E 1: GARCIA: R E G I S T E R RA N G E S F O R E A C H V O I C E C L A S S I
F ICATION. F r o m Garcia, A r t of Singing, Par t I , 9.
42
G arcia's c o n c l u s i o n s on t he m e c h a n i s m and u se of
t he upper mal e v o i c e a re less clear. In refer e n c e to the
m a l e head v o ice h e s tated
W i t h men, the he a d sounds e x ist o n l y as a me r e r e m n a n t

of the boy's voice, a nd are at b e s t but a p o o r r e s ource.
The Italian p u b l i c a t t a c h no v a l u e w h a t e v e r to them;
nor can th e y be employed, u n l e s s in exce p t i o n a l c a s e s
b y v e r y h i g h te n o r v o i c e s a n d w h a t are called b u f f i
c a r i c a t i . A ll o t h e r m a l e s ingers do w r o n g to u se
them. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 6.)
His opin i o n of the f a l s e t t o seems e q u a l l y low: "Fals e t t o
n o t e s can be p r o d u c e d w i t h n e a r l y as m u c h fac i l i t y b y b a r i
tones, tenors, and countertenors, as b y female voices; b ut
m a l e singers wi l l d e r i v e l i ttle a d v a n t a g e from t h e i r use . "
(A r t of S i n g i n g , 9.) However, he v a l u e d the f a l s e t t o as a
p r a c t i c e dev i c e and s t a t e d that it "would serve to gi v e
cl e a r n e s s to the h i g h n o t e s of t he bass, and will e n a b l e
te n o r voices to e x t e n d t h e c o m p a s s of t h e i r che s t regis t e r ,
and sing the h i g h not e s in m e z z a v o c e ." (A r t of S i n g i n g , 7.)
Ye a r s later, in H i n t s on S i n g i n g , G a r c i a ' s o p i n i o n s h ad
moderated. He found chest, fa l s e t t o (in Hints it is c a l l e d
the m e d i u m r e g i s t e r ) , a n d hea d to be p r e s e n t in all m a l e
voices. He e v a l u a t e d b o t h h ead a nd falsetto, however, as
re m n a n t s of the b o y's voice. No o p i n i o n was given o n h o w
t h e s e r e g isters s hould be u s e d o t h e r t h a n "the f a l s e t t o in
m e n ' s voices, w h e n go o d e n o u g h to be used, has the sa m e
ex t e n t as in w o m e n ' s . " (H i n t s , 10-11.)
The u n i f i c a t i o n of the v a r i o u s q u a l i t i e s of e a c h
v o i c e reg i s t e r into an i n s t r u m e n t of q u a l i t y c o n s i s t e n t
43
t h r o u g h o u t the scale w a s b a s i c to t he t e a c h i n g of Garcia.
He d e s c r i b e d the female c h e s t r e g i s t e r as b e i n g s t rong and
e ner g e t i c , the f a l setto or m e d i u m as b e i n g w e a k and
" v e i l e d , " and the h e a d as h a v i n g p o w e r and b r illiance.
In m e n he found the c h e s t r e g i s t e r to p r e d o m i n a t e th r o u g h
m o s t o f the range. To Garcia, b l e n d i n g of t he regis t e r s
w a s m u c h m o r e c r i t i c a l in w o m e n ' s voices. (H i n t s , 8-10.)
To a c c o m p l i s h this u n i f i c a t i o n , Gar c i a a d v i s e d
si n gers to be g i n in c h e s t v o i c e a nd use s u s t a i n e d n o t e -
b y - n o t e v o c a l i z a t i o n w i t h t h e c o u p de g l o t t e u n t i l all
n o t e s o f the c h est a nd f a l s e t t o w e r e equ a l in strength.
F or the lower n o tes of t he f e m a l e falsetto, w h i c h were
g e n e r a l l y weak, he r e c o m m e n d e d a t t a c k i n g on t h e cl e a r e r
tones a b ove the t r o u b l e s o m e note, t h e n d e s c e n d i n g to the
lower no t e by a slur. F o r e q u a l i z a t i o n a n d b l e n d i n g of
fa l s e t t o a nd head, he u r g e d t h e u se of "close timbre"
with [a] a nd [b] v o w e l s for the u p p e r notes. T he result
w as an arc h e d pal a t e w h i c h e q u a l i z e d the u p p e r n o tes of
the fal s e t t o w i t h the r o u n d e r q u a l i t i e s of t he lower head.
G a rcia e m p h a s i z e d that h i g h e r p i t c h e s in the v o i c e should
be e x e r c i s e d j u d i c i o u s l y a n d s p a r i n g l y and a l w a y s a p p r o a c h
ed as a par t of a r a p i d v o c a l i z i n g p a t t e r n r a t h e r than by
susta i n e d notes. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 11-12.)
^^This t e r m is a
t imbre." See p. 55.
44
Ga r c i a found the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the c hest v oice
to r e q u i r e o n l y a few days, a f t e r w h i c h co n c e n t r a t i o n on
u n i o n of the ch e s t w i t h th e fal s e t t o co u l d take place.
Th e p r o c e d u r e her e was to sing the foll o w i n g not e s a l t e r
n a t e l y in one regis t e r a n d the n the other:
— ID-WD— ® ^ ---
He u r g e d slow, e n e r g e t i c execut i o n . F o r jo i n i n g f alsetto
an d head, he r e c o m m e n d e d u s e of the ph a r y n g e a l c o n f o r m a
tion for cl o s e d timbre, t h a t is, the a r c h e d soft palate
an d a "tightly p r e ssed" larynx, as in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n
of the I t alian [i] . (A r t of S i n g i n g , 12.) If the chest
r e g i s t e r in w o m e n had b e e n c a r r i e d too h i g h in the scale,
t h e r e b y w e a k e n i n g the falsetto, Garcia r e c o m m e n d e d the
rev e r s e procedure. C a r e f u l l y att a c k e d and sustained
p r a c t i c e of the notes
45
took pla c e unt i l these wer e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d in the f a l
setto register-. L o w e r p i t c h e s w e r e then added. (H i n t s ^
15.)
A lar g e g roup of exe r c i s e s in the A r t o f S i n g i n g and
Hints on S i n g i n g wer e d e v o t e d to p r o g r e s s i v e u n i f i c a t i o n
of the registers. T h e e x e rcises w e r e d e s i g n e d to a chieve
this p u r p o s e in b o t h m a l e and f emale voices, the o n l y
d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g k e y t r a n s p o s i t i o n s as needed. The
first e x e r c i s e s in b o t h wor k s c o n s i s t e d of a l t e r n a t e l y
s inging w i t h ch e s t an d head in the same p i t c h region.
(A r t of S i n g i n g , 15; H i n t s , 21.)
J0- o'p-
The s e w e r e f o l l o w e d by a s c e n d i n g and d e s c e n d i n g slurs
w h i c h i n c l u d e d all d i a t o n i c i n t e r v a l s in the m i d d l e of
the v o c a l range. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 15.)
etc.
etc. etc.
Progressive s c a l e w i s e p a s s a g e s w e r e d e s i g n e d to b u i l d
u n i t y from the low e r n o t e s up.
J J'c.
Subsequent e x e r c i s e s f o l l o w e d t he same des i g n , a d d i n g the
fourth, fifth, sixth, a n d seventh. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 16.)
W i t h the o c t a v e sc a l e a n d b eyond, more rapid e x e r
cises were d e v e l o p e d to a t w o - o c t a v e compass. (A r t of
S i n g i n g , 17.)
U-
The n e x t st e p w a s to n e g o t i a t e a s c e n d i n g a n d d e s c e n d i n g
s lurs in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the scale. (A r t of S i n g i n g ,
18.)
V a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s of s c a lewise p a s s a g e s w e r e followed
b y o r n a m e n t e d s c a l e w i s e passages, a s c e n d i n g a n d desc e n d i n g ,
p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m "exercises of two n o t e s , " (A r t o f S i n g i n g ,
18 .)
to "exe r c i s e s of sixteen n o t e s , "
a n d t h i r t y two notes. (A r t o f S i n g i n g , 26.)
49
The m a r k of a c h i e v e m e n t w a s to be able to sing the
140 e x e r c i s e s in the first se c t i o n o f the A r t of S i n g i n g ,
c o m p r i s i n g all combi n a t i o n s o f scales, i n t e rvallic
p as s a g e s , and slurs, on a ny of the It a l i a n vow e l s at
= 120, "giving eq ual s t r e n g t h and cl e a r n e s s to all the
note s . " (A rt of S i n g i n g , 28.) This t h o r o u g h and p a i n s
taking a p p r o a c h was bas i c to G a r c i a ' s p r o c e d u r e and m a y
w e l l ha v e be e n a fac t o r i n h e r i t e d f r o m t he Italian t r a d i
t ions in w h i c h G a r c i a ' s father w as trained. G a r cia's
sister, Pauline Viardot-Garcia, w a s r e p o r t e d to have u s e d
"the c o l o r a t u r e e x e r c i s e s upo n w h i c h I talian si n g i n g w a s
built, up o n w h i c h G a r c i a tr a i n e d J e n n y Lind, Malibran,
a nd P a u l i n e G a r c i a h e r s e l f . W h i l e n o t all of V i a r d o t -
G a r c i a 's e x e r c i s e s w e r e e x a c t l y the sa m e as t h ose in the
A f t of S i n g i n g , the p r o c e d u r e w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h Garcia's.
T he scale w as bu i l t f r o m the b o t t o m up b y p r o g r e s s i v e l y
a d d i n g notes. Various combinations of intervallic passages
w e r e f o l l o w e d b y o c t a v e slurs c o m b i n e d w i t h d e s c e n d i n g
scales.
W h i l e Garc i a ' s last p u b l i c a t i o n . Hints on S i n g i n g ,
did n o t d e v o t e as m u c h space to d e t a i l e d v o c a l i s e s as the
V i a r d o t - G a r c i a , " The M u s i c of the M o d e r n W o r l d 2 (New York:

D. A p p l e t o n a nd Co., 1895), 208.
^ I b i d ., 209.
A r t , its p r o c e d u r e was cons i s t e n t w i t h tho s e of t h e A r t
and of V i a r d o t - G a r c i a . The onl y d i f f e r e n c e w a s tha t
re g i s t e r a n d s cale e x e r c i s e s in Hints w e r e all p l a c e d
w i t h i n the o c t a v e or ninth, w hile those in the A r t some
times e n c o m p a s s e d two o c t a v e s and stres s e d m o r e w o r k in
the u pper range. G arcia p r o v i d e d no e x p l a n a t i o n in H i nts
for this a p p a r e n t shift of empha s i s to the m i d d l e voice.
Res o n a n c e and Vo w e l C o l o r
R e s o n a n c e wa s a second dom i n a n t c o n c e r n of Garcia,
as r e a l i z e d in his w o r k w i t h vo i c e q u a l i t i e s or timbres.
In the M é m o i r e his d e f i n i t i o n of t imbre wa s "the p e c u l i a r
and i n f i n i t e l y v a r i a b l e c h a r a c t e r w h i c h e a c h register,
e a c h tone c a n t a k e . " (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxxv.) His
m a i n c o n c e r n w a s n o t w i t h the d i f f e r e n t t i m b r e s w h i c h
characterize i n d i v i d u a l voices, but w i t h t i m b r e m o d i f i c a
tions p o s s i b l e in all sin g i n g voices. T h e s e he r e d u c e d
to two p r i n c i p a l types: c l e a r timbre and s o m b r e timbre. In
t he M é m o i r e t he timbres w e r e trea t e d b y r e g i s t e r s . Clear
t imbre g i v e s "lustre" and " brilliance" to th e c h e s t register.
He c ited s p e c i f i c cases w h e r e kno w n s ingers e m p l o y e d this
qu a l i t y in t h e chest, among t h e m the famous i n s t a n c e of
G i l b e r t D u p r e z ' s h i g h C in G u i l l a u m e T e l l . Garcia further
w a r n e d that e x c e s s i v e use of c lear t i m b r e w i t h c h e s t r e g i s
ter wil l "make t he v oice shrill and y e l p i n g . " (A C o m p l e t e
T r e a t i s e , xxxvii.) Sombre timb r e in che s t r e g i s t e r g ives
" p enetration" and "roundness" to the sound. It m a k e s t he
51
vo i c e c a p a b l e of m o r e volume, but, used to excess,
"covers the sounds, s t ifles them, m akes t h e m m u f f l e d
a nd r a u c o u s . " (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xxxvii.) W h e n c lear
and s ombre timb r e s are u s e d in fal s e t t o the q u a l i t i e s are
distinguishable, bu t n o t as m u c h as in the c hest register.
In h ead r e g i s t e r the r e s u l t is m u c h the same as in f a l
setto, a l t h o u g h Ga r c i a found t h a t in some vo i c e s the r e
sulting qualities were "pure a n d limpid like the sounds of
a harmonica." (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , x x x v i i i .)
F r o m e x t e r i o r o b s e r v a t i o n s of the larynx, Ga r c i a
r e a s o n e d tha t the p h a r y n g e a l s h a p e s and v o l u m e s r e s u l t i n g
f r o m d i f f e r e n t laryn g e a l m o v e m e n t s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m o v e m e n t s of the v e l u m are t he m a j o r infl u e n c e r s of timbre.
He d e s c r i b e d in d e tail h o w the l a r y n x r ises as the voi c e
a s c e n d s the s cale in c l e a r t i mbre in all three registers.
In sombre t i m b r e he f ound the l a r y n x to re m a i n fixed
r a t h e r low t h r o u g h o u t t h e scale in chest a n d f a l s e t t o
registers, w h i l e in the h ead r e g i s t e r it ri s e s rapidly.
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xl-xli.) A very perceptive o b serva
tion of the s i n g e r ' s c o n t r o l o v e r reson a n c e followed:
Th e c h a n g e s in for m w h i c h t h e p h a r y n x can r e c e i v e
b e i n g d u e to t h e a c t i o n of t h e v e l u m and tongue, it
is e s p e c i a l l y to the m o v e m e n t s of these two or g a n s
that the a t t e n t i o n of the s i n g e r should be paid.
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xli.)
In clear timbre, G a r c i a found t h e t h roat to c o n t r a c t b e
t w e e n v e l u m a n d larynx, accompanied by a lowered velum
and ra i s e d larynx. Use of the v o w e l s [a"J , [Z'} and / ^ 7
52
r e sults in the c o n f o r m a t i o n of the vocal orga n s for c lear
timbre. For sombre timbre, the t h r o a t elongates, ca u s e d
b y a l i f t i n g of the v e l u m a n d low e r i n g of the larynx:
"The sound is hea r d full, r o u n d an d covered; it is w h a t
is ca l l e d m i x e d voice, or sombre timbre." (A C o m p l e t e
T r e a t i s e , xliv.) Th e v o w e l s [e] , [o^ , and [uj br i n g
about the c o n f o r m a t i o n of t h e v o c a l tube for s o m b r e timbre.
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xliv.) The p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s p o s i
tion for th e s e vo w e l s b e c a m e fund a m e n t a l for G a r c i a ' s
th e o r y of vo w e l m o d i f i c a t i o n in a l ater work.
A t r e a t m e n t of o b j e c t i o n a b l e voice t i m b r e s was
included in the M é m o i r e . " G u t t e r a l timbre" is c a u s e d by
broa d e n i n g of the tong u e at the b a s e and c o r r e c t e d by
groov i n g the tongue to v a r i o u s e x t e n t s for eac h vowel,
noting, however, that "the tongue, wh i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y
char ged by its m o v e m e n t s to t r a n s f o r m the v o i c e into
vowels, w ill have to m o v e i t s e l f e s p e c i a l l y b y the l a tera l
edges, w e a k l y by the m i ddle, an d n o t at all b y the b a s e ."
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , xlvi.) " N asal timbre" results from
di r e c t i n g the sound into t h e n o s e instead of the ora l
cavity. "Harsh timbre" ca n be c a u s e d by s e p a r a t i o n of the
de tailed d e s c r i p t i o n of t o n g u e m o v e m e n t s was f o u n d in his

writings.
53
p i l l a r s of fauces, l i f t i n g of the t o ngue tip, swelling
of the tonsils, and e x c e s s i v e use of air w h i l e s i n g i n g 84
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , x l v i - x l v i i i .)
In the 1857 e d i t i o n of Pa r t I, G a rcia seemed m o r e
impressed with the v a r i e t y of c o l o r s of w h i c h the h u m a n
v o i c e is capable;
E v e r y c h a n g e of t i m b r e of w h i c h all sounds are s u s c e p

tible, o r i g i n a t e s in a c o r r e s p o n d i n g cha n g e of the
tube of the pharynx; and, as this flexible tube is
c a p able of u n d e r g o i n g c o u n t l e s s var i e t i e s of form,
it f ollows that t he m o d i f i c a t i o n of all sounds are
also n u m b erless. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 10.)
The 1847 ed i t i o n of P a r t II u t i l i z e d c o n s i d e r a b l y
m o r e detail on the p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in
va r i o u s timb r e s than t h e M é m o i r e o r Pa r t I. Although
m u c h of this m a t e r i a l w a s c o n j e c t u r e a nd some w h a t e r r o n e
ous, it w as s u r p r i s i n g l y d e t a i l e d for t h e ories set d o w n
eight y e a r s b e f o r e G a r c i a w a s to v i e w the vocal folds
w i t h the l aryngoscope. In brief, he a s s o c i a t e d the fol
lowing p h y s i c a l factors w i t h a "brilliant" timbre:
a r y t enoids b r o u g h t c l o s e l y together, a n a r r o w g l o ttal
opening, and a c o n t r a c t i o n of the p h a r y n g e a l tissues.
W i t h a "veiled" or b r e a t h i e r q u a lity, he a s s o c i a t e d
s epara t i o n of t he aryten o i d s , a gl o t t i s shap p e d like an
i soceles triangle, a s o f t n e s s o f t he p h a r y n g e a l t i s s u e s
A c c o r d i n g to G arcia, t h e r efore, "harsh ti m b r e "

can be d e s c r i b e d as t he r e s u l t of p h y s i c a l o b s t r u c t i o n s
to the sound or of i n e f f i c i e n t c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
glottis and a ir flow. " S e p a r a t i o n o f the p i l l a r s of
fauces" does n o t a p pear to be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the o t h e r
actions.
54
r e s u l t i n g in p o o r r e f l ection, and dul l w e a k sounds. (A
C o m p l e t e Treat i s e , P a r t I I , 152-153.)
O n l y a p a r a g r a p h in the "Obs e r v a t i o n s " w a s d e v o t e d
to the p r o d u c t i o n of v o i c e qualities. G a r c i a l i s t e d the
s i m u l t a n e o u s c a uses o f q u a l i t y c h ange as;
1 , a c c o r d i n g as the glottis p a r t i a l l y or e n t i r e l y
c l oses the p a s s a g e b e t w e e n e x p l osions, it p r o d u c e s
v e i l e d or b r i l l i a n t sounds; 2, t he t ube w h i c h s u r
m o u n t s a nd s u r r o u n d s it also g r e a t l y a f f e c t s t he
q u a l i t y of t h e voice; b y its c o n t r a c t i o n s it g ives
b r i l l i a n c y to it a nd its v/idening volume; 3, the
e p i g l o t t i s a l s o p l a y s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t part, for
e v e r y t ime t h a t it lowe r s itself, and n e a r l y clos e s
the o r i f i c e of th e larynx, the v o i c e g a i n s in b r i l
liancy; and when, on the oth e r hand, it is d r a w n
up, the v o i c e i m m e d i a t e l y bec o m e s veiled.
(" O b s e r v a t i o n s ," 410.)
Th a t G a r c i a ' s t h e o r y of the f o r m a t i o n of q u a l i t i e s
was still e v o l v i n g is evident. The "Obser v a t i o n s " used
the terms " b r i lliant" and "veiled" i n s t e a d o f c l e a r and
sombre. "Veiled," h owever, also had a c o n n o t a t i o n of
breathiness. The e p i g l o t t i s as a p a r t i c i p a n t in c r e a t i o n
of v o i c e q u a l i t i e s did n ot a p pear a g a i n in G a r c i a ' s
w r i tings.
me n t s of the e p i g l o t t i s influ e n c e v o i c e qua l i t y . Se e

T s u t o m o C h i b a and M a s a t o Kajiyama, T he V o w e l : Its N a t u r e
and S t r u c t u r e ( T o k y o : P h o n e t i c S o c i e t y of Japa n , 1958) ,
31-34. A p p e l m a n n o t e d va r i a t i o n s in the p o s i t i o n o f the
ep i g l o t t i s d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n of f ront and b a c k v o w e l s
w i t h i n a m o d e r a t e p i t c h range. T h e s e v a r i a n t posi t i o n s ,
however, w e r e fou n d to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h a n g e s in the
v e s t i b u l a r o p e n i n g a b o v e the glottis. See D. R a l p h
A p p e l m a n , T h e S c i e n c e of V o c a l Pedagogy: T h e o r y a n d
A p p l i c a t i o n (Bloomington: I n diana U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1967), 78-79.
Garcia's mature theory concerning voice qualities
a p p e a r e d in H i n t s on S i n g i n g . It fur t h e r c l a r i f i e s hi s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of q u a l ities. W h i l e the t erms t i m b r e c l a i r
and t i m b r e sombre w e r e a s s i g n e d to tho s e q u a l i t i e s r e s u l t
ing f r o m a d j u s t m e n t s of l a r yngeal p o s i t i o n a nd o f sp a c e s
a bove t h e larynx, the terms "ringing" and "dull" w e r e
a pp l i e d to re s u l t s o f ac t i o n s w i t h i n the g l o t t i s itself.
"Ringing" r e f e r r e d to s o unds p r o d u c e d f r o m c o m p l e t e
g l ottal c l o s u r e an d "veiled" to sounds p r o d u c e d b y i n
co m p l e t e gl o t t a l c l o s u r e a nd th e r e s u l t i n g p r e s e n c e of
b r e a t h in the sound. (H i n t s , 7.)
. . . the r i n g i n g a n d d u l n e s s of s ound is, in e f f e c t

and m e c h a n i s m , c o m p l e t e l y d i s t i n c t fro m the o p e n a n d
c l o s e d t i m b r e s . T h e r i n g i n g a n d d u l n e s s / s i c "] a re
p r o d u c e d in the i n t e r i o r of t he larynx, i n d e p e n d e n t l y
of t h e p o s i t i o n h i g h or l o w of the organ, w h i l e the
o p e n or c l o s e d q u a l i t i e s of the v o i c e r e q u i r e the
b o d i l y m o v e m e n t of th e larynx, and of its a n t a g o n i s t
the soft palate. Hence, a n y t i m b r e m a y be b r i g h t or
dull. (H i n t s , 12.)
T he t i m b r e s t h e m selves, d e s c r i b e d as c l e a r or o p e n and
dark (somber) o r closed, are p r o d u c e d by m o v e m e n t s in
o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s of l a r y n x a n d s o f t palate. In H i n t s
on S i n g i n g v e r t i c a l s ec t i o n s are u s e d to d e s c r i b e the tw o
posi t i o n s , as s hown in F i g u r e 2.
T h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l ca u s e s of the vow e l w e r e i n t e r e s t
ing but t r o u b l e s o m e for Garcia. In one se c t i o n o f th e 1847
Pa r t II h e a t t r i b u t e d p u r e v o w e l s to two m e c h a n i s m s : a l t e r a
tions in t h e l e n g t h a nd d i a m e t e r of t he v o c a l t u b e in
p r o p o r t i o n to l a r y n g e a l and p h a r y n g e a l m o v e m e n t , and
O p e n — T i m b r e Cl a i r (Bright) C l o s e d — T imbre Sombre (Dark)
V e r t i c a l s e c t i o n f r o m the D i a g r a m of the same parts,

f r o n t to the b a c k o f the s h o w i n g the soft p a l a t e
h e ad, s h o w i n g d e p r e s s i o n of r a i s e d a nd the larynx
t he s oft p a l a t e and a h i g h de p r e s s e d .
p o s i t i o n o f t he larynx.
The s p ace b e t w e e n the t o ngue The spa c e b e t w e e n the tongue

a n d the p a l a t e as se e n and p a l a t e a u g m e n t e d d u r i n g
t h r o u g h the m o u t h d u r i n g the p r o d u c t i o n of d a r k
the p r o d u c t i o n of the c l e a r timbre.
(or brith) t i m b r e .
F I G U R E 2: GA R C I A : M O V E M E N T S OF T HE L A R Y N X A N D SOFT P A L A T E
IN R E L A T I O N T O V O C A L T I M B R E S . F r o m Garc i a , H i n t s , 11-12.
57
m o d i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h the tube r e c e i v e s in p r o p o r t i o n to
to n g u e move m e n t s . (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e ^ P a r t 1 1 ^ 4-5.)
In a l a t e r f o o tnote he s t a t e d tha t " v owels are p r o d u c e d
e x c l u s i v e l y b y the glot t i s and the b u c c a l canal, that is,
the space i n c luded b e t w e e n the l a r y n x an d the base of
t he tong u e and the v e l u m . " (A C o m p l e t e Treatise, Part I I ,
7.) The latter v i e w is p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o b l e m a t i c a l in r e g a r d
to p r o d u c t i o n of front and c e ntral v o w e l s (see pp. 211-213).
B o t h theories w e r e o m i t t e d fro m the 1872 e d i t i o n of Par t II.
The ab i l i t y to a n a l y z e the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of vowel
col o r and voice q u a l i t y w e r e of o b v i o u s i m p o r t a n c e to G a r
cia's teaching. He fo u n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the two
to be one of m u t u a l d e p e n d e n c e :
It will serve /the s i n g e r ^ to d e t e r m i n e in the use of

e ach v owel the timbre m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e to the e f fect
w h i c h he intends, and wil l p e r m i t h i m to m a i n t a i n at
the same time a p e r f e c t e q u a l i t y t h r o u g h o u t the entire
c ompass of the voice. (A C o m p l e t e Treatise, Part II,
5-5.)
In Hints on S i n g i n g , G a r c i a s u g g e s t e d an exe r c i s e for
d e v e l o p i n g c o ntrol over the v a r i o u s v o i c e q u a l i t i e s w i t h i n
vowel colors. He r e c o m m e n d e d that, o n a single s u stained
note, the singer pass t h r o u g h everytimbre fro m the m o s t
o p e n to the m o s t closed, u s i n g this t able to sho w the
c h anges each v owel should undergo:
A approxi m a t e s to o
E appro x i m a t e s to eu in F r e n c h
I approxi m a t e s to u in F r e n c h
0 a p p r o ximates to u in Ital i a n (H i n t s , 12.)
The n e c e s s i t y for vow e l m o d i f i c a t i o n in e q u a l i z i n g
the vocal scale a p p e a r e d as e a r l y as P a r t I, w h e n G arcia
58
noted a need for the stud e n t to s l i g h t l y clo s e the v owel
on a s c e n d i n g slurs, (A r t of S i n g i n g , 12.) a n d for m e n to
a b a n d o n the c l e a r timb r e for c l o s e d timbre on rea c h i n g
B a s s e s s hould b e g i n to round g e n t l y at
l?0 r-
an d tenors at
If the sounds are "thin and c h i l d - l i k e ," fema l e v o i c e s
s h o u l d close the v o w e l by ar c h i n g the soft palate, [aj
b e c o m i n g [?] . This p r o c e s s was a p a r t of Gar c i a ' s
a p p r o a c h to e q u a l i z a t i o n of false t t o and h e a d registers.
It was to be a p p l i e d to the e x treme n otes of the fal s e t t o
so that these w o u l d n o t f orm too g r e a t a c o n t r a s t to the
first notes of the head. (Ar t o f S i n g i n g , 11.)
In Pa r t II is f o u n d G a r c i a ' s f i r s t sy s t e m a t i c d e l i n e a t i o n
of a t h e o r y of v o w e l m o d i f i c a t i o n . G e n e rally, he r e c o m m e n d
ed m o d e r a t e a n d p r o g r e s s i v e r o u n d i n g of the vow e l as t he
v o i c e a s c ends a nd " clarifying" o r b r i g h t e n i n g of t h e v o w e l
as the v o i c e desce n d s . He a p p l i e d this p r o c e d u r e to
specific v o w e l s as follows:
In a s cending:
a p p r o a c h e s l'?l ;
[E] a p p r o a c h e s 1 6] , th e n T p J ;
fyi'l a p p r o a c h e s f / 3 w i t h o u t the h elp of the lips;
a p p r o a c h e s [w ] .
In d e scending, t he v o w e l s are b r i g h t e n e d b y a r e v e r s e p r o
cedure, for example:
[ul approaches ;
r P] approaches .
(A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , Par t I I , 7-8.)
Ga r c i a ' s p e d a g o g i c a l a p p r o a c h to v o i c e q u a l i t i e s
a nd vow e l p r o d u c t i o n a l w a y s i n c l u d e d the c o n c e p t o f the l o o s e
jaw. He w a r n e d a g a i n s t o p e n i n g t h e m o u t h too m u c h o r t o o
l i ttle a nd a g a i n s t e x c e s s i v e lip p r o t r u s i o n . I n noting
the i m p o r t a n c e of t he loose, r e l a t i v e l y u n i n v o l v e d j a w in
vowel production, G a r c i a w a s n o t above e m p l o y i n g a n
^ ^The e x a c t m e a n i n g is unclear. C y J c a n n o t be
s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h o u t l i p rounding. See p. 60.
87
See p. 60.
50
i n animate device. To c o r r e c t ja w stiffness, he suggested
the p l a c i n g of a pie c e of w o o d o r c o r k b e t w e e n the jaws
on e a c h side, o r t ying a r i b b o n b e l o w the l o w e r lip and
be h i n d the neck, then h a v i n g the s t u d e n t p r a c t i c e p r o
n o u n c i n g all v o w e l s w i t h the l e a s t p o s s i b l e effort.
Furth e r m o r e , he u rged tha t th e It a l i a n [a'] , T S l a nd
£e7 be p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t lip p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the latt e r
factor b e i n g r e s e r v e d o n l y f or n a r r o w dar k v o w e l s suc h
as [o2 , [0“} , ' and ^ y ] . In a d d i t i o n to a d d i n g
ease a n d c l a r i t y to v o c a l p r o d u c t i o n , such p r o c e d u r e s
wil l " prevent tho s e a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m on e timbre
to the o t h e r w h i c h r e s e m b l e t h e b a r k i n g of a dog." (A
C o m p l e t e Tre a t i s e , Part I I , 7.)
G a r c i a ' s p h i l o s o p h y c o n c e r n i n g the u s e of vowe l s
h el d for t h a t o f c o n s o n a n t s as w ell. He i n s i s t e d tha t
the sing e r c a r e f u l l y a n a l y z e t h e m e c h a n i s m w h i c h p r o d u c e s
vowels and c o n s onants. If t h e s i n g e r does n o t follow this
procedure,
. . . he doe s n ot k n o w t h e s e c r e t of k e e p i n g in the
v o i c e the d e v e l o p m e n t and e q u a l i t y w h i c h he would
o b t a i n in simple v o c a l i z a t i o n , a n d he c a n n o t use to
his t aste the p r o p e r t i m b r e for the e m o t i o n he w o u l d
express. (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e , P a r t I I , 2.) _ '
G arcia w a s c o n c e r n e d e n o u g h a b o u t a r t i c u l a t i o n in g e n e r a l
that an e n t i r e c h a p t e r o f P a r t II w a s d e v o t e d to its m e
c h a n i s m and u s e in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In t h e s e c h a pters he
c a r e f u l l y c l a s s i f i e d the c o n s o n a n t s int o two types, explo
sive and sustained, and into f i v e f a m i l i e s a c c o r d i n g to
physiological production: labials, labi o - d e n t a l s , lingua-
61
dent a l s , l i n g u o - p a l a t a l s , a nd l i n g u o - g u t t e r a l s . (A
C o m p l e t e Tre a t i s e , Part I I , 12-15.) He c o n t i n u a l l y urg e d
t h a t the s t u d e n t be made f u l l y a w a r e of t h e a r t i c u l a t o r y
movements i n v o l v e d in p r o d u c t i o n o f all c o n s o n a n t s in
o r d e r t h a t m o v e m e n t s be r e s t r i c t e d o n l y to "indispe n s a b l e
organs" a nd that these o r g a n s be r e s t r a i n e d to "the
s i m p l e s t a n d m o s t na t u r a l a c t i o n . " (A C o m p l e t e T r e a t i s e ,
P a r t II, 15.)
Breathing
J e n n y L i n d o n c e r e m a r k e d in h e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
that Garcia was "very p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t b r e a t h i n g . " It
is r e p o r t e d t h a t G a r cia's b r e a t h m e t h o d w a s the same as
t h a t p a s s e d to h i m by his f a t h e r f r o m A n z a n i . ^ ^ If this
is true, i t m a y e a s i l y hav e be e n a p a r t o f the f a mily
v o c a l trad i t i o n . His s ister P a u l i n e b e g a n e v e r y lesson
w i t h b r e a t h i n g exe r c i s e s in w h i c h "the full b r e a t h so
f i l l e d t he lungs t h a t the c h e s t b e c a m e e l e v a t e d and d i s
t e n d e d w i t h air, w h i l e the m u s c l e s of the ab d o m e n d r e w in
slightly." G a r c i a hi m s e l f u r ged in P a r t I t hat the
T h e c u r r e n t term f or l i n g u o - g u t t e r a l is li n g u o -
velar.
J a m e s Barrie, 1956), 42.
^êidl, 208. "Drew in" m a y h a v e i m p l i e d a b d o m i n a l

r e t r action.
62
d i a p h r a g m be lowe r e d w i t h o u t a je r k a n d t h a t the c h e s t
be slo w l y raised. (A r t of S i n g i n g ^ 10.) In 1901 he told
A n n a Sc h o e n - R e n e , an A m e r i c a n teacher, th a t whi l e the
f o r e g o i n g m e t h o d w as u s e f u l for w o men, "lumbar b r e a t h i n g "
w a s n e c e s s a r y for m a l e s i n g e r s . 92 %n H i n t s on S i n g i n g
this m e t h o d w a s c a l l e d t h o r a c i c o r i n t e r c o s t a l b r e a t h i n g
and w as i n s i s t e d upon for all v oices. It was d e s c r i b e d
as a lateral e x p a n s i o n of the l o w e r r ibs d u r i n g i n h a l a
tion. (H i n t s , 4.)
W h a t e v e r the c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g
physiological l o c a t i o n o f b r e a t h i n g activity, Garcia's
ex e r c i s e s for a c h i e v i n g b r e a t h c o n t r o l in Par t I and
H ints o n S i n g i n g w e r e v i r t u a l l y t he same:
F i r s t . — T h e pupil s hould g e n t l y and s l o w l y i nhale for

a few seconds, as m u c h air as the ch e s t can w e l l
contain.
S e c o n d l y . — A f t e r t a k i n g a d e e p breath, the air s h o u l d
be e x h a l e d again v e r y g e n t l y a n d slowly.
T h i r d l y . — Fill the lungs, a n d k e e p t h e m i n f l a t e d for
t he l o n g e s t p o s s i b l e time. And,
F o u r t h l y . — Ex h a l e c o m p l e t e l y , a nd l e ave the c h e s t
e m p t y as l o n g as t he p h y s i c a l p o w e r s wi l l c o n v e n i e n t l y
allow. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 10.)
In H i nts o n S i n g i n g , h o w ever, t h e e x e r c i s e s o m i t t e d a ny
ref e r e n c e to t h e che s t as a r e p o s i t o r y of i nhaled air:
1. Draw a breath slowly through a very minute opening

of the lips, then e x h a l e freely.
2. B r e a t h e fre e l y and e x h a l e s l o w l y t h r o u g h t he same
small opening.
3. B r e a t h e fre e l y and r e t a i n t h e b r e a t h d u r i n g t e n
seconds or more. (H i n t s , 5.)
92Anna E u g e n i e Sch o e n - R e n e , A m e r i c a ' s M u s i c a l I n

heritance: M e m o r i e s a nd R e m i n i s c e n c e s . (New York: G.P.
Putn a m ' s Sons, 1941), 104.
63
G a r c i a c o n t i n u a l l y u r g e d t h a t b r e a t h i n g should be a free,
e f f i c i e n t process, u n d e r full co n t r o l of the singer;
No pe r s o n s can ever b e c o m e a c c o m p l i s h e d singers,

un t i l they po s s e s s an ent i r e co n t r o l o v e r the
b r e a t h — the v e r y e l e m e n t of sound. (Art of Singing,
10 .)
The l engthy c o l o r a t u r a s and ph r a s e s in t he m u s i c
for w h i c h G a rcia p r e p a r e d his s ingers m i g h t s u g gest th a t
his p e r f o r m e r s had e x t r a o r d i n a r y b r e a t h control. In
Part I, however, he s u g g e s t e d that his e x e r c i s e s be sung
s l o w l y at first w i t h b r e a t h s a f t e r the first n o t e of
e v e r y bar. In s u b s e q u e n t r e p e t i t i o n s , the tempo w as
al l o w e d to g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e and b r e a t h s b e c a m e less
frequent. (A r t of S i n g i n g , 13-14.) In p e r f o r m a n c e
si t u a t i o n s he advi s e d b r e a t h s at judic i o u s places: within
l o n g e r notes of passage, b e t w e e n two c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t s
w i t h a noise l e s s i n h a l a t i o n t h r o u g h the nose, and d u r i n g a
pe r c u s s i v e att a c k in t he a c c o m p a n i m e n t . (A C o m p l e t e
Treatise, Part I I , 69.) In p e r f o r m i n g in large halls, he
tau g h t his singers to u s e t he b r e a t h for r e i n f o r c i n g t he
v o i c e by sup p l y i n g a c o n t i n u o u s a ir current: "Only a r e g u l a r
a nd su s t a i n e d thr u s t c an set the a ir c o n t a i n e d in a l a rge
h all into m o t i o n and m a k e it r e s o n a t e . " (A C o m p l e t e
Treatise, Part II, 175.)
C o o r d i n a t i o n of t he b r e a t h w i t h p h o n a t i o n w a s an
e v e r - p r e s e n t par t of G a r c i a ' s b r e a t h method. K l e i n fo u n d
t h a t G a r cia's first rule "was e v e r to r e p r e s s the b r e a t h
ing p o w e r and b r i n g it i n t o p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n w i t h the
resisting force of the t h r o a t and the lar y n x . "
fo u n d a la c k of c o o r d i n a t i o n to r e sult in t h e sc r o c c o
di v o c e ;, c o u a c or "squawk," w h i c h oc c u r s in t h e c h est
t o nes a b o v e e^ for t e n o r s a n d a n o c t a v e h i g h e r in the
s o p r a n o h e a d voice. If s u p p o r t is n e g l e c t e d f or these
notes, a t the m o m e n t o f p h o n a t i o n , "the p h a r y n x and the
glo t t i s , n a t u r a l l y f o r c e d to c o n t r a c t in o r d e r to p r o d u c e
t h e s e h i g h notes, close completely, and t h e v o i c e stops
s u d d e n l y in o r d e r to r e a p p e a r an in s t a n t l a t e r w i t h an
exaggerated or ridiculous explosion." (A C o m p l e t e
Treatise, P a r t I I , 2 9.) In a l a t e r p a s s a g e h e s u g g e s t
ed that, to a v oid the c o u a c o n h i g h notes, t he s i nger
u s e w o r d s w i t h c o n s o n a n t s w h i c h u s e a "light, internal
sound" (i.e. [in'] , [n] , [dj , £b7 ). T h i s a l l o w s the
n o t e to b e at t a c k e d a c c u r a t e l y a n d e f f i c i e n t l y . (A
C o m p l e t e Tr e a t i s e , P a r t II, ,45.) A f u r t h e r c o n c e p t of
c o o r d i n a t i o n w a s that o f t e a c h i n g t he s i n g e r to d i s t i n g u i s h
between the four principal mechanisms, lungs, glottis,
pharynx or velo-pharyngeal mechanism, a nd o r g a n s of
ar t i c u l a t i o n . Successful s i n g e r s w e r e t h o s e w h o cou l d
coordinate these mechanisms in t o o n e c o o p e r a t i v e unit.
(A C o m p l e t e Treatise, P a r t II, 28. )
^^Klein, T h i r t y Y e a r s o f M u s i c a l L i f e in L ondon,
36.
Attitudes and A p p r o a c h e s in General
W h i l e no d e s c r i p t i o n s o f G a r c i a ' s g eneral a p
pro a c h e s a n d t e a c h i n g a t t i t u d e s a p p e a r in his own w r i t
ings, pu p i l a c c o u n t s give so m e d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h ese
factors. S t e r l i n g M a c k i n l a y 's b i o g r a p h y , Garcia ; T he
C e n t e n a r i a n a nd His T i m e s , is one o f the few sour c e s of
this type of m a t e r i a l . F o r G arcia, B a t t a i l l e , Mar c h e s i ,
and Stock h a u s e n , t h e s e g e n e r a l a r e a s te n d to emp h a s i z e
the l e ngth o f v o i c e st u d y e x p e c t e d o f the pupil, l e s s o n
a r rangements, and g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e s a nd p r i o r i t i e s in
the t r a i n i n g o f voices.
S i n g i n g s t u d e n t s of t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
w e r e e x p e c t e d to s p e n d y e a r s in c a r e f u l , methodical p r e
paration. Manuel Garcia readily concurred. V o i c e tea c h e r s
of his g e n e r a t i o n a nd b e f o r e t a u g h t m u s i c i a n s h i p as w e l l
as singing t e c h n i q u e in m e t h o d i c a l a n d o f t e n t i r esome
doses. Garcia's father, his o n l y t e a cher, f o s tered the
Italian a t t i t u d e that "months, i n d e e d years, wou l d be
spent in the p r a c t i c e o f s i m p l e solfe g g i , to be f o l l o w e d
by e x e rcises in r h y t h m a nd stu d i e s f o r i n t o nation
All e x e r cises w e r e d e s i g n e d to p r e p a r e the student for
pe r f o r m a n c e o f bel c a n t o song. G a r c i a p r e f e r r e d to h a v e
his students p r o g r e s s from exercises in t o simple I t a l i a n
arias, b y p a s s i n g the m o r e e x t e n d e d v o c a l i s e s o f ten u s e d by
^'âckinlay, 27.
66
te a c h e r s o f his g e n e r a t i o n . I n H ints on S i n g ing, ex
e r cises w e r e p r o v i d e d w h i c h w e r e p r e p a r a t o r y for the bel
canto aria.
G a r c i a t a u g h t his students o n l y on a p r i v a t e b asis
and p r o v i d e d h i s o w n p i a n o a c c o m p a n i m e n t s . ^ ’^ H i s lesson
sched u l e wa s relentless and o f t e n n o t w e l l - m a n a g e d .
Stude n t s f r e q u e n t l y had to w a i t long i n t e r v a l s for a
lesson, o n l y to b e told b y t heir teac h e r late in the day,
"I am tired, child r e n ; I will see y o u t o m o r r o w . " ^ 8
his s e v e n t i e s G a r c i a wa s still t e a c h i n g f r o m m o r n i n g until
n ight w i t h l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y for rest.
Garcia was fo r t h r i g h t in his e v a l u a t i o n s of singers.
F o l l o w i n g the a u d i t i o n o f p r o s p e c t i v e students, he gave
his i m m e d i a t e o p i n i o n c o n c e r n i n g their q u a l i f i c a t i o n s by
sending p r o s p e c t i v e s t udents to c o m p e t e n t p h y s i c i a n s for
a full m e d i c a l exami n a t i o n .
Garcia's fi r s t less o n for a n e w s t u d e n t b e g a n w i t h a
careful e x p l a n a t i o n of p r o p e r v o i c e p r o d u c t i o n for singing.
This e x p l a n a t i o n i n c l u d e d breathing, phon a t i o n , resonance,
^ ^ I b i d . , 289.
^^See p. 28-29.
^ ^ M a c k i n l a y , 241.
99i
Îbid., 239.
lO&T
°Ibid., 114.
a n d d iction. He t h e n e m p h a s i z e d tha t the stud e n t m u s t
u n d e r s t a n d th e s e p r i n c i p l e s and learn h o w to cont r o l and
c a l c u l a t e t h e i r use. He told them,
. . . r e m e m b e r t h a t w e mus t h ave the k n o w l e d g e to

g u i d e the e m i s s i o n of the vo i c e w i t h o u r brains.
W h e n the tone h a s onc e been emit t e d it is too late
to c o r r e c t a fault. W e m u s t be a w a r e b e f o r e h a n d
e x a c t l y w h a t w e are g o i n g to do. W e m u s t k n o w wha t
is r i g h t and h o w to do it. T h a t is the secret.
F o l l o w i n g the ex p l a n a t i o n s , s u s t a i n e d - t o n e exerc i s e s w i t h
a n e m p h a s i s on p r o p e r b r e a t h i n g w e r e used. W h e n the
pupil c o u l d sing a sc a l e in the m i d d l e of the vo c a l r ange
s l o w l y and w i t h c ontrol, he w as r e a d y f o r m o r e a d v a n c e d
exercises. T h e s e e x e r c i s e s then c o n s t i t u t e d the sole
material for vo c a l s t u d y for a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d of
t i m e .102 E v e n w i t h m o r e a d v a n c e d students, G a r c i a r e lied
on s i m i l a r a p p r oaches. Antoinette Sterling (1850-1904),
a co n t r a l t o , came to G a r c i a from s tudy w i t h M a t h i l d e
Marchesi in Cologne. In thi s case, b o t h p upil an d t e acher
m u t u a l l y f ound that c o n c e n t r a t e d w o r k on e x e r c i s e s in the
m e d i u m of the v o i c e w a s the m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o c e d u r e
f or a n u m b e r of m o n t h s .103
E x e r c i s e s he l o o k e d o n as the f o u n d a t i o n of all good

singing. The s e w o u l d take the form of s u s t a i n e d and
l ^ ^ Mackinlay, 284.
^ ° ^ I b i d . , 284-285.
l°Îbid., 219-221.
68
s w e l l e d notes, scales, p a s sages of c o m b i n e d intervals,

a r p e ggios, chromatics, and shakes. The a c q u i r e m e n t
of a g i l i t y in execution, he used to say, r e q u i r e d at
l e ast two years' study, the r e s u l t b e i n g th a t the
v o ice b e c a m e flexible, e ven m e l l o w and s t r o n g . ^
D isciplined, t h o r o u g h wo r k on the a t t a i n m e n t of the ev e n
vocal s c ale and f l e x i b i l i t y was b a s i c to G a r c i a ' s m e t h o d
and was a f u n d a m e n t a l part of the t e a c h i n g of Battaille,
Marchesi, a nd S t o c k h a u s e n as w e l l . O t h e r areas of s i m i l a r i
ty and c o n t r a s t are indic a t e d in the f o l l o w i n g chapters.
In g eneral, Garcia's basic a t t i t u d e t o w a r d vocal
t ra i n i n g w as a l ways to pr o m o t e f r e e d o m in all a spects of
singing. He a lways insisted upon the t e r m "emission"
rather tha n " p r o d u c t i o n , " and p u pils w h o u s e d the latter
term q u i c k l y l e a r n e d their teach e r ' s attitude :
M o n Dieu! H o w c an you p r o d u c e a v o ice? Can you

sh o w it to me and say, "See, he r e it is. Ex a m i n e
it?" Non! Can y o u pour it out like m o l t e n lead
into the sand? Non! There is no such th i n g as
voice-production. Perhaps you m e a n v o i c e - e m i s s i o n .
Y ou do? Eh, Bien! Then say so, p l e a s e . 105
While his r e c o r d for im p r o v i n g f a ulty vocal inst r u m e n t s
w as good, G a r c i a w o u l d not ac c e p t an i n o r d i n a t e a m o u n t of
cr edit for the co n t r o l a teacher has o v e r vo c a l training.
He r e g a r d e d h i m s e l f on l y as a guide:
Do n o t b e a f r a i d to face a difficulty. M a k e up y o u r
m i n d to c o n q u e r it. I o n l y d i r e c t you. If y o u do a
thi n g badly, it is y our fault, n o t mine. If you do
it well, all p r a i s e to you, not to me. I sh o w pupils
h o w to sing, and the p roper way to study.
104j
^ I b i d . , 289.
105,
Îbid., 250.
106^
"Ibid., 287.
III. T HE R E S E A R C H A N D T E A C H I N G P R I N C I P L E S
OF B A T T A I L L E
C h a r l e s B a t t a i l l e is r a r e l y m e n t i o n e d in c u r r e n t
w o r k s on s i n g i n g an d v o c a l peda g o g y . However, his c o n
t r i b u t i o n s wer e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t to w r i t e r s wh o d e s c r i b
ed n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r tists. S t e r l i n g M a c k i n l a y lists
h i m a m o n g t hose who were, in his opinion, the most o u tstand
ing G a r c i a students; M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s i and J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s
en w e r e also na m e d o n this l i s t . ^ The Grove's Dictionary
m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g B a t t a i l l e a p p e a r s to be la r g e l y b a s e d
on tha t in M a c k i n l a y 's b o o k .^ Two F r e n c h d i c t i o n a r i e s
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h B a t t a i l l e 's time a s c r i b e a gre a t dea l of
s i g n i f i c a n c e to his p e r f o r m a n c e , research, a n d teaching.
Th e s e are the p r i n c i p a l b i o g r a p h i c a l sour c e s on B a t t a i l l e .^
B a t t a i l l e wa s b o r n of a p h y s i c i a n f a t h e r in N a n t e s
o n S e p t e m b e r 30, 1822. Du e to his f a t h e r ' s i n f l u e n c e he
^G r o v e ' s D i c t i o n a r y of M u s i c and M u s i c i a n s , 5th e d . ,

s.v. "Battaille, C h a r l e s A m a b l e , " b y G u s t a v e Ferrari.
^G r a n d d i c t i o n n a i r e u n i v e r s e l d u X I X s i è c l e , 1 8 6 6 -
1890 ed.^ s.v. "Battaille, C h a r l e s A m a b l e ; " La Gra n d
e ncyclo p é d i e ; i n v e n t a i r e r a i s o n n e des sciences, des
l ett r e s et d e s a r t s , £ 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 0 1 ed. J , s.v. "Battaille,
Ch a r l e s A m a b l e . "
stud i e d m e d i c i n e in N antes for fiv e y e a r s and w a s a
d e m o n s t r a t o r in a n a t o m y for four y e a r s t h e r e a f t e r . ^
A t this p o i n t r e f e r e n c e s are c o n t r a d i c t o r y . O n e s o urce
s tat e s t h a t B a t t a i l l e r e c e i v e d his d o c t o r a t e and b e g a n
m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e in his home t o w n . ^ A n o t h e r s t ates
that, a f t e r the f our years as d e m o n s t r a t o r of a n a t o m y ,
h e r e c e i v e d the B a c h e l o r of S c i e n c e at C a e n and p a s s e d
t he fir s t four ex a m i n a t i o n s for h i s d o c t o r a t e in Par i s
b e f o r e l e a v i n g the field of m e d i c i n e . ^ M a c k i n l a y adds
to the c o n f u s i o n b y stating that B a t t a i l l e e a r n e d his
li v i n g as a d o c t o r of m e d i c i n e w h i l e s t u d y i n g v o i c e in
Paris.^ B a t t a i l l e b egan s t u d y w i t h Ga r c i a at the C o n
s e r v a t o r y in 1844. Three y e a r s l a t e r he c o m p l e t e d his
s tudy w i t h the C o n s e r v a t o r y ' s f i r s t p r i z e awar d s in song,
o pera, a n d o p e r a - c o m i g u e .^ He was engaged almost i m
m e d i a t e l y b y the O p e r a -Comi q u e a n d m a d e his d e b u t J u n e 22,
1848 as S u l p i c e in D o n i z e t t i ' s La fi g l i a de l r e g g i m e n t o .^
^ G r a n d d i c t i o n n a i r e u n i v e r s e l.
^L a G r a n d e n c y c l o p é d i e .
^G r a n d d i c t i o n n a i r e u n i v e r s e l .
^Macki n l a y , 160.
^L a Gr a n d e n c y c l o p é d i e .
^ G r a n d d i c t i o n n a i r e un i v e r s e l .
71
P o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s d e l a y e d s u b s e q u e n t performances. In
fact, B a t t a i l l e ' s d e b u t d a t e w a s m a r k e d b y an i n s u r r e c
tion. B a t t a i l l e joined the g u a r d to que l l the insurgents,
f o u g h t all afternoon, and m a d e his d e b u t that evening.
By the end of the y e a r B a t t a i l l e h a d been c h osen
b y H a l e v y to p o r t r a y J a c q u e s S i n c e r e in his Val d ' A n d o r r e .
O v e r the n e x t nin e y e a r s he w a s d e s t i n e d to create
e l e v e n m o r e le a d i n g roles: D o n B e l f l o r in Adam ' s T o r e a d o r ,
184 9; A t a l m u c k in H a l e v y ' s L a F e e au x r o s e s , 1849; F a l -
s t a f f in Thomas' S onge d ' u n e n u i t d ' e t e , 1850; M a theus
C l a e s in G r i s a r ' s C a r i l l o n n e u r de B r u g e s , 1852; G a i l l a r d
in Rebe r ' s Le P e r e g a i l l a r d , 1852; T o r r i d o in A u ber's
M a r c o S p a d a , 1852; Pete r s in M e y e r b e e r ' s 1 'Etoile du
n o r d , 1854; the com m a n d e r in T h omas' La C o u r de C e l i m è n e ,
1855; Ge d e o n in A d a m ' s H o u z a r d de B e r c h i n y , 1855; and
G i l b e r t in H a l e v y ' s V a l e n t i n e d ' A u b i n g n y , 1 8 5 6 Other
rol e s w h i c h B a t t a i l l e c r e a t e d or p e r f o r m e d b oth at the
O p e r a C o m i q u e an d at t he T h e a t r e L y r i q u e w e r e Osmin in
M o z a r t ' s Die Entfiihrung aus d e m S e r a i l ; R o s k o w in
H a l e v y 's La D a m e de p i q u e ; N i c o l a s in M a s s e ' s Les Sais o n s ;
L 'O p e r a - C o m i q u e : 1840-1887, 2 vols. (Paris: F l ammarion,

1892, 1893), 1:181.
a n d th e i r o r i g i n a l c asts m a y b e f o u n d in F e l i x Cle m e n t
an d P i e r r e Larou s s e , D i c t i o n n a i r e d e s o p e r a s (Paris:
La r ousse, 1857).
o p e r a t i c roles w a s t h a t of R o c c o in B e e t h o v e n ' s F i d e l i o
in 1860. P a u l i n e V i a r d o t - G a r c i a s a n g the role of L e o n o r e
in this series.
B a t t a i l l e ' s voice, a b a s s o - p r o f u n d o , was d esigna
ted as "a m a r v e l o u s i n s t r u m e n t w i t h a tr u l y e x c e p t i o n a l
d e p t h . H e wa s a c c l a i m e d for his a b i l i t y as a d r a m a t i c
ac t o r w h o co u l d p o r t r a y b o t h b u f f o a nd mor e serious ro l e s
w i t h g r e a t facility. T he H i s t o i r e de 1 'Opera-C o m i q u e
named him "an i n c o m p a r a b l e m a g i c i a n w h o had every t h i n g ,
the v oice, the p h ysique, and t h e endurance.
B a t t a i l l e be g a n te a c h i n g at the C o n s e r v a t o r y in
1851 a n d c o n t i n u e d to do so w h i l e he p u r s u e d his s i n g i n g
career. In 1857, w h a t is onl y g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d as "a
se r ious d i s e a s e of the larynx" f o r c e d his r e t i r e m e n t
fr o m the stage. In 1860 he r e t u r n e d in several of the
ab o v e roles, b u t by 1861 he h a d p e r m a n e n t l y r e t i r e d for
t he p u r p o s e s of t e a c h i n g and res e a r c h .
Du r i n g t he n e x t nin e y e a r s B a t t a i l l e p u b l i s h e d the
r e s u l t s o f his r e s e a r c h and his t e a c h i n g method. He w a s
encyclopédie.
^^Clement, 288,
writer.
15'La G r a n d e n c y c l o p é d i e .
^^Soubies, 197. T r a n s l a t e d by t h e wr i t e r .
^^L a G r a n d e n c y c l o p e d i a .
73
a w a r d e d s e veral f o reign d e c o rations for his c o n t r i b u t i o n s
to the p e r f o r m i n g arts and for his r e s e a r c h and teaching.
F o r his r e s e a r c h in p h o n a t i o n he r e c e i v e d a p h y s i o l o g y p r i z e
f r o m the F r e n c h A c a d e m y of Sciences.
In 1870 he a g a i n b e came i nvolved in p o l i t i c a l
issues. He was n a m e d s o u s - p r e f e c t d ' A n c e n i s and w as
c h a r g e d w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of o r g a n i z i n g and a r m i n g
local t r o o p s . H e d i e d Ma y 2, 1872.^0
B a t t a i l l e 's Pu b l i c a t i o n s
Batta i l l e had i n t e n d e d to p u b l i s h a c o m p l e t e w o r k
o n voi c e c o m p r i s i n g s e v e n v o lumes an d e n t i t l e d De
1' e n s e i g n e m e n t du c h a n t . Only the fir s t two volu m e s w e r e
ev e r published, b u t the b a c k flyleaf of the s econd v o l u m e
gave the m a s t e r p l a n for the work:
I. Nouvelles re c h e r c h e s sur la p h o n a t i o n (1861)
II. De la p h y s i o l o g i e a p p l i q u é e a 1 'etude du
m é c a n i s m e v ocal (1863)
III. De la r e s p i r a t i o n che z les c h a n t e u r s
18,Grand d i c t i o n n a i r e u n i v e r s e l .
^La Gra n d e n c y c l o p é d i e .
phonation (Paris: V i c t o r M a s s o n and Sons, 1861).
vol. 2, De la p h y s i o l o g y a p p liquée a 1 * e tude du m é c a n i s m e

v o c a l (Paris: V i c t o r M a s s o n an d Sons, 1863).
IV. Du iTiecanism vo c a l
V. Du style et de l ' e s t h e t i q u e dans le c h a n t
VI. T r a i t é d e s m a l a d i e s de la v o i x chez les
ch a n t e u r s et les o r a t e u r s
VII. De 1 'hygiène de la v o i x au t h éâtre
A c c o r d i n g to the foreword, Nouvelles recherches
w a s d e s i g n e d to be a d e t a i l e d r e p o r t on the r e s u l t s of
B a t t a i l l e ' s r e s e a r c h on the s i n g i n g voice. His e x p e r i
me n t s wer e c o n d u c t e d u p o n h i m s e l f an d u pon his s t u d e n t s
w i t h the ai d of his " a u t o l a r y n g o s c o p e , " a v e r s i o n of
Gar c i a ' s l a r y n g o s c o p e w h i c h u t i l i z e d a lan t e r n a n d p r o v i d
ed an a d d i t i o n a l m i r r o r to c o r r e c t t h e i n v e r t e d image.
(See Fi g u r e 3)- Battaille's f o r e w o r d also g ives d u e
cr e d i t to M a n u e l Garc i a , w h o "laid t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of a
r atio n a l and p r e c i s e t h e o r y b a s e d o n p hysiology.
Nouvelles recherches c o n s i s t e d of t hree parts:
Par t I, "Anatomy," e x a m i n e d in d e t a i l the l a r y n g e a l parts
as rev e a l e d in s t e p - b y - s t e p d i s s ection; P a r t II,
" Laryngoscopy," d e s c r i b e d l a r y n g e a l m o v e m e n t s and r e s u l t
ant vocal s ound as o b s e r v e d w i t h the l a r y n goscope; Part
III, "Physiology," d e a l t w i t h the p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n of
laryngeal p a r t s in the a c t of singing.
Ba t t aille, N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , vi. Translated

by the writer.
^Îbid, vii.
M
3L
2 . h.ûïlcu> Cy
bh hùUùuj cotJe.s
ce' h'>coAlvex CeA/se$.
c2 f lait mirror-
g Likrtffi/^ltsX m i r r o r
F I G U R E 3: B A T T A I L L E ' S A U T O L A R Y N G O S C O P E . From Nouvelles

r e c h e r c h e s , fron t i s p i e c e .
Nouvelles recherches presumed a thorough u n d e r
s t anding o f a n a t o m y a nd p h y s i o l o g y on the p a r t o f the
reader. G a r c i a ' s M é m o i r e and "Observations" w e r e im
p r e s s i v e f o r their findings, but w e r e not n e a r l y as d e
tailed or t h o r o u g h as B a t t a i l l e 's research. While some
of B a t t a i l l e 's c o n c l u s i o n s were i n a c c u r a t e , his p r e s e n t a
tion of s u c h an a b u n d a n c e of det a i l e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l
mat e r i a l in re g a r d to the singing v o i c e m u s t s u r e l y be a
co n t r i b u t i o n of some p r o p o r t i o n w h i c h has l a r g e l y b e e n
overlooked in re c e n t years.
B a t t a i l l e ' s e x t r a c t of N o u v e l l e r e c h e r c h e s a p p e a r e d
in the C o m p t e s r e n d u s of the F r e n c h A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s
shortly a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n of the c o m p l e t e w o r k .^^ It
summar i z e d th e p o r t i o n s of the c o m p l e t e w o r k w h i c h its
author fel t w e r e the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t and o r i g i n a l
c o n t r i b u t i o n s to resea rch. The C o m p t e s rend u s of 1863
co n tained a s t a t e m e n t of prai s e for B a t t a i l l e ' s r e s e a r c h
and c o n t ributions;
Th e c o m m i s s i o n a c cords a v e r y h o n o r a b l e d i s t i n c
tion to Mr. B a t t aille, p r o f e s s o r at the C o n s e r v a t o r y
of M usic, for his p h y s i o l o g i c a l an d a n a t o m i c a l r e
sear c h o n the h u m a n voice. W i t h the a i d of a l a r y n
goscope, this o b s e r v e r has c a r e f u l l y stud i e d t h e m o d i
ficat i o n s w h i c h o c c u r at the lips of th e g l o t t i s in
the p r o d u c t i o n o f the c hest v o i c e an d h e a d vo i c e , and
^Charles Battaille, "Nouvelles r e c h e r c h e s su r la

p h o n a t i o n , " (extract b y the author). C o m p t e s r e n d u s 52
(1861), 716-722. A t r a n s l a t i o n of this e x t r a c t is p r o v i d e d
in App e n d i x II, p. 254.
has thus c o n t r i b u t e d to the a d v a n c e m e n t of o ur k n o w
ledge of t h e th e o r y of voice.
T h e s e c o n d p a r t of De 1'e n s e i g n e m e n t du c h a n t .
De la p h y s i o l o g i e appli q u é e a 1 'etude du m é c a n i s m e v o c a l ,
was s u b m i t t e d for a p p roval to the A c a d é m i e des Beau x - A r t s
on Jun e 27, 1863. Curiously, the c o m m i t t e e o n m u sical
composition was ch o s e n to examine the work. Thi s c o m mittee
n u m b e r e d a m o n g its c o n s t i t u e n t s Auber, Thomas, Reber, and
potential basis for the justi f i c a t i o n and s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n
of the d i v e r s e t e a c h i n g theories of the t i m e .
In the f i r s t c h apter of this v o lume, Batt a i l l e
stated his i n t e n t i o n to
b r i n g the t e a c h i n g of singing b a c k to some pre c i s e

formulae, to c e r t a i n pro f o u n d rul e s b a s e d o n anatomical
and p h y s i o l o g i c a l fact, in such a w a y tha t he n c e f o r t h
this o r i g i n a l b r a n c h of lyric art m a y n o t be e x
p l o i t e d b y ignorance, routine habit, and c h a r l a t a n i s m
w i t h o u t r e t r i b u t i o n .^^
In this i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r he furt h e r o b j e c t e d to the
p r e v a l e n t p h i l o s o p h y of vocal teach i n g b y i m i t a t i o n and
expressed a hope that the vol u m e ' s f i n d i n g s w o u l d be
^ ^C o m p t e s rendus 57 (1862), 1050. T r a n s l a t e d by

the writer.
^^ A p o s s i b l e r e a s o n for this c h o i c e o f comm i t t e e s

m a y res t in the c o m m i t t e e personnel. Auber, Thomas, and
Re b e r had b e e n r a t h e r c l o s e l y i n v olved w i t h B a t a i l l e 's
s inging career, e a c h of them ha v i n g c h o s e n h i m to c reate
roles in the i r operas.
^^B a t t a i l l e , De la physiology, v-viii.
^ ^ I b i d . , 1. T r a n s l a t e d by the writer.
accep t e d as a "practical c r i t e r i o n w h i c h w i l l ser v e as a
s ound b asis for p e d a g o g i c a l t h e o r y and a p p r o a c h . A
t able of a n a t o m i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s a n d a v e r y c a r eful, rudi
m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h to t e r m i n o l o g y e x e m p l i f i e d B a t t a i l l e ' s
i n t e n t i o n of r e a c h i n g the w o r l d of s i nging as w e l l as the
w o r l d of s c ience w i t h this book. In f a c t , his c l o s i n g
c h a p t e r r e l a t e d a d e s i r e to c l a r i f y for sing e r s t h e
p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s of N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s an d
a p p l y them to their a r t .
If the second v o l u m e of De 1 ' e n s e i g n e m e n t d u c hant
wa s a re s u l t of B a t t a i l l e 's r e s e a r c h as d e l i n e a t e d in the
f ir s t volume, it als o s tood alo n e as a t e a c h i n g m e thod.
It t r eated a ga m u t of topi c s fro m t he p o i n t s of v i e w of
p h i l o s o p h y and metho d o l o g y : a p p l i c a t i o n of p h y s i o l o g i c a l
l aws to singing; the n e c e s s i t y of voc a l ex e r c i s e , the
fusi o n of registers; the m e c h a n i s m of the t r i l l ; r e s
piration; a n d the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of v o i c e
quality. T h r o u g h o u t the w o r k are f ound t e a c h i n g c o n c e p t s
w hich were generally consistent wi t h Garcia's principles
a nd w h i c h w e r e s u p p o r t e d by B a t t a i l l e ' s res e a r c h . The
volume contained very few vocalises. I nstead, it d e v o t e d
m u c h t e xtual de t a i l to m e t h o d o l o g y .
^ ^ I b i d . , 2-3. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writ e r .
Ba t t a i l l e 's _ R e s e a r ch
N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c hes c o n t a i n s the bulk of
B a t t a i l l e 's c o n t r i b u t i o n s to k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g voc a l
p ro d u c t i o n . The are a s in w h i c h he c o n c e n t r a t e d his r e
sear c h w e r e th o s e w h i c h h a v e the m o s t imp l i c a t i o n s for
the s i n g i n g mech a n i s m : phonation, registr a t i o n , r e sonance,
and respir a t i o n . An additional area inc l u d e d o b s e r v a t i o n
o f the l a r y n x d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f the trill a n d the m e s s a
v oc e o r son f i l e . B a t t a i l l e c o m p i l e d his findi n g s
u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g s of t h r e e p h y s i o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s
w h i c h he found w e r e n e c e s s a r y for p h o n a t i o n to take place:
"the t e n s i o n of the voc a l folds, the p o s t e r i o r o c c l u s i o n
o f the glottis, an d the c u r r e n t o f p h o n a t o r y a i r .
A f t e r d e l i n e a t i n g his o b s e r v a t i o n s of c o o r d i n a t
ing m o v e m e n t s an d t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n speci f i c m u s c l e s and
cartilages, B a t t a i l l e set f o r t h the f o l l o w i n g f acts c o n
cer n i n g t e n s i o n o f the v o c a l folds;
1. T h e vo c a l folds a r e s t r e t c h e d in l e n g t h and in'

width.
2. L o n g i t u d i n a l t e n s i o n a n d e x t e r n a l l a teral t e n s i o n
o r v e n t r i c u l a r t e n s i o n a r e alwa y s p resent. Inter
nal late r a l t e n s i o n or s u b - g l o t t a l t e n s i o n m a y
b y the writer. B a t t a i l l e 's p h r a s e is 2^ t e n s i o n dej^

ligam e n t s v o c a u x . However, it is a p p a r e n t fro m hFs d e s
c r i p t i o n s of g l o t t a l m o v e m e n t s d u r i n g p h o n a t i o n t hat he
was r e f e r r i n g to th e v o c a l folds in the i r entirety.
B a t t a i l l e 's r e f e r e n c e s to les l i g a m e n t s v o c a u x w i l l
h e n c e f o r t h be i n t e r p r e t e d to i n d i c a t e the v o c a l folds.
d i s a p p e a r in the fal s e t t o register.
3. T o t a l o r p a r t i a l t e n s i o n pl a c e s the f olds in a
s t a t e of v i bration.
4. S i n c e it m a y b e i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d b y p e r c e p
t i b l e gradat i o n s , (this tension) p e r m i t s the folds
to e n g e n d e r all the pi t c h e s of the h u m a n voice,
f r o m low to high, and r e c iprocally.
5. W h i l e i n c r e a s i n g an d d e c r easing, (this tension)
m ay, for its p a r t , c o m p e n s a t e the effe c t s of i n
t e n s i t y or w e a k n e s s of the air c u r r e n t and perm i t
the i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e of the force of s ound on
e a c h d e gree of t he v o c a l scale.
In r e g a r d to p o s t e r i o r c l o s u r e of the g lottis,
Battaille fo u n d tha t t h e a m o u n t of this o c c l u s i o n m a y
be v a r i a b l e a n d he set f o r t h thi s factor's i m p l i c a t i o n s
for p i t c h and r e g i s t e r as follows;
1. T h e gl o t t i s m a y be c l o s e d in the rear in all its

intercartilaginous p o r t i o n and in a c e r t a i n area
o f its i n t e r l i g a m e n t o u s portion.
2. T h i s o c c l u s i o n m a y g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e or decrease.
3. It e x p a n d s or le s s e n s the a rea of the v i b r a t i n g
s u r f a c e and t h e r e b y co i n c i d e s w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n
o f l o w or h i g h pitches.
4. B y i n c r e a s i n g a n d decr e a s i n g , it may, for its part,
c o m p e n s a t e the e f f e c t s o f str e n g t h or w e a k n e s s of
a i r c u r r e n t a n d a l l o w the i n c r e a s e or d e c r e a s e
high are p r o d u c e d by c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h e cr i c o t h y r o i d ,
t h y r o a r y t e n o i d , and p o s t e r i o r c r i c o a r y t e n o i d musc l e s .
This a c t i o n a f f e c t s t h e mass, length, and t e n s i o n of the
vo cal folds. See Zemlin, 185-188. B a t t a i l l e 's ex a c t
m e a n i n g c o n c e r n i n g v e n t r i c u l a r t e n s i o n and s u b g l o t t a l
t e nsion is unclear.
^'Âccording to t h e m y o e l a s t i c - a e r o d y n a m i c t h e o r y
of v ocal produc t i o n , t he voc a l folds a re set int o v i b r a t i o n
by the air s t r e a m from the lungs and the t rachea, n o t b y
te nsion in the folds themse l v e s . Thi s t h e o r y is w e l l -
sup p o r t e d b y research. See Zemlin, 213, and W i l l i a m
Vennard, S inging: The M e c h a n i s m a n d the T e c h n i c , rev. ed.
(New York: C a r l Fischer', Inc., 1967) , 56-57, 240.
^ ^ B a t taille, N o u v e l l e r e c h e r c h e s , 95. Translated

by the w r iter.
of i n t e n s i t y of sound on e a c h d e g r e e o f the v o c a l
5. The p r o g r e s s i v e a f f r o n t i n g of t h e a r y t e n o i d s m a y
s om e t i m e s o c c u r to the e x t e n t o f the i n f e r i o r
t h ird o f t he i n t ernal a r y t e n o i d surfa c e s , w h i c h
ha p p e n s in the c h e s t r egister, a n d s o m e t i m e s to
the e x t e n t of t he s u p e r i o r t w o - t h i r d s o f t h ese
surfaces, as h a p p e n s in f a l s e t t o regis t e r .
In d i s c u s s i n g the third r e q u i r e m e n t f or v o i c e p r o
duction, c u r r e n t of p h o n a t o r y air, B a t t a i l l e c l e a r l y set
forth his b e l i e f t h a t vo c a l sound is t h e r e s u l t of a ir
p r e ssure a c t i n g a g a i n s t the v o c a l l i g a m e n t s a n d that p i t
ches are d e r i v e d b y m u s c u l a r t e n s i o n w h i c h is c o o r d i n a t e d
w i t h var y i n g a m o u n t s of air p r e s s u r e . H is findings for
this r e q u i r e m e n t w e r e as follows :
1. The p a s s a g e o f an air c u r r e n t w h i c h p o s s e s s e s a
d e s i r e d i n t e n s i t y a nd w h i c h e n c o u n t e r s the v o c a l
l igam e n t s w h i c h are a p p r o x i m a t e d and t e n s e d
causes t h e m to e n t e r in t o v i b r a t i o n .
2. The i n c r e a s e in i n t e n s i t y of t h e a i r c u r r e n t m a y
c o i n c i d e w i t h the e l e v a t i o n o f p i t c h w h i c h is
due to t he t e n s i o n of t h e l i g a m e n t s .
3. For the s ame pitch, the i n c r e a s e in i n t e n s i t y of
the air c u r r e n t causes a w e a k e r t e n s i o n o f the
l igam e n t s a nd a g r e a t e r o p e n i n g o f t h e gl o t t i s
in the rear.
Ibid., 90, 98. T r a n s l a t e d by t h e w r i t e r . In

c u rrent r e s e a r c h on the falsetto, t he v o c a l fo l d s have
bee n noted to m o v e to a p a r a m e d i a n p o s i t i o n f r o m a m e d i a n
p o s ition as a r e s u l t of v e r y h i g h a c t i v i t y o f t h e c r i c o
thyroid and p o s t e r i o r c r i c o a r y t e n o i d m u s c l e s . The action
of the aryte n o i d s i n th e s e m o v e m e n t s w o u l d a p p e a r to
c o n t radict B a t t a i l l e 's o b s e r v a t i o n s . S e e Zemlin, 194, a nd
Thomas G a y et a l ., " E l e c t r o m y o g r a p h y o f t h e I n t r i n s i c
Laryngeal M u s c l e s d u r i n g P h o n a t i o n , " T h e A n n a l s o f O t o l o g y,
Rhinology, and L a r y n g o l o g y 81 (1972), 406.
^^Curiously, B a t t a i l l e a p p e a r s t o c o n t r a d i c t his
o wn theory that t he folds are set into v i b r a t i o n by t h e i r
o wn tension. (See p. 80.) In r e g a r d to t he e f f e c t of
subglottal p r e s s u r e on p i t c h - c h a n g e , o n l y a n e g l i g i b l e
rise in p i t c h has b e e n fou n d to o c c u r w i t h l a r y n g e a l
tension held constant. See Zemlin, 190.
4, S t r e t c h e d in all d irections, the lig a m e n t s
v i b r a t e in the m a n n e r of m e m b r a n e s s t r e t c h e d
in l ike manner.
5. T h e i n t e n s i t y of the sound a n d the a m p l i t u d e of
the v i b r a t i o n s are in dir e c t p r o p o r t i o n to the
i n t e n s i t y o f the a ir current.
B a t t a i l l e a p p l i e d his find i n g s to the s i n g i n g
voice, p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d to h is t w o - r e g i s t e r theory,
t h r o u g h o u t b o t h v o l u m e s of De 1'e n se i g n e m e n t du c h a n t .
T h ese a p p l i c a t i o n s a re trea t e d in m o r e d e t a i l in the n e x t
section of thi s project.
A l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t i n a c c u r a t e a n d inc o m p l e t e , t he
am ount of a n a t o m y a nd p h y s i o l o g y B a t t a i l l e w a s a b l e to
observe, conceptualize, and a p p l y to the f i eld of s i n g i n g
is i m pressive. W h i l e his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i n v e s t i g a t e d the
h u man v o i c e w i t h r e g a r d to phon a t i o n , r e gisters, and
q u a l i t i e s at length, few r e s e a r c h e r s so c l o s e l y i n t e g r a t
ed d i s s e c t i o n a n d l a r y n g o s c o p i c o b s e r v a t i o n w i t h the st u d y
of the s i n g i n g voice.
^ ^ B a t t a i l l e , N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 83, 98-99.
T r a n s l a t e d b y t h e writer. Current research contradicts
the theo r i e s c o n t a i n e d in p o i n t s 3 a n d 5 above. Contrary
to p o i n t 3 above, it has b e e n p r o v e n tha t v o cal i n t e n s i t y
m a y be r a i s e d b y in c r e a s i n g the air f l o w w i t h c o n s t a n t
v o c a l - f o l d r e s i s t a n c e , and / o r by i n c r e a s i n g v o c a l - f o l d
r e s i s t a n c e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g c o n s t a n t a ir flow. The
the o r y in p o i n t 5, w h i l e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a t h e o r y
p o s t u l a t e d b y M e r k e l in 1873, has b e e n d i s p r o v e n by
rec e n t r e s e a r c h fi n d i n g s w h i c h sh o w t h a t the d u r a t i o n of
c l o s e d p h a s e o f t he v i b r a t o r y cycle i n c r e a s e s w i t h
intensity, a nd the m a x i m u m g lottal a r e a r e m ains e s s e n t i a l
ly constant. S ee Zemlin, 198-204.
A C a t e g o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n of B a t t a i l l e ' s T e a c h i n g
A t t i t u d e s and A p p r o a c h e s in G e n e r a l
Ja n e A r g e r has a s s e r t e d t h a t the v o c a l tea c h e r s w h o
ma d e the g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to p e d a g o g i c a l theory
w e r e t hose w h o w e r e bot h s i ngers a n d m e n of s c i e n t i f i c
background. Specifically, she c i t e d G a r c i a a n d B a t t a i l l e
for s e tting d o w n th e m o s t p r o v e n r u l e s a n d for t r a i n i n g
E u r ope's f i nest singers. A r g e r n a m e d B a t t a i l l e as G a r
cia's su c c e s s o r a n d c r e d i t e d h i m w i t h h a v i n g "brou g h t
the tec h n i q u e to a p e r f e c t i o n w h i c h w e h a v e n o t s een s u r
pa s s e d . " ^ ^ B a t t a i l l e w a s h i g h l y r e g a r d e d for his o w n s u c
cess as a t e a c h e r a n d for the s u c c e s s o f tho s e w h o a p p l i e d
his pr i n c i p l e s in t h e i r teaching. In r e g a r d to B a t t a i l
le 's De la p h y s i o l o g i e , w h i c h c o n t a i n s m o s t of B a t t a i l l e 's
teaching method, A r g e r stat e d "B a t t a i l l e w a s n o t c o n f i n e d
to w r i t i n g b o o k s o n science; he le a v e s us a b r e v i a r y of
style w h i c h b ears th e m a r k of thi s g r e a t artist.
As a t e a c h e r B a t t a i l l e e n d e a v o r e d to e s t a b l i s h a
syst e m b a s e d on the p h y s i o l o g i c a l f a c t s w h i c h he h a d e s
tablished in N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s . He d e c r i e d t hose w h o
taught by i m i t a t i o n and m i s u n d e r s t o o d t r a d i t i o n s and i n
sisted that a s y s t e m ba s e d on p h y s i o l o g i c a l fact w a s m o r e
dependable. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 1-4.) In his w r i t i n g s
^Ârger, "Evolution
Tr a n s l a t e d by the writer.
he s p o k e h i g h l y of his teacher., but b e l i e v e d t h a t he e s
t a b l i s h e d his o w n gr o u n d by b u i l d i n g o n G a r c i a ' s work.
B a t t a i l l e w a s o b v i o u s l y sym p a t h e t i c to m a n y o f G a r c i a ' s
concepts. His h a bitual u s e o f the t e r m "voice em i s s i o n "
rather than "voice p r o d u c t i o n " identifies hi m w ith G a r
c i a ' s p o i n t of v i e w (see p. 68 and N o u v e l l e s recherches,
84). In his a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d students, however, Battaille
wa s m u c h m o r e protec t i v e . W h i l e G a r c i a v i e w e d hi s r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y as b e i n g lim i t e d to g u i d a n c e a n d i n s t r u c t i o n ,
Battaille f e l t that v o i c e s w e r e " e n t r u s t e d to h i s ca r e "
(see p. 68 a n d De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 6) . He f u r t h e r b e l i e v
ed t hat t h e r e w e r e no p e r f e c t voic e s a n d t h a t al l v ocal
p r o b l e m s c o u l d be solv e d w i t h p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s
applied by a knowledgeable instructor. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e ,
6-7.)
Attack
As a r e s u l t of his ow n e x p e r i m e n t s and t h o s e of
o t h e r s w h o p r e c e d e d him, B a t t a i l l e r e g a r d e d th e l a r y n x
as "a m e m b r a n o u s ree d of t wo lips." (N o u v e l l e s recher
che s , 54-55.) A l t h o u g h B a t t a i l l e c i t e d no s p e c i f i c p e r
sons or re s e a r c h , some p h y s i o l o g i s t s a p p a r e n t l y h a d r e
c e n t l y c l a i m e d t h a t the l e n g t h of the w i n d p i p e i n f l u e n c
es t he r a i s i n g o r l o w e r i n g of p i t c h in the h u m a n voice.
B a t t a i l l e j o i n e d Muller, G a rcia, and o t h e r s in d i s p u t i n g
this v i e w and e s t a b l i s h i n g the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the
larynx alone for p i t c h adj u s t m e n t s , an d the i n f e r i o r
85
t h y r o - a r y t e n o i d l i g a m e n t s o r v o cal l i g a ments, acting
in c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h air pressure, for p h o n a t i o n .
(N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 55.)
B a t t a i l l e b a s e d his th e o r y o f p h o n a t i o n o n his
laryngoscopic observations. In the cou r s e of h is e x p e r i
ments, h e o b s e r v e d tha t p r o p e r a t t a c k or p h o n a t i o n d e
p e nds u p o n l o o s e o c c l u s i o n of the glo t t i s c o o r d i n a t e d
p r e c i s e l y w i t h b r e a t h effort. He observed t h a t it is
impossible to p r o d u c e a v o c a l sound w i t h t h e g l o t t i s
e n t i r e l y op e n , w h a t e v e r a m o u n t of e x p i r a t o r y a i r force is
involved. However, as t he v ocal l i g a ments are brought
c l o s e r t o g e t h e r u n t i l p l a c e d in v i b r a t i o n b y t h e air
current, a " m u f f l e d a n d hollow" s o und results. (N o u v e l
les r e c h e r c h e s , 31.) S u c h sounds, r e s u l t i n g in B a t
t a i l l e *s e x p e r i m e n t s from sl i g h t a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f the
v ocal folds an d an e n t i r e l y o p e n intercartilaginous
glottis, w e r e n o t e d as well b y G a r c i a in t h e f i r s t
e d i t i o n o f t h e T r a i t e , Part II, and h is "Observat i r n s "
(see pp. 53-54)- A s the a p p r o x i m a t i o n b e t w e e n the
arytenoid cartilages b ecame c l o s e r and the c l o s e d p h a s e
of v o c a l - f o l d v i b r a t i o n b e c a m e m o r e c o m p l e t e a n d e f f i
cient, t he v o c a l s o und w as n o t e d to i n c r e a s e in c l a r i t y
or e c l a t . (N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 32.) In c o n c u r r e n c e
^ ^ S i n c e i n c o m p l e t e c l o s u r e of the g l o t t i s r e s u l t s
in b r e a t h y p r o d u c t i o n , B a t t a i l l e w a s a p p a r e n t l y e x p e r i
m e n t i n g w i t h s u s t a i n e d - t o n e p r o d u c t i o n in p r o g r e s s i v e
d e g r e e s of g l o t t a l closure. See Zemlin, 207.
w i t h Garcia, B a t t a i l l e t h e r e f o r e n o t e d that a p p r o x i m a
tion of the ar y t e n o i d s r e s u l t i n g in e f f i c i e n t g l ottal
c l o s u r e is in d i s p e n s a b l e for a c c e p t a b l e voc a l p r o d u c
tion. (N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 36.)
Up to this point, B a t t a i l l e 's o b s e r v a t i o n s c o r
r e s p o n d e d c l o s e l y to Garcia's. In l i k e m a nner, his i n s i s
te n c e upon a m o d e r a t e l y l o w e r e d l a r y n x and a free l o w e r
j a w du r i n g p h o n a t i o n w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to G a r c i a ' s p r i n c i
ples. (A full d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s is found in
t he sect i o n on v o i c e qu a l i t i e s . S ee pp. 105-107). Bat
ta i l l e 's m e t h o d of a t t a i n i n g thi s goa l w a s d r a m a t i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of his teach e r , however:
The attack o f the s ound m u s t t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t

force, in o r d e r that the m u s c l e s n o t be o v e r w o r k e d
b y a series of v i o l e n t c o n t r a c t i o n s a nd t he v ocal
m e m b r a n e b r u i s e d by an e x a g g e r a t e d e x p l o s i o n of
a ir c u rrent w h i c h p l a c e s it in v i b r a t i o n . (De
la p h y s i o l o g i e , 17. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writer.)
D u e to his o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h w h i c h the
l a r y n x e xecutes "violent and c u r t a t t a c k s , " B a t t a i l l e
d e n o u n c e d the c o u p de gl o t t e a n d "replaced" it w i t h a
c o n c e p t of his own. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 18.) N a m e d the
"method of c o m p e n s a t i o n , " its b a s i s la y in the p r i n c i p l e
t h a t the vocal li g a m e n t s n e v e r be j a r r e d by v i o l e n t
action, but be k e p t in a s tate o f m o d e r a t e t e n s i o n w h i l e
a i r curr e n t is p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y an d m o d e r a t e l y i n c r e a s e d for
e a c h dec r e a s e in t e n s i o n of t he l i gaments.
. . . all t h e fulln e s s a n d s o n o r i t y d e s i r e d can be o b

t ain e d from the v o i c e w i t h a m o d e r a t e t e n s i o n of th e
vocal ligaments, p r o v i d e d the i n t e n s i t y of the air
curr e n t is increased. ÇPe la p h y s i o l o g i e , 45.
Transl a t e d by the writer.)
Th e goal of this p r o c e d u r e was to e n a b l e the singer to
ex e c u t e the e n t i r e t y of his vocal scale w i t h the m i n i m a l
de g r e e of l igamentous t e n s i o n n e c e s s a r y for clear tone
an d facile pit c h adjustment. B a t t a i l l e b e l i e v e d that
thi s was acc o m p l i s h e d b y c o m p e n s a t i n g the lack of tension
w i t h a pro p o r t i o n a t e inc r e a s e in e x p i r a t o r y air current.
In addition, he r e q u i r e d that the lary n x be m o d e r a t e l y
lowe r e d and the lower jaw be v e r y l o o s e . (De la
p h y s i o l o g i e , 47-48.)
Registration
In c ontrast to Garcia, who m a i n t a i n e d that mos t
v o i c e c l a s s ifications have three regi s t e r s , B a t taille
in s isted upon two, ch e s t and falsetto. Va r i o u s a d j u s t
me n t s of the t h y r o - a r y t e n o i d m u s c l e s w e r e f ound to be
r es p o n s i b l e for the m o s t e f f ective rol e in pr o d u c t i o n
of b o t h registers. (No u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 14.) In his
ex p l a n a t o r y table of a n a t omical t e r m s in De la physiolo
gie , Battaille pl a c e d the fo l l o w i n g definitions:
chest voice: V o c a l sound p r o d u c e d by the total area

of the vocal ligaments.
^^Since c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n glo t t a l m o v e m e n t s a nd
b r e a t h are the basis of this concept, it is t r eated m o r e
fu l l y in the section on coor d i n a t i o n , pp. 110-114.)
falsetto: V o c a l sound p r o d u c e d b y th e s u p e r i o r
t w o - t h i r d s of the v o c a l l i g a m e n t s .
(De la p h v s i o l o c i e , x\’’iii. T r a n s l a t e d by the
writer)
Battaille apparently applied the term " f alsetto" to the
same area o f the v o c a l r ange w h i c h G a r c i a d i v i d e d into
f alsetto a n d head. B a t t a i l l e r e g r e t t e d the use of the
terms "head" and "falsetto," b u t c o n t i n u e d t h e m b e c a u s e
of t heir f a m i l i a r i t y to the reader. He felt, however,
that he wa s th e f irst to d e r i v e the p r o p e r o r i g i n of the
term "falsetto." He tr a c e d it to the L a t i n w o r d fauces,
w h i c h m e a n s t he u p p e r par t of the throat, r a t h e r than to
the Ital i a n f a l s o , w h i c h m e a n s false. (De la physiolo
g i e , 6.) W h i l e the r e are d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n v a r i o u s
voice classifications in r e g i s t e r r a n g e s and p a s s a g i o
areas, Battaille found b o t h c h e s t and f a l s e t t o r e g i s t e r s
l e g i t i m a t e l y to e xist in all c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .
In o r d e r to o b s e r v e t h e l a r y n x in p r o d u c t i o n of
the c hest voic e , B a t t a i l l e b e g a n his o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h
s u s tained l o w n o tes p r o d u c e d b y a r e l a t i v e l y o p e n g l o t
tis. He t h e n o b s e r v e d the c h a n g e s t hat o c c u r in sound
and p h y s i o l o g i c a l a p p e a r a n c e as the glottis, including
^ ^ B a t t a i l l e 's exa c t m e a n i n g is unclear: "Voix

de faucet: S o n v o c a l p r o d u i t p a r les d e u x t iers s u p é r i
eurs des l i g a m e n t s v o c a u x . " Stockhausen, who was closely
ac q u a i n t e d w i t h B a t t a i l l e 's r e s e a r c h a n d teaching, o b
served, "I q u i t e ag r e e w i t h Ch. B a t t a i l l e , who p r o v e s
that for the c h e s t - v o i c e the w h o l e w i d t h o f the voc a l
cords is r e q u i r e d , for the f a l s e t t o o n l y t w o - t h i r d s . "
See Juli u s Sto c k h a u s e n , A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , trans.
Sophie L o w e (London: Novello, Ewer, a n d Co., 1884), 11.
89
the a r y t e n o i d car t i l a g e s , is p r o g r e s s i v e l y closed. With
this p r o d u c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v i b r a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t the
g l o t t a l area, B a t t a i l l e o b s e r v e d t he l arynx in s i n ging
f r o m l o w to h i g h a n d al s o fr o m hi g h to low. (N o u v e l l e s
r e c h e r c h e s , 31-35.) F or the sake o f a n a l y s i s a nd c o m
p arison, he d i v i d e d the v i b r a t o r y a r e a of the larynx,
th a t is, the vocal fol d s or inte r n a l thyro-arytenoids,
into thr e e reg i o n s :
1. A s u b - g l o t t a l region, which runs just b e n e a t h the
gl o t t a l a r e a in a line f r o m t h e t h y r o i d a n g l e to a
p o i n t j u s t b e l o w the a n t e r i o r b o r d e r of t he a r y t e n o i d s
2. A v e n t r i c u l a r region, c o m p r i s i n g the r e g i o n just abo v e
th e g l o t t i s a n d b e l o w t h e false v o c a l folds
3. A free bo r d e r , r u n n i n g f r o m t he t h y r o i d a n g l e to the
vocal processes, for m e d b y the l ips of t he gl o t t i s
His o b s e r v a t i o n s are l i s t e d u n d e r e l e v e n p o ints:
1. The vocal f o lds v i b r a t e in all t h e i r are a
2. T h e v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e m o r e r a pid a nd l a r g e r as the
p i t c h is r a i s e d
3. In s i n g i n g f r o m l o w n o t e s to h i g h e r notes, the
gl o t t i s is n a r r o w e d fr o m back to f r ont u p to the
f o l l o w i n g notes:
Terror<
4. In a s c e n d i n g the scale, the v o cal l i g a m e n t s are
ra i s e d and g r a d u a l l y s t r etched in all t h r e e re g i o n s
5. In s i n g i n g a b o v e the limits i n d i c a t e d a b o v e in c h e s t
voice, the p r i n c i p a l agent for the e l e v a t i o n of v o c a l
pitch appears to be the voc a l l i g a m e n t s
6. In c o n t i n u i n g u p t he scale, the a r y t e n o i d s cause the
g l o t t a l o p e n i n g in t he rear to be r e d u c e d and s i m u l
taneously cause t he area of the v i b r a t i n g s u r face
to b e c o m e smaller
7. A c e r t a i n n u m b e r of l o wer pi t c h e s m a y be p r o d u c e d in
c h e s t v o i c e w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y op e n glottis, b ut t h e s e
sounds lack c l a r i t y
8. The g l o t t i s r e m a i n s r e c t i l i n e a r and t he a r y t e n o i d s
are a p p r o x i m a t e d b y the lower t h ird of t h e i r i n t e r n a l
su r faces
9. The s u p e r i o r t h y r o a r y t e n o i d l i g a m e n t s take no p a r t
in s o u n d g e n e r a t i o n ^
10. The v e n t r i c l e s o f M o r g a g n i r e m a i n l i n e a r
•11. In a s c e n d i n g t he scale, the v e s t i b u l e o f the g l o t t i s
is c o n t r a c t e d in all d i rections. Its w a l l s are
s t r a i g h t e n e d a n d b e c o m e less c o n c a v e a n d its d e p t h
44
B a t t a i l l e * s ex a c t m e a n i n g is u n c lear. " S uperior
t h y r o a r y t e n o i d l i g a m e n t " a p p a r e n t l y r e f e r s to some
in t r i n s i c l a r y n g e a l p a r t c u r r e n t l y d e s c r i b e d b y a n o t h e r
lessens sl i g h t l y in v o i x s ombre a nd m o r e so in voix
Claire (Nouve l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 36-37.)
F o r stu d y of the falsetto, Battaille observed
g l o t t a l m o v e m e n t s w h i l e s i n g i n g t he same n o t e a l t e r n a t e
l y in c h e s t and f a l s e t t o a n d w h i l e a s c e n d i n g t h e scale
in fa l s e t t o . His o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e c h a n g e s w h i c h took
p l a c e l ed h i m to e s t a b l i s h the f o l l o w i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f a l s e t t o reg i s t e r :
1. The vocal folds v i b r a t e in o n l y t w o o f th e i r three
regions, the fr e e b o r d e r and v e n t r i c u l a r regions,
while the sub-gl o t t a l r e g i o n r e m a i n s s t ill
2 , Th e v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e smal l e r a n d m o r e r a p i d as the
p i t c h asce n d s
T h e g l o t t i s takes o n a g e n e r a l l y e l l i p t i c a l fo r m
(see F i g u r e 4)
In a s c e n d i n g the scale, the g l o t t i s is n a r r o w e d up
to the f o l l o w i n g notes:
Te/Jor<
( B attaille gave no e x p l a n a t i o n o f the u n u s u a l l y h igh
pitches for basses. It is p o s s i b l e th a t he w a s i n
c l u d i n g b a r i t o n e s in t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . )
In a s c e n d i n g the scale, t he v o c a l fo l d s a r e g r a d u a l l y
s t r e t c h e d in t h eir fr e e b o r d e r a n d v e n t r i c u l a r region.
Çorcel
i/I? ch e st
b t h\.
Q \ii c h e s t
f i/\? chest
\> h ' [Vestibule o f i k e ^ l o f h ' s

cc'^ ]/OCdl f o i l s
dd Cufifeiform céytdsLêS
e e' 3 L .ry te o lo lc l C c iy tU a .q e s
f tracKea
F I G U R E 4: B A T T A I L L E ' S DRA W I N G S OF THE GLO T T I S DURI N G '

C H E S T A N D F A L S E T T O P R O D UCTION. F r o m Batt a i l l e , No u v e l l e s
r e c h e r c h e s , pl a t e s VI a n d VII.
C /A' eldest
iri falsetto
gM i/0 ckest
é'iW fa.?se-tto
a epipIoit('s
j?y \focal 'Çolls
Vestibule o f Ih e ^ Id ttis
J c f dl-Ytepioid caxtilsLêS
FIGURE 4 - Continued.
A n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r t e n s i o n i n c reases in this m o v e
ment, b u t n o t as m u c h as in t he c h est r e g i s t e r
6. As in t h e c h e s t re g i s t e r , the p r i n c i p a l a g e n t for
p i t c h e l e v a t i o n ab o v e t he a f o r e m e n t i o n e d l i m i t s
appears to be the v o c a l folds
7. Up to t h e i n d i c a t e d limits, the arytenoids diminish
the p o s t e r i o r a r e a of t h e v i b r a t i n g surface while
the g l o t t a l o p e n i n g is a l s o d i m i n i s h e d
8. The s u p e r i o r t h y r o a r y t e n o i d ligam e n t s ta k e n o pa r t
in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of s o u n d
9. In a s c e n d i n g t he scale, the v e s t i b u l e o f the g lottis
is c o n t r a c t e d in all d i r e c t i o n s . Its w a l l s a re
s t r a i g h t e n e d and b e c o m e less c o ncave a n d its d e p t h
lessens s l i g h t l y in v o i x s o m b r e and m o r e so in v o i x
claire. T he m u c o u s m e m b r a n e is raised a n d stretched.
10. The l o w e r p i t c h e s o f f a l s e t t o o c cur w i t h an o p e n
g lottis, b ut c a n n o t a c q u i r e cl a r i t y u n t i l t he car t i -
45-47.)
In cu r r e n t r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n i n g r e g i s t r a t i o n , Ralph Appel-
m a n has p u b l i s h e d findings from experiments which corrobo
r ate and a d d to B a t t a i l l e 's f i n d i n g s on t h e v e s t i b u l e . In
mov e to a p a r a m e d i a n p o s i t i o n in h i g h falsetto, o f t e n wit h

ev i d e n c e of b r e a t h i n e s s in the tone. See Zemlin, 195.
w o r k i n g w i t h several v owel q u a l i t i e s , A p p e l m a n was able
to v e r i f y i n c r e a s e s and d e c reases in v e n t r i c u l a r d i m e n
sions as w e l l .
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h B a t t a i l l e found to be p e
c u l i a r to the c h e s t r e g i s t e r w e r e :
1. T h e r e c t i l i n e a r form of the g l o t t a l op e n i n g
2. A p p r o x i m a t i o n of the a r y t e n o i d s b y the i nferior
third of the i r internal s u rfaces
3. Some v i b r a t i o n in the s u b - g l o t t a l regi o n of the v ocal
■folds
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s fou n d o n l y in the falsetto
r e g i s t e r were:
1. A n elliptic
2. A p p r o x i m a t i o n of the a r y t e n o i d s b y the s uperior two-
t hirds of t heir i n ternal surfa c e s
3. Th e a b s e n c e of v i b r a t i o n in the sub- g l o t t a l regi o n
(N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 48.)
B a t t a i l l e als o n o t e d that a m o r e p o w e r f u l air curr e n t is
n e c e s s a r y for c h e s t voice. A w e a k e r c u r r e n t r e s u l t s in
Ralph Appel m a n , "R a d i o l o g i c a l F indings in the

S t u d y of V o c a l R e g i s t e r s , " in Vo c a l R e g i s t e r s in S i n g i n g :
P r o c e e d i n g s of a Symposium, ed. J o h n W. Lar g e (P a r i s :
M ou t o n , 1973), 59-92.
^^The e l l i p t i c a l g l o t t i s has b e e n found to be a s

s o c i a t e d w i t h the lo w a nd m i d d l e falsetto. See Zemlin,
195.
d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l the s pecific m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t s
w h i c h he fo u n d w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for c h e s t and fal s e t t o
production. (N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 82-83.)
In t e rms of c u r r e n t research, B a t t a i l l e 's d e s c r i p
ti o n s of t he p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n and shape of the
g l o t t a l o p e n i n g for f alsetto app e a r to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h
t h e l i g h t e r p r o d u c t i o n o f m e d i u m and hea d r e g i s t e r s as
d e s c r i b e d b y Vennard.'^^ Rubin, w o r k i n g f r o m a ge n e r a l
d e f i n i t i o n of f a l s e t t o as "that p o r t i o n of t h e v o i c e w h i c h
encompasses the up p e r s inging r a n g e , f o u n d two t y pes
o f falsetto, o ne w h i c h e m p l o y e d "damping" (see p. 40) a nd
o n e w h i c h d id not. Ru b i n ' s p h o t o g r a p h s o f t he falsetto,
p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t damping, reveal g l o t t a l shapes w h i c h
a p p e a r to c o r r e s p o n d to B a t t a i l l e 's d r a w i n g s ^ ^ (see
F i g u r e 4).
W h i l e he r e c o g n i z e d two r e g i s t e r s i n s t e a d of G a r
c i a's t h r e e - r e g i s t e r concept, B a t t a i l l e 's a p p r o a c h e s to
t a i l l e 's findings. Incr e a s e in rate o f a ir f l o w h as b e e n

f o u n d to b e a s i g n i f i c a n t factor for h i g h e r p i t c h e s in
l i g h t e r r e g i s t r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g falsetto. See M. Hirano,
W. V e n nard, a nd J. Ohala, "Regulation of Register, P i t c h
a nd I n t e n s i t y of V o i c e , " F o lia p h o n i a t r i c a 22 (1970),
13-17.
^^Vennard, S i n g i n g , 67-73.
A H i g h S p e e d C i n e m a t o g r a p h i c S tudy," T h e L a r y n g o s c o p e 70
(1960), 1306.
^ ^ I b i d . , 1305-1324.
97
u n i t i n g the r e g i s t e r s w e r e v e r y m u c h the same as t h o s e of
his teacher. His att i t u d e s in g e n e r a l r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e
ly cons e r v a t i v e . B a t t a i l l e insi s t e d up o n s t a r t i n g all
v o i c e s by d e v e l o p i n g the m i d d l e v o i c e first. With
t h o r o u g h e x e r c i s e in this area, the le a s t a m o u n t of e f f o r t
w o u l d r e s u l t in the m o s t e f f i c i e n t produc t i o n .
Ba t t a i l l e re c o g n i z e d the n e e d for d e v e l o p m e n t of
m u s c u l a r co n t r o l w i t h i n the larynx for the c o r r e c t i o n of
f a u l t y tone, technique, and pitch. H e b e l i e v e d t hat his
physiological find i n g s sup p o r t e d t he e m p h a s i s g i ven v o c a l
e x e r c i s e s by the bel canto teachers, and therefore insist
ed on t h o r o u g h but g r a d u a t e d e x e r c i s e s for h is students:
But if t he sureness, the prec i s i o n , and the

p o w e r of sound a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d o n the d i r e c t i o n and
the p r e c i s i o n of the laryn g e a l m u s cles, it is e v i d e n t
that, ab o v e all, w e mus t be o c c u p i e d w i t h the t r a i n i n g
o f these m u s c l e s to ma k e them s u p p l e and a c c u s t o m
th e m to o rderly, fixed m o v e m e n t s e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t
on the will, and fi n a l l y to c o m p e l them to p e r f o r m
t rue vo c a l gymnastics. Such was the method taught
b y the o l d I talian school; such is that w h i c h I u s e
an d w h i c h I affirm, in the name o f good sense, to
b e the o n l y a c c e p t a b l e way. (D e la p h y s i o l o g i e ,
13-14. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writer.)
W h i l e De la p h y s i o l o g i e in c l u d e d o n l y a few b a s i c e x e r
cises, the c o n t e x t s of t h eir d e s c r i p t i o n s tell us that
the e x e r c i s e s B a t t a i l l e u s e d w e r e c a r e f u l l y g r a d u a t e d
a c c o r d i n g to diffi c u l t y , a l t h o u g h p r o b a b l y n o t as m u c h as
w e r e Garcia's. (De la p h y s i o l o g y , 61-64.)
Tw o fa c t o r s inv o l v e d in d e v e l o p i n g ease and f r e e d o m
w e r e a m o d e r a t e l y lo w e r e d lar y n x and a loose l o w e r jaw.
B a t t a i l l e felt tha t a m o d e r a t e l y l o w e r e d la r y n x "results
in g i v i n g the v o i c e su p p l e n e s s a n d power, and e n c o u r a g e s
the e n l a r g e m e n t o f its n a t u r a l rang e . " (D e la p h y s i o l o
g i e , 15.) F r e e d o m of t he l o w e r j a w g u a r a n t e e s t h a t the
ex t r i n s i c l a r y n g e a l m u s c l e s w o u l d n o t b e u s e d in the
ra p i d e x e c u t i o n o f v o c a l p a s s a g e s . As p r o o f of this
factor, B a t t a i l l e o f f e r e d his s u c c e s s in t e a c h i n g the
tr i l l by e m p h a s i z i n g a r e l a x e d l o wer jaw. He s u g g e s t e d
G a r c i a ' s e m p l o y m e n t of a r i b b o n tied to hold the j a w
in place, b u t m u c h p r e f e r r e d to "appeal to the s t u d e n t ' s
intelligence." (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 16.) His s u g g e s t e d
e x e r c i s e s f or t he trill w e r e as follows; (De la p h y s i o l o
g i e , 64.)
1y I
A n e x e r c i s e ba s i c to B a t t a i l l e ' s m e t h o d for
b l e n d i n g t h e r e g i s t e r s w a s the p o r t de v o i x , or p o r t a
m e n t o , w h i c h a l l o w e d all p i t c h e s b e t w e e n in t e r v a l s to b e
h e a r d as a p a r t of the single e x e c u t i o n o f a glide. Be
c a u s e it i m p a r t e d a r e g u l a r l y g r a d u a t e d t e n s i o n to the
vocal ligaments, t he p o r t de v o i x w a s fo u n d to be an
ex c e l l e n t e x e r c i s e for b l e n d i n g all a r eas of the v o i c e
an d for the e x e c u t i o n o f d i f f i c u l t intervals.
I h a v e m a d e the p o r t de v o i x the f o u n d a t i o n
o f e x e r c i s e s to w h i c h I s u b m i t all b e ginners, in
o r d e r t h a t t h e y le a r n to p a s s t h r o u g h all i n t e r v a l s
w i t h surety. To s i n g s l o w l y all n o t e s of the sc a l e
a n d to c a r r y the v o i c e w i t h energy f r o m o ne note
to the o t h e r w i t h o u t d r a g g i n g it is the b e s t of
exercises. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 19. Translated
b y the writer.)
The f o l l o w i n g exa m p l e of the p o r t de v o i x w as i n t e n d e d to
be t r a n s p o s e d to any k e y s n e c e s s a r y for v a r i o u s v o ice
classifications: (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 64.)
It m a y be a s s u m e d that the o t h e r i n tervals of the dia t o n i c
s c a l e w e r e p r a c t i c e d in l i k e mann e r .
F o r all voi c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , Battaille ins i s t e d
u p o n l i m i t i n g the che s t r e g i s t e r and a v o i d e d e x t e n d i n g
the c h e s t b e y o n d its me a n s . S i n c e he f o u n d t h a t the
d e v e l o p m e n t of the ch e s t r e g i s t e r d e p e n d e d d i r e c t l y
u p o n the size of the l a rynx, he d e n o u n c e d its false
ex t e n s i o n . W i t h w o m e n ' s vo i c e s , Batta i l l e u s u a l l y limited
t he u p p e r c hest r e g i s t e r to f^ an d beg a n the falsetto with
g^. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 23.) T h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s are
c o m p a r a b l e to tho s e e s t a b l i s h e d b y Garcia (see F i g u r e 1).
No f u r t h e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of r e g i s t e r l i m i t s w e r e p r o v i d e d
b y Ba tt a i l l e . However, he n o t e d that, as the sca l e is
a s c e n d e d in falsetto, the r e g i s t e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y dev e l o p s
more brilliance (e c l a t ) . He u r g e d that stu d e n t s d i l i g e n t l y
practice the p a s s a g e f r o m c h e s t r e g i s t e r to f a l s e t t o at
t he p i t c h levels w h e r e "t h e m u s c u l a r t e n s i o n is m o d e r a t e d
a n d the f a l s e t t o r e g i s t e r a l r e a d y has e n o u g h r i n g for it
to be a d v a n t a g e o u s l y e m p l o y e d . " These p i t c h e s he d e f i n e d
as bei n g f^ to for w o m e n and tenors and e^ to f^ for
baritones. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 21.) W h i l e Battaille did
not specify the lower f a lsetto limits, use of the f a lsetto
on lower p i t c h e s was a p a r t of his own e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n (as
seen in Figu r e 4), if not a p a r t of his p r o g r a m for voc a l
training.
For d e v e l o p m e n t of the chest, B a t t a i l l e bas e d two
v e r y simple ex e r c i s e s upo n his research. U s i n g the g l o t t i s
r e l a t i v e l y open, he had s tudents sing a scale on s u s t a i n e d
n otes w i t h one b r e a t h per note:
SofrôS
-'y-j-h----
zr -e-
The n e x t step was to co n n e c t e v e r y two notes befo r e b r e a t h
ing. For m a x i m u m c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the c h e s t reg i s t e r the
g l o t t i s was to r e m a i n as o p e n as p ossible:
No m e n t i o n o f f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s i o n of these exerc i s e s wa s
made. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 63.) There is an o b vious
c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the upper l imit w h i c h B a t taille
a l l o w e d s opranos for the c hest r e g i s t e r and the range
r e q u i r e d for this e xercise. He m a y p o s s i b l y have i n
t e n d e d the e x e r c i s e to be a d j u s t e d or sho r t e n e d in
ac c o r d a n c e w i t h his sopr a n o che s t limits.
A n o t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n also infl u e n c e d
B a t t a i l l e 's c o n s e r v a t i v e principles. He n o t e d that v oices
w i t h w e l l - d e v e l o p e d u p p e r notes u s u a l l y p o s s e s s numer o u s
m u s c u l a r fibers of u n e q u a l length loca t e d b e t w e e n the
f ree bord e r and the a r y t e n o i d apophyses. If the fun c t i o n
of these fibers is c o m p r o m i s e d by their sca r c i t y or a b
sence, no am o u n t of voc a l exe r c i s e can enab l e a vo i c e to
a t t a i n upper n o t e s . (Nouve l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 66.) Battail
le felt that w i s e e x e r c i s e w o u l d e n able a v o i c e to acqu i r e
the m a x i m u m ra n g e s a l l o w e d by the p h y s i o l o g y of an i n d i v i
d ual larynx. He d e n o u n c e d those t e achers of his d ay w h o
b o a s t e d of e x t e n d i n g r a nges by gr e a t m a r g i n s and of c h a n g
ing baritones to tenors. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 24-25.) Bat
t aille 's ranges for the four m a j o r v o i c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
were listed in De la phy s i o l o g i e as the y a p p e a r in F i gure
5. He neg l e c t e d to i n clude speci f i c ranges for i n t e r m e d i
ate classifications, such as m e z z o - s o p r a n o an d baritone,
b e c a u s e he had i n t e n d e d to d i scuss these voic e s in de t a i l
in his fourth volume. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 62.)
^^No cu r r e n t ref e r e n c e or r e s e a r c h c o u l d be f ound

to support B a t t a i l l e 's "fibers of u n e q u a l l e n g t h . "
F I G U R E 5: B A T T A I L L E ' S RANGES F O R TH E F O U R M A J O R V O I C E
C L ASSIFICATIONS. F r o m De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 62, t r a n s p o s e d
f r o m the original clefs.
In r egard to the falsetto, B a t taille, lik e Garcia,
fo u n d the untr a i n e d lower f a l s e t t o to be weaker, and t here
for e endeavored fi r s t to d e v e l o p t he f a l s e t t o at t h e b o t
t o m of its scale. In so doing, he l e a r n e d tha t he s i m u l
tan e o u s l y was s t r e n g t h e n i n g it for its up p e r n o t e s as w e ll.
(D e la' p h y s i o l o g i e , 26, 29.) W i t h women, Battaille b e
l i e v e d that un i o n of the r e g i s t e r s w a s of f i rst i m p o r t a n c e .
H e felt that the v o i c e t e a c h e r had the o b l i g a t i o n to "place"
the lower, w e a k e r not e s of the w o m a n ' s falsetto where
t he y w o u l d be h e a r d l e a s t o f t e n and then to d e v e l o p
t h e i r s t r e n g t h to m a t c h the r e m a i n d e r of t he voice:
(De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 23-24.)
with new women students particularly, including b e g i n
n ers a nd t h ose w h o h a d b e e n a l l o w e d to c a r r y the c h e s t
r e g i s t e r too high, B a t t a i l l e b e g a n b y l i m i t i n g t he c h e s t
v o i c e to:
He tau g h t the s t u d e n c to m a s t e r t he third:
in falsetto. Then, w h i l e t he st u d e n t c o n t i n u e d p r a c t i c
ing the second in falsetto:
Battaille had h e r p r a c t i c e t he same notes in c h e s t r e g i s
ter. In the m o r e d i f f i c u l t c a s e s of c h est abuse, Battai
l le e x t e n d e d t h e s t udy of f a l s e t t o as far as
be f o r e f o l l o w i n g the a b o v e pr o c e d u r e . He w a s m o s t e n t h u
s i a s t i c a b o u t t he r e s u l t s o f this approach:
I o f t e n a m a b l e to r e t u r n to the organ, if n o t t he
l ost f r e s h n e s s a n d power, at least a s u f f i c i e n t
h o m o g e n e i t y and s o l i d i t y for f a c i l i t a t i n g a c o m p l e t e
(vocal) e d u c a t i o n . (D e la p h y s i o l o g i e , 27. Trans
l a t e d b y t h e writer.)
Battaille was also enthusiastic about another exer
ci s e for u n i f i c a t i o n w h i c h w a s use d b y G a r c i a as well.
Using a single expiration, t h e s t u dent w a s r e q u i r e d to
r e p e a t the s a m e n o t e a l t e r n a t e l y in fa l s e t t o a nd chest.
T h e p r o g r e s s i o n of i n t e r v a l l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h i s e x e r
c i s e w as c o m p a r a b l e to G a r c i a ' s approach: (De la p h y s i o
l o g i e , 64.)
F c-^F
T h e p r o c e s s of b l e n d i n g the r e g i s t e r s is m o s t
critical in the p a s s a g g i o ar e a s of the voice. Based u p
on his p h y s i o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f ch a n g e s in m u s c u l a r
105
e m p l o y m e n t as the scale is ascended, Battaille fou n d
these areas to be d e f i n e d as follows: (De la p h y s i o l o g i e ,
50.)
While all of the f o r e g o i n g p r o c e d u r e s w e r e a p p l i c a b l e
here also, B a t t a i l l e fou n d t hat the a p p r o a c h w h i c h w as
peculiarly his own, the "method of c o m p e n s a t i o n , " w a s
mo s t effective for the p a s s a g g i o . (D e la p h y s i o l o g i e , .
50. A full d e s c r i p t i o n of the "method of c o m p e n s a t i o n "
is contained in pp. 110-114.)
V o w e l s a nd V o i c e Q u a l i t i e s
Bat t a i l l e ' s t e a c h i n g p r i n c i p l e s in the a r e a of
vowels were n o t set d o w n in e i t h e r of his p u b l i s h e d v o l
umes. It is p o s s i b l e th a t he h a d i n t e n d e d to t r e a t this
area as a part of style (as d i d Garcia) in his fifth vo l
ume, Du style et de I ' e s t h e t i q u e dans le c h a n t . No sug
gested vowels w e r e gi v e n for his v o c a l ex e r c i s e s , n o r was
there any m e n t i o n of p h y s i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s o f v o w e l f o r
mation or of v o w e l m o d i f i c a t i o n .
106
In the a r e a of voi c e q u alities, Ba t t a i l l e a c c e p t
ed the e x i s t e n c e a n d u s e f u l n e s s of v o i x c l a i r e and v o i x
.s o m b r e , but gave no s u g g e s t i o n s for t h e i r st y l i s t i c use.
In h i s t r e a t m e n t of r e g i s t r a t i o n (see pp. 87-105), Bat
ta i l l e c o n t r a s t e d the d i f f e r e n t p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n s
of t h e s e two q u a l i t i e s and the i r e f f e c t upo n the v e s t i
b u l e of the glottis. In a s c e n d i n g t he scale in chest
voice, B a t t a i l l e n o t e d that the d e p t h of the v e s t i b u l e
l e s s e n s m o r e for v o i x c l a i r e t h a n for v o i x s o m b r e . The
same wa s fo u n d to be tru e of the falsetto. (N o u v e l l e s
r e c h e r c h e s , 37,47.) G a r c i a ' s m o r e d e t a i l e d a nalysis of
physiological c o n f o r m a t i o n s for these q u a l i t i e s was in
agreement (see pp. 55-56).
In r e g a r d to the v o i x s ombre exc l u s i v e l y , however,
B a t t a i l l e too k a s t r o n g e r position. He had n o t e d tha t
p i t c h a d j u s t m e n t is la r g e l y the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the
c r i c o t h y r o i d muscle. A high l a r y n g e a l p o s i t i o n was fo u n d
to c ause the w i n d p i p e to be d i s t e n d e d and to inc r e a s e the
d i s t a n c e - b e t w e e n the c r i c o i d and t h y r o i d cartil a g e s and
as a result, the s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n the p o i n t s of a t t a c h
m e n t of the c r i c o t h y r o i d muscle. He fo u n d it necessary,
therefore, to insist u pon a m o d e r a t e l y l o w e r e d p o s i t i o n of
the larynx. In this w a y the c r i c o t h y r o i d m u s c l e can f u n c
tio n w i t h less effort, can h a v e a l a r g e r field of c o n t r a c
tion, and ther e b y can p e r m i t the v o i c e a w i d e r range.
B a t t a i l l e id e n t i f i e d the re s u l t as the voi x somb r e of
Garcia, Diday, an d P e triquin, but d i d not d e s c r i b e or
e n dorse o t h e r v o i c e qu a l i t i e s as b eing c o r r e c t or a c c e p t
able. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 14-15.) Battaille credited
Ga r c i a w i t h m a k i n g the m o s t i m portant c o n t r i b u t i o n to r e
se a r c h on this m a t t e r and a dded his own c o n clusions:
In sum, w h e n the v e s t i b u l e of the g l o t t i s is

narrow, the s ound is m o r e shrill and m o r e thin;
whe n this same v e s t i b u l e is flexible and large,
the s ound is rounder, larger, and m o r e mel l o w .
Finally, t here is a compl e t e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
among the vest i b u l e , the larynx itself, a n d the
p h a r y n x ; w h e n the la t t e r two are s pacious and
elastic, the v e s t i b u l e shares their s tate of
r e l a x a t i o n and is favor a b l e for f ullness of
sound. This r e m a i n s the m o s t c o n v i n c i n g a r g u
m e n t for r e l a x a t i o n of parts n e i g h b o r i n g the
g l ottis d u r i n g v o i c e production. (De la p h y s i o
logie , 43-44. T r a n s l a t e d by the writer.)
R e c e n t r e s e a r c h on tr a i n e d and u n t r a i n e d v o i c e s has shown
t hat m o s t t r a i n e d v o i c e s use a lower larynx p o s i t i o n in
s inging tha n u n t r a i n e d voices. The d e s c r i p t i o n of the
results of the s e e x p e r i m e n t s is similar to B a t t a i l l e ' s
description:
S ingers . . . t e n d to m a i n t a i n lary n x p o s i t i o n nea r

or w e l l b e l o w the p h y s i o l o g i c r e s t i n g l evel as v o i c e
f r e q u e n c y is r a i s e d sugg e s t i n g that t h e y u t i l i z e the
hori z o n t a l p u l l i n g forces p r o v i d e d b y c r i c o t h y r o i d
m u s c l e c o n t r a c t i o n a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y for i n c r e a s i n g
frequency. By n o t r a i s i n g the larynx s u b s t a n t i a l l y
above r est p o s ition, singers do not s h o r t e n the
vocal tract, and the supra g l o t t a l st r u c t u r e s (ven
tricle, p y r i f o r m sinus, hypopharynx) r e m a i n the
same size or e n l a r g e as the f u n d amental f r e q u e n c y is
increased.
"Vocal F r e
q u e n c y and V e r t i c a l L a r y n x P o s i t i o n i n g of S i n g e r s and
Non - s i n g e r s , " J o u r n a l of the A c o u s t i c a l S o c i e t y of
A m e r i c a 58, 5 (November, 1975), 1106.
108
Breathing
A l t h o u g h he felt that a c o m p l e t e s tudy o f r e s
p i r a t i o n for s i n g e r s w a s o u t s i d e his p u r p o s e (N o u v e l l e s
r e c h e r c h e s , 98), B a t t a i l l e p e r f o r m e d an u n p r e c e d e n t e d
observational s t u d y on this subject. He fir s t d e s i g n a t
ed t hree t y p e s o f breath i n g : (1) super i o r rib, or c l a v i
cular, in w h i c h the m o v e m e n t s of r e s p i r a t i o n a r e v e r y
a p p a r e n t in th e r e g i o n s of the u p p e r rib s a n d clavi c l e ,
(2) i n f e r i o r rib, in w h i c h the a c t i o n s are l o c a l i z e d
w i t h the l o w e r s ix o r se v e n ribs, and (3) a b d o m i n a l o r
diaphragmatic-costal, w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a sm a l l a m o u n t of
l ower ri b m o v e m e n t and a l arger a m o u n t of a b d o m i n a l swell
ing and r e c e d i n g . (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 35.) These desig
na tions a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s are c o m p a r a b l e w i t h c u r r e n t t e r m
inology. B a t t a i l l e the n use d t h e l a r y n g o s c o p e to o b s e r v e
that eac h typ e o f b r e a t h i n g a f f e c t s the g l o t t i s in a d i f
ferent way. With s u p e r i o r r i b i n h a lation, he n o t e d t h a t
the g l o t t i s is a b l e to m a i n t a i n a n a r r o w o p e n i n g o n l y w i t h
difficulty. In a d d ition, a w h e e z i n g s ound a c c o m p a n i e s
the in t a k e of a i r as doe s a s e n s a t i o n w h i c h p r o v o k e s c o u g h
ing. W i t h l o w e r ri b i n h a l a t i o n the g l o t t a l o p e n i n g is
larger, and t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are m i n i m i z e d . Dia
phragmatic-costal i n h a l a t i o n r e s u l t s in a f u l l y o p e n g l o t
tis and a b s e n c e o f the w h e e z i n g a n d o t h e r s e n s a t i o n s . (De
la p h y s i o l o g i e , 36.) In N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s B a t t a i l l e
not e d tha t all g l o t t a l a c t i o n f or p h o n a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e
109
w i t h ea s e if d i a p h r a g m a t i c b r e a t h i n g is e m p l o y e d a n d
with effort if t he o t h e r types, p a r t i c u l a r l y s u p e r i o r
r ib b r e a t h i n g , are employed. (N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s , 29.)
Because diaphragmatic-costal breathing results in
a g r e a t e r v o l u m e of a ir g a i n e d in a sh o r t e r p e r i o d of
ti m e w i t h m u c h g r e a t e r c o n trol o ver e x h a lation, Battaille
insisted upon i t s e a r l y mastery. H e l i s t e d three r e s u l t s
of d i a p h r a g m a t i c - c o s t a l treating: (1) it c o n s i d e r a b l y
l e s sens v o c a l fati g u e , (2) it has a d i r e c t e ffect o n to n e
q uality, r e s u l t i n g in "a roundness, homog e n i t y , a nd an
exceptional s u p p l e n e s s , " and (3) it aids in the r e s t o r a
tion of v o i c e s h a r m e d by a b use of v a r i o u s types. (D e la
p h y s i o l o g i e , 41.)
B a t t a i l l e u s e d a fai r l y simple p r o c e d u r e for t e a c h
ing b r e a t h i n g t o a b e g i n n i n g student. U s i n g short b r e a t h s ,
he first t a u g h t the st u d e n t to b r e a t h e n t i r e l y w i t h
a bdom i n a l e x p a n s i o n only. He had t he student progressively
increase t he i n v o l v e m e n t of the l o w e r ribs as well u n t i l
i n h a l a t i o n s c o u l d be t a k e n w i t h c o m p l e t e i n v o l v e m e n t of
the lower tho r a x .
. . . If it is r e m e m b e r e d that t he act of si n g i n g
requires considerable development of respiratory
m o v e m e n t s , it is e v i d e n t t hat it w o u l d be i l l o g i
cal t o l i m i t t h e s e m o v e m e n t s to a s i ngle p o r t i o n of
the t h o r a x , a nd th a t it is n e c e s s a r y to invo l v e the
e n t i r e c h e s t , r e s e r v i n g the m o s t e x t e n s i v e a c t i o n
for its l a r g e s t a nd mo s t m o b i l e part, its base.
P a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , it is v e r y c l e a r l y seen in this
c i r c u m s t a n c e h o w p h y s i o l o g i c a l la w s c an b e c o m e i n
f a l l i b l e g u i d e s in the m a t t e r of art. (De 1%
p h y s i o l o g i e , 40-41. T r a n s l a t e d by the writer.)
Co o r d i n a t i o n
It is e v i d e n t that B a t t a i l l e b e l i e v e d his m o s t
singular c o n t r i b u t i o n to the fi e l d o f v ocal p e d a g o g y
to be h i s a p p r o a c h in c o o r d i n a t i n g b r e a t h w i t h p h o n a
tion, as d e r i v e d fro m his p h y s i o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s .
He n a med this a p p r o a c h the "method of c o m p e n s a t i o n . "
Fr o m his d e t a i l e d s tudies in N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r c h e s ,
B a t t a i l l e d r e w fo u r p h y s i o l o g i c a l laws w h i c h b e c a m e the
basis of this m ethod;
1. In the v o c a l folds, t h e a m p l i t u d e o f v i b r a t i o n
is in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n to the i n t e n s i t y of t he
ai r c u r r e n t and to the a r e a of the v i b r a t i n g
surface
2. T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l t e n s i o n of t h e v o c a l f olds is
in i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n to the i n t e n s i t y of the
a i r c u r r e n t for eac h s o und
3. T h e i n t e n s i t y of the a i r c u r r e n t is in i n v e r s e
p r o p o r t i o n to the d e g r e e o f p o s t e r i o r g l o t t a l
o c c l u s i o n for eac h so u n d
4. The i n t e n s i t y of the so u n d is in d i r e c t p r o
p o r t i o n to t he a m p l i t u d e of v i b r a t i o n s a n d to
t he i n t e n s i t y of the a i r current^'^ (De la
p h y s i o l o g i e , 45. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writer.)
His r e d u c t i o n of t h ese laws w a s as follows:
T r a n s l a t e d into p r a c t i c a l language, th e s e a x i o m s
me a n t h a t all t he fulln e s s a n d s o n o r i t y d e s i r e d can
be o b t a i n e d f r o m the v o i c e w i t h a m o d e r a t e t e n s i o n
of t h e v o c a l ligaments, p r o v i d e d the i n t e n s i t y of
W h i l e some c o n c u r r e n c e w i t h p o i n t s 1 and 4 can

be found in r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d b e t w e e n 1940-1942, the
m o s t r ecent r e s e a r c h has p r o v e n that, w h i l e an i n c r e a s e
in air f l o w is a c c o m p a n i e d b y g r e a t e r loudness, v o c a l
inte n s i t y has n o t b e e n found to be a f u n c t i o n of a i r f l o w
alone. In addi t i o n , c ur r e n t r e s e a r c h shows that, d u r i n g
an incre a s e in i n t ensity, the m a x i m u m g l o t t a l a r e a r e
m a ins constant, r a t h e r than i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y .
See Zemlin, 199-200.
the a i r c u r r e n t is increased. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e ,
45. T r a n s l a t e d by the writer.)
B a t t a i l l e ' s e x p e r i m e n t s of 1860 g a v e h i m the
background for this c oncept. W h i l e u s i n g t he l a r y n
goscope, he fou n d that he w a s able to p r o d u c e some of
his lo w e r n o t e s w i t h o u t the glot t a l lips in to t a l
contact. B y i n c r e a s i n g t he a i r c u r r e n t and a p p r o x i m a
ting t he a r y t e n o i d c a r t i l a g e s mo r e firmly, he w a s a ble
to p r o d u c e t he same notes w i t h mo r e c l a r i t y w h i l e u s i n g
less t e n s i o n in t h e vocal l i gaments. (N o u v e l l e s r e c h e r
ches , 31-35.) The t h e o r y w h i c h he f o r m u l a t e d on t he
basis o f th i s o b s e r v a t i o n w a s as follows:
P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y r e p l a c e t e n s i o n in the v o c a l l i g a
me n t s w i t h e n e r g y of a i r c u r r e n t a nd i n c r e a s e to
the g r e a t e s t deg r e e t he gl o t t a l o p e n i n g w h i c h is
m o s t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e a c h sound. (De l a p h y s i o l o
g i e , 47. T r a n s l a t e d b y t he writer.)
T h e r e s u l t o f this m e t h o d is a r e l e a s e of exc e s s
t e n sion in t h e v o cal ligaments. B a t t a i l l e 's a c c o m p a n y
ing e m p h a s i s u p o n the m o d e r a t e l y lo w e r e d l a r y n x g i v e s the
c r i c o t h y r o i d m u s c l e s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for m a k i n g all
pi t c h a d j u s t m e n t s . V e n n a r d n o t e d this f a c t o r to be a
b asic o n e for the a c h i e v e m e n t of f r e e d o m ar.d c o o r d i n a t i o n
in singing. T he a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e x p e r i m e n t j o f S h i p p and
Izdebski v e r i f i e d that t r a i n e d si n g e r s u s u a l l y u s e a
lowered l a r y n g e a l p o s i t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e m a k e all p i t c h
adju s t m e n t s w i t h the c r i c o t h y r o i d muscl e s . (See p. 107.)
^^Vennard, S i n g i n g , pp. 60-61.
Battaille f o u n d t wo n o t a b l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s u l t s of
this m e t h o d : (1) the ar e a of the v i b r a t i n g surface was
in creased, and, cons e q u e n t l y , the f u l l n e s s a n d s o n o r i t y
of the v o i c e w e r e i m p r o v e d as well, a nd (2) a great deal
o f t h e l a b o r w as t a k e n o v e r b y the e x p i r a t o r y m u s c l e s
a c t i n g as a r e s u l t of d i a p h r a g m a t i c - c o s t a l b r e a t h i n g .
(De la p h y s i o l o g i e, 48.)
T o t e a c h t he m e t h o d of c o m p e n s a t i o n , Battaille
r e t u r n e d to the e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e he w a s following
wh e n he d i s c o v e r e d the method. W h i l e t a k i n g c a r e that
the s t u d e n t w a s u s i n g d i a p h r a g m a t i c - c o s t a l b r e a t h i n g ,
that the l o w e r j a w w a s loose, and t hat the e x t r i n s i c
lar y n g e a l m u s c l e s w e r e n o t involved, B a t t a i l l e h a d the
st u d e n t p r o d u c e the l o w e s t notes in his v o i c e w i t h the
gl o t t i s as o p e n as possi b l e . If t h e r e s u l t i n g sou n d
wa s " m u f f l e d and h o l l o w , " he w o r k e d for m o r e c l a r i t y
w h i c h r e s u l t e d fr o m c l o s i n g the p o s t e r i o r p a r t of the
g l o t t i s w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g the f r e e d o m o f the e x t r i n s i c
mu s c l e s a n d the l o wer jaw. At first, most students were
able to p r o d u c e o n l y a f e w lower n o t e s w i t h t h i s m e t hod.
V e r y soon, however, t h e y we r e a b l e to si n g t h r o u g h t h e i r
r a nge w i t h m u c h less t e n s i o n i n t h e v o c a l l i g a m e n t s th a n
before. As a result, m o r e m u s c u l a r f a c i l i t y w a s m a d e
a v a i l a b l e a nd one o r two notes w e r e a d d e d to t he top
range. T h i s p r o c e d u r e a l s o r e s u l t e d in an e a s e of.
m u s c u l a r a c t i o n i m p o r t a n t to v o c a l agility, p o wer, and
113
eff i c i e n c y . B a t t a i l l e found that it w a s also extremely
important for m a s t e r i n g the p a s s a g g i o ar e a s o f the v o i c e
w h e r e h o m o g e n e i t y is m o s t diffi c u l t to a chieve. He found
t h i s d i f f i c u l t y to be so p r o n o u n c e d in som e f e m a l e v o i c e s
t h a t tone q u a l i t y w a s e n t i r e l y d i f f erent, l e a d i n g some
o b s e r v e r s to r e c o g n i z e two f a l setto r e g i s t e r s , the "fal
se tto prop e r " and the "falsetto-head." Battaille believed
t h i s d i f f i c u l t y to be due to an e xcess o f m u s c u l a r c o n t r a c
ti o n and fo u n d the m e t h o d of c o m p e n s a t i o n to b e an indis
p e n s a b l e p a r t of its correction. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e ,
49-51.)
Battaille apparently worked toward a procedure
of m o d e r a t i n g t e n s i o n w i t h i n the l a r y n x in p r o p o r t i o n to
i n c r e a s e d b r e a t h p r e s s u r e f r o m l ow n o t e s to h i g h e r n o t e s
u n t i l the e n t i r e v o c a l r a n g e w a s p r o d u c e d in t h i s m anner.
In so doing, he found that a c o m p e n s a t i o n or b a l a n c e w a s
e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n the ac t i o n s of t h e b r e a t h a n d the
glottis. (De la p h y s i o l o g i e , 51.) S u c h a b a l a n c e w as
im p o r t a n t to G a r c i a also, but it w a s n o t as f u n d a m e n t a l
to h is m e t h o d as it w a s to B a t t aille's. (See pp. 63-
64.) W h i l e B a t t a i l l e r e c o g n i z e d some n e c e s s a r y d i f f e r
e n c e s o f a p p r o a c h w i t h in d i v i d u a l s tudents, his t e a c h i n g
m e t h o d for all students was based upon five b a s i c
points: (1) diaphragmatic-costal breathing, (2) the loose
jaw, (3) the m o d e r a t e l y l o w ered larynx, (4) non-involve
m e n t of the e x t r i n s i c m u s c l e s of the larynx, and (5) t he
m e t h o d of comp e n s a t i o n . W h i l e his res e a r c h , l ike G a rcia's,
114
justified most traditional teaching emphases, Battaille's
m ost unique c o n t r i b u t i o n to the f i eld of v o c a l p e d a g o g y
m a y ha v e b e e n h is e m p h a s i s on the m e t h o d o f c o m pensation.
A l t h o u g h i t s p h y s i o l o g i c a l basis w a s s o m e w h a t inaccurate,
t h i s a p p r o a c h to f r e e d o m a nd c o o r d i n a t i o n of the vocal
mechanism apparently became a successful a n d f undamental
basis for B a t t a i l l e 's teaching.
IV. THE TEACHING PRINCIPLES OF MARCHESI
In the 1 8 7 0 's M a n u e l Garcia w as t e a c h i n g in E n g
land and M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s i and Jul i u s S t o c k h a u s e n w e r e
a p p r o a c h i n g the h e i g h t of their t e a c h i n g ca r e e r s in
F r a n c e and Ge r m a n y , r e s p e ctively. A c c o r d i n g to M a c k i n -
lay, M a r c h e s i a nd S t o c k h a u s e n were r e g a r d e d to be the
f o r e m o s t t e a c h e r s of t h e i r time in th e i r r e s p e c t i v e
countries.
It is t h e r e f o r e a m a t t e r of some note that d u r i n g

the y e a r s in w h i c h M a n u e l Gar c i a w a s h i m s e l f t he
f i nest t e a c h e r in England, he should, t h r o u g h t h e s e
two p upils, h ave h ad his b a n n e r thus u p h e l d u p o n
the c o n t i n e n t .^
A l t h o u g h A r g e r r e g a r d e d Batta i l l e m o r e h i g h l y t han M a r
c h esi as a l e a d i n g t e a c h e r , ^ the i n d i c a t i o n rema i n s that
M a n u e l G a r c i a w a s e x e r t i n g an impr e s s i v e a m o u n t of i n f l u
e n c e on n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v o cal teaching.
M a r c h e s i w a s b o r n M a t h i l d e G r a u m a n n in F r a n k f u r t -
a m - M a i n in 1821, the d a u g h t e r of a w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t .
A c c o r d i n g to o n e source, she began h er v o i c e study w i t h
^Macki n l a y , Garcia, the C e n t e n a r i a n , 195.
^See p . 83 a nd Arger, "Evolution de la t e c h n i q u e

v o c a l e ," 990.
F e l i c e Ro n c o n i (1811-1875) in the ci t y of her b i r t h . ^
W h e n the fam i l y f o r t u n e s fai l e d in 1843, she w e n t to
V i e n n a for study w i t h Ot t o N i c o l a i (1810-1849). She
m o v e d to P a ris to b e g i n study w i t h G a r c i a in 1845
D u r i n g the next two y e ars she a p p a r e n t l y d e v e l o p e d a
no t i c e a b l e apti t u d e for t e a c h i n g as w e l l as s i n g i n g and
G a r c i a b e g a n to e n t r u s t her w i t h some o f his b e g i n n i n g
students. In the spr i n g of 1847, G a r c i a suff e r e d a
br o k e n a r m in a fall from a h o r s e a nd M a r c h e s i took
o v e r the teac h i n g of m o s t of his pupils. How e v e r , he
c o n t i n u e d to o f f e r her co u n s e l w h e n n e e d e d .^
N o d e s c r i p t i o n s of M a r c h e s i 's v o i c e ha v e be e n
found o t h e r than that it w a s a m e z z o - s o p r a n o . Her sing
ing was a p p a r e n t l y h i g h l y r e garded. A f t e r f our y e ars
of study, she f o l l o w e d G a r c i a to L o n d o n w h e r e she b e c a m e
w i d e l y k n o w n as a c o n c e r t s i n ger.^ Between 1849-1852
she sang s u c c e s s f u l l y in B ritain, G ermany, Belgium., H o l
land, S w i t zerland, and F r a n c e .^ In 1852 she m a r r i e d the
ba r i t o n e S a l v a t o r e M a r c h e s i a n d t o g e t h e r they s a n g o p e r a
E n c i c l o p e d i a d e l l a m u s i c a , 1964 ed., s.v. "Mar

chesi, M a t h i l d e G r a u m a n n ."
e d . , s.v. "Marchesi, M a t h i l d e Gr a u m a n n . " By B e r t h a

T h o m a s a nd A l e x i s C h i t t y .
^M ackinlay, Garcia, t he C e n t e n a r i a n , 162.
®Ibid., 162.
^ T h omas and C h i t t y , "Marchesi, M a t h i l d e G r a u m a n n . "
117
o n the c o n t i n e n t until 1854, w h e n she a c c e p t e d a t e a c h
i n g p o s t at t h e V i e n n a C o n s e r v a t o r y . ® A c c o r d i n g to M a r
chesi 's own a ccount, she san g s e veral c o n c e r t s w i t h her
h u s b a n d at the b e g i n n i n g o f t h eir s t a y in V i e n n a an d
th e n ret i r e d f r o m the p e r f o r m a n c e w o r l d to d e v o t e all
of h e r f a c u l t i e s to teaching. The on e e x c e p t i o n w a s an
o c c a s i o n in Jan u a r y , 1856, w h e n she r e p l a c e d a n o t h e r
s i n g e r on sho r t n o t i c e as D o n n a E l v i r a in t he f i n a l e of
Mozart's Don G i o v a n n i . The occasion was a Mozart c enten
n i a l p e r f o r m a n c e c o n d u c t e d b y F ranz L i z s t . ®
D u r i n g t he n e x t six y e a r s M a r c h e s i ' s contributions
to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the V i e n n a C o n s e r v a t o r y ' s vo c a l
de p a r t m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d her r e p u t a t i o n as a t eacher. In
1861 she m o v e d w i t h h e r h u s b a n d to P a r i s w h e r e she a t t r a c
ted m a n y p u p i l s . She a c c e p t e d a t e a c h i n g p o s t at the
C o l o g n e C o n s e r v a t o r y in 1865 a n d in 1868 r e s u m e d h e r p o s i
t i o n at the V i e n n a C o n s e r v a t o r y . She r e s i g n e d this p o s i
t i o n in 1878 b u t r e m a i n e d in V i e n n a a n d t a u g h t p r i v ately.
In 1881 she r e t u r n e d to Paris, w h e r e y o u n g si n g e r s con
t i n u e d to c o m e to her for i n s t r u c t i o n . She d i e d in L o n d o n
in 1913.^*^ H e r remi n i s c e n c e s , fi r s t p u b l i s h e d as A u s
B a k e r ' s B i o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y of M u s i c i a n s , 5th
ed., s.vl "Marchesi, M a t h i l d e G r a u m a n n . "
^Mathilde March e s i , M a r c h e s i a n d M u s i c : P a s s a g e s
f r o m the L i f e of a F a m o u s S i n g i n g T e a c h e r (New York:
Ha r p e r and Broth e r s , 1897) , 93-94.
M u s i c in 1897 (see n. 9). She l e f t m a n y v o l u m e s of
v o c a l e x e r c i s e s a nd vocal i s e s , so m e o f w h i c h c o n t i n u e to
b e publ i s h e d . H e r g r e a t e s t legacy, h o w ever, m a y have
b e e n the large num b e r o f s ingers w h o e m e r g e d f r o m her
s t u d i o to b e c o m e o u t s t a n d i n g p e r f o r m e r s : Emma Calve
( 1858-1942), Em m a Eames (1865-1952), Etelka Gerster
(1855-1920), Nellie Melba (1861-1931), lim a di
Murska (1836-1889), S i byl S a n d e r s o n (1865-1903), and
h e r d a u g h t e r Bl a n c h e M a r c h e s i ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 9 4 0 ) . Harold
Rosenthal l i sted o t h e r M a r c h e s i students w ho performed
w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n at C o v e n t Garden: Emma A bbott (1850-
1891), F r a n c i s Sevi l l e (1862-1935) , S u z a n n e A d a m s (1872-
1953), Ellen Gulbranson (1863-1946), and S e l m a Ku r z
(1877-1933)
Marchesi's Publications
U n l i k e b o t h Gar c i a and B a t t a i l l e , Mathilde Mar
c h e s i h ad lit t l e s c i e n t i f i c b a c k g r o u n d a n d a t t e m p t e d no
r e s e a r c h o n the s inging voice. While she a p p a r e n t l y r e
s p e c t e d the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f v o c a l s cience, she de v o t e d
11 ,
M a t h i l d e Mar c h e s i , A us m e i n e m L e b e n (Düsseldorf:
F. Bagel, 1888).
^^ I n t e r n a t i o n a l C y c l o p e d i a o f M u s i c a n d M u s i c i a n s ,
10th ed., s.v. "Marchesi, M a t h i l d e G r a u m a n n . "
^^Ha r o l d R o s e n t h a l , Two C e n t u r i e s of O p e r a at
C o v e n G a r d e n (London: Putn a m , 1957) . S ee s e p a r a t e
e n t r i e s for the p e r s o n a l i t i e s m e n t i o n e d .
119
h e r s e l f to e s t a b l i s h i n g a s y s t e m of t e a c h i n g suited to her
o w n m e t h o d s of approach. H e r public a t i o n s , therefore,
w e r e d e v o t e d m o r e to i n s t r u c t i o n and i n v o l v e m e n t in vocal
a r t t h a n to w r i t i n g s a b o u t t h e m e c h a n i s m of v ocal pro d u c -
Th e unique n e s s of M a r c h e s i 's p u b l i c a t i o n s lies in
the large n umber of v o c a l i s e s w h i c h she p u b l i s h e d for
v a r i o u s types of fema l e voic e s , each d e s i g n e d to a c c o m
p l i s h a specific purpose. A c c o r d i n g to her ow n account,
h e r v o c a l i z z i were b o r n of p e r s o n a l experi e n c e . Garc i a
n e v e r gav e ext e n d e d v o c a l i s e s to his pupils. He p r e f e r
r e d m e t h o d i c a l ex e r c i s e s w h i c h w e r e o f t e n unin t e r e s t i n g .
In M a r c h e s i 's case, she w a s r e q u i r e d to p r a c t i c e t hese
w i t h the m e t r o n o m e . O n the o ther hand, Garcia's col
league, Giovanni Marco Bordogni (1789-1856), imposed
e x t r e m e l y diffi c u l t e x e r c i s e s on his students, often be
fore t h e y were ready f o r them.
It was t here that I c o n c e i v e d the idea of c o m p o s i n g

vocalizzi, each o f w h i c h should c o n t a i n an exercise,
on the scale, on a r p e g g i o s , the m o r d e n t e , the trill,
etc., and all in m e l o d i c form. T h e s e w e r e inte n d e d
to c a r r y f u rther t h e s t u d y of e x ercises. I believe
m y idea to have b e e n correct, for to p r o c e e d d i r e c t l y
fro m the scale to t he s i n g i n g of an air i m p r e s s e d me,
wh i l e I was but a s t u d n e t myself, as a too g reat
step.
B a z a a r 33 (October 27, 1900), 1620.
120
Marchesi's m e a n i n g s of the terms "exercise" and
"vocalise" is impo r t a n t , b e c a u s e the two t erms are r a r e l y
d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y in v o c a l w riting. She a p p a r e n t l y
r e g a r d e d e x e r c i s e s as b a s i c i n t r o d u c t o r y uni t s d e s i g n e d
for a specific purpo s e . As such t h e y had li t t l e m u s i c a l
interest. Her v o c a l i z z i , however, e m b odied the same m u s i
cal figures but w e r e set w i t h i n a larger, more developed
m u s i c a l scheme. T h e y w e r e not p r o v i d e d w i t h texts, but
w e r e d e s i g n e d to be sung on a c h o s e n vowel. In Par t I
of M a r c h e s i ' s Op. 31, h e r e x e r c i s e s w e r e i n t e n d e d to be
mastered before their companion vocalises in P a r t II w e r e
attempted.Several p o r t a m e n t o e x e r c i s e s and one of
t he i r co m p a n i o n v o c a l i s e s from Op. 31 are p r o v i d e d for
c o m p a r i s o n in F i g u r e s 6 an d 7. A n o t h e r term, "etude,"
w a s appl i e d to l o n g e r v o c a l p i e c e s w h i c h w e r e m o r e m u s i
c a l l y dev e l o p e d t h a n e i t h e r the e x e r c i s e or the vocal i s e .
A l l of M a r c h e s i 's e t u d e s in her O p u s 36 w e r e in ABA' form
a nd were g r a d u a t e d a c c o r d i n g to v o c a l and m u s i c a l d i f f i c u l
ty/^
It is u n c e r t a i n w h e n M a r c h e s i be g a n p u b l i s h i n g he r
vocal studies. M o s t of t h o s e l i s t e d in the N a t i o n a l
Un i o n C a t a l o g o f A m e r i c a n l i b r a r y h o l d i n g s c o n t a i n onl y
Vocal Method, Op. 31 (London: E n o c h and Sons, Ltd., n.d.;

repr i n t e d . , N e w York: D o v e r Publ i c a t i o n s , Inc., 1970).
style, moyenne d i f f i c u l t é , pour so p r a n o ou m e z z o - s o p r a n o .

Op. 36 (New York: G. Schirmer, 1902).
4-
F I G Ü R E 6: M A R CHESI: P O R T A M E N T O EXERC I S E S . From Mathilde

M a r c h e s i , T h e o r e t i c a l and P r a c t i c a l V o c a l Method, Op. 31
London: E n o c h a n d Sons, Ltd., n.c,: r e p r i n t éd., N e w York:
D o v e r P u blications, Inc., 1970), 5. Used by permission
of Dover Publi c a t i o n s , Inc., 180 V a r i c k Street, N e w York,
10014.
F I GURE 7: MAR C H E S I : P O R T A M E N T O V O C A L I S E . Fr o m Marchesi,
Th e o r e t i c a l a n d P r a c t i c a l V o c a l M e t h o d , 47. U s e d by p e r -
mission.
a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s an d it is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t these l i
b r a r i e s do not, in m o s t cases, pos s e s s f irst editions.
H owever, t h e i r t i t l e s p r o v i d e i nsight i n t o M a r c h e s i ' s i n
t entions. D e s c r i p t i o n s of the ear l i e s t p u b l i c a t i o n of e a c h
opus li s t e d in t h e N a t i o n a l U n i o n C a t a l o g are p r o v i d e d
below. In some cases, t h e o n l y d e s c r i p t i o n a v a i l a b l e for
s om e n u m b e r s is M a r c h e s i 's own listing in he r "Singing
Lessons" (see n. 15). In such cases, the d e s c r i p t i o n s
a re p r o v i d e d b u t are not t r e a t e d as titles.
Opus 1
E x e r c i s e s é l é m e n t a i r e s g r a d u e s p o u r le d é v e l o p p e m e n t de
la voix, op. 1. N e w York: E. S c h u b e r t h a nd Co.,
F i v e o t h e r G e r m a n and E n g l i s h e d i t i o n s are also

listed. O n e l a t e r e d i t i o n h a s i n s t r u c t i o n s in English,
French, and G e rman.
Opu s 2
V i n g t - q u a t r e v o c a l i s e s p o u r s o prano ou m e z z o - s o p r a n o avec
a c c o m p a g n e m e n t d u e piano, op. 2 . Berlin: R ies and Erle r ,
n.d.
Si n c e p u b l i s h e r s of all the oth e r e d i t i o n s listed
are A m e r i c a n , it is a s s u m e d t h a t thi s e d i t i o n is the
earliest. T h e o t h e r editi o n s carry d a t e s o f / l 8 7 ? 7
to 1888. T h i s o p u s w a s d e s i g n a t e d as an i n t r o d u c t o r y
set to Op. 6, w i t h the i n t e n t i o n tha t it be m a s t e r e d
b e f o r e Op. 6 w a s attempted.
Opus 3
V i n g t - q u a t r e v o c a l i s e s p o u r soprano, op. 3. C o logne:

Schloss, [I88?j. 20
^^T h e N a t i o n a l U n i o n Catalog: P r e - 1 9 5 6 I m p r i n t s ,
559 vols. (London: M a n s ç l l , 1974), 371: 50-53.
V o c a l i s e s fo r S o p r a n o or M e z z o - S o p r a n o , ed. J. H. C ornell
(New York: G. S c h i r m e r , 1884).
^*^0p. 3 is c u r r e n t l y p u b l i s h e d as T w e n t y - F o u r
V o c a l i s e s for S o p r a n o (New York: B e l w i n - M i l l s , n.d.).
Opus 4
T w elve s tudies of s t y l e f or soprano.
Opus 5
L ' A r t du chant; 24 v o c a l i s e s é l é m e n t a i r e et p r o g r e s s i v e s
p o u r m e z z o - s o p r a n o ou c o n t r a l t o , op. 5. Leipzig:
B. Senfl, 1870 .
Opus 6
L ' A r t d u chant: 24 v o c a l i s e s p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t du m é c a n i s m e
de la v o i x p o u r m e z z o - s o p r a n o ou c o n t r a l t o c o m p o s é e s
et d é d i é à G. R o s s i n i I L e i pzig: B a r t h o l f Senff,
{câïTTQ^.
A n o t h e r F r e n c h e d i t i o n and an E n g l i s h e d i t i o n are
also listed.
Opus 7
L ' A r t du chant: 12 e t u d e s d e style p o u r m e z z o - s o p r a n o ou

c o n t r a l t o a vec a c c o m p a g n e m e n t d e piano, op. 7.
L ë îp z T g T n B 7 ~ S ë n fF 7 " T c i" r T r 8 8 0 J .
Thi s is a r e i s s u e o f a n 1870 edition.
Opus 8
E i g h t e e n v o c a l i s e s f or two voices, so p r a n o a nd c o n t ralto.

Th i s w o r k i n c l u d e s s t u d i e s o f a g i l i t y f or s o p rano
w i t h I t a l i a n w o r d s in v a r i a t i o n form.
Opus 9
St udies of a g i l i t y for m e z z o - s o p r a n o w i t h I t a l i a n w o r d s in
v a r i a t i o n form.
O p u s 10
Twenty-four vocalises for "deep c o n t r a l t o . "
Opus 11
Do u z e etu d e s de s t yle p o u r so p r a n o o u m e z z o - s o p r a n o , op. 11.

Vienna: Spina, n.d.
Opus 12
D i x - h u i t v o c a l i s e s a d e u x v o i x p o u r inezzo-soprano et
c o n t r a l t o , op. 12. Vienna: C. A. Spina, n.d.
O p u s e s 14, 16, a n d 18
St u d i e s of a g i l i t y for soprano w i t h I t a l i a n w o r d s and

in v a r i a t i o n form.
Opu s 21
L 'A r t d u chant: m e t h o d e p r a t i q u e in q u a t r e parties, op.

2 1 . Ha m b o u r g : A. C r a n z , ca. 1877.
T h e four p a r t s are list e d as follows:
P a r t I: E x e r c i s e s e l e m e n t a r i e s et g r adues
P a r t II: T r e n t e v o c a l i s e s p o u r m e z z o - s o p r a n o
P a r t I I I : D o u z e v o c a l i s e s à deu x voi x
Pa r t IV: Si x m é l o d i e s avec p a r o l e s ^ u r m e z z o - s o p r a n o
S e v e n o t h e r edi t i o n s in Eng l i s h , French, or
G e r m a n are list e d as well. On e e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n
c o n t a i n s French, Dutch, Engli s h , a n d G e r m a n texts.
Som e l a t e r e d i t i o n s in c l u d e o n l y Part I or Par t s I
and 11.^^
Opu s 22
E i g h t v o c a l i s e s for t hree voices, soprano, m e z z o - s o p r a n o ,

and c o n tralto.
Opus 24
T w o o f f e r t o r i e s w i t h L a t i n words.
Opus 25
Tw o A v e M a r i a s w i t h L a t i n words.
O pus 26
S t u d i e s of a g i l i t y for s o prano w i t h I t a l i a n w o r d s in
v a r i a t i o n form.
21 are c u r r e n t l y
p u b l i s h e d as Th e A r t of Singing, Boo k I: E l e m e n t a r y and
G r a d u a t e d E x e r c i s e s (New York: B e l w i n - M i l l s , n.d.); and
T h e A r t of Singing, B o o k II: T h i r t y V o c a l i s e s f or M e z z o -
So p r a n o (New York: Belwi n - M i l l s , n.d.).
Opus 30
L ' A r t du chant, p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t du m é c a n i s m e de la
voix; T r e n t e v o c a l i s e s p o u r inezzo-soprano o u s o p r a
no, op. 3 0 . Boston: O l i v e r D i t s o n and Co., f l 9 0 ? J .
O pus 31
' A T h e o r e t i c a l and P r a c t i c a l M e t h o d of S i n ging, Op. 31.

T r a n s l a t e d by A.M.R. and M.F. Barnette. Boston:
O l i v e r Di t s o n Co., (ça, 1887J.
P a r t I: E l e m e n t a r y and p r o g r e s s i v e e x e r c i s e s for
the d e v e l o p m e n t of the vo i c e
Par t II: E x e r c i s e s for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the voice
in the for m of v o c a l i s e s
Pa r t III ( s u p p l e m e n t ) : C o m b i n i n g a r t i c u l a t i o n w i t h
vocaliz a t i o n : V o c a l i s e s for one, two, and
t hree vo i c e s
O n l y E n g l i s h e d i t i o n s of Op. 31 are listed.
Opus 32
T h i r t y V o c a l i s e s for Mezz o - s o p r a n o . N e w Y o r k : G. Schirmer,

1897.
Opus 33
Fourteen vocalises for two voices, m e z z o - s o p r a n o an d

contralto.
O pu s 36
D i x - h u i t no u v e l l e s et u d e s de style, m o y e n n e d i f f i c u l t é ,
pour soprano ou inezzo-soprano, op. 3 6 . N e w York:
G. Schirmer, 1902.
A n i n d i c a t i o n of M a r c h e s i ' s l o n g e v i t y is fou n d in
t he fact that five o f h er b ooks of v o c a l i s e s r e m a i n in
publication, Op u s e s 2, 3, 21, 31, and 32. Apparently,
an d P ractical V o c a l Meth o d , Op. 31 (London; E n o c h and

Sons, Ltd., n . d . : r e p r i n t e d . , N e w York: D o v e r P u b l i c a
tions, Inc., 1970),
f or Hig h or M e d i u m Voice, Op. 3 2 , ed. Estelle Liebling

(New York: G . S chirmer, 1941) .
127
e a c h set of v o c a l i s e s was d e s i g n e d to b e p r o g r e s s i v e
w i t h i n itself. Vocalises were selected for s t u d y a c c o r d
i n g to the voice, capabilities, an d n e e d s o f the i n d i v i
dual student.
It m u s t be n o t e d that o n l y O p e r a 1, 21, and 31
a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d the f u n d a m e n t a l s o f v o c a l production.
T h e s e sets p r o v i d e s h o r t e r e x e r c i s e s d e s i g n e d to help
the s t udent w i t h p r o p e r attack, registration, breath
control, and tone q uality. All the o t h e r sets are in
te n d e d for the s t u d e n t ' s m a s t e r y of a g i l i t y and prop e r
s t y l i s t i c e x e c u t i o n for any m u s i c a l o c c a s i o n . Musical
figures, such as d i a t o n i c and c h r o m a t i c scales, rep e a t e d
note s , vari o u s r h y t h m i c figures, and arpeggios are stres
sed, a long w i t h o r n a m e n t s i m p o r t a n t to t h e s tyle of e a r l y
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Ita l i a n opera.
In a d d i t i o n to h er m a n y v o c a l i s e s , in at least
t w o i n stances M a r c h e s i also b e c a m e i n v o l v e d w i t h the r e
p e r t o i r e itself. A c o l l e c t i o n of s o p r a n o arias, issued
u n d e r her editing, includes some of h e r o w n sugges t i o n s
for performance, i n c l u d i n g o r n a m e n t s a n d caden z a s .
T h i s coll e c t i o n i n c l u d e d a rias b y A u b e r , Bel l i n i , Donizet
ti, Meyerbeer, Mozart, a nd Rossi n i . M a r c h e s i als o
^'^Marchesi, " S i n g i n g L e s s o n s , " H a r p e r ' s B a z a a r 33

(October 27, 1900): 1620.
^ ^ M a t h i l d e ^ M a r c h e s i , ed., S a m m l u n g d e r b e l i e b s t e n
K o l o r a t u r - A r i e n f u r S o p r a n (Leipzig; C.F. Pete r s , [I88lj ).
128
p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c t i o n of c a d e n z a s for fema l e voices. Its
f irst section. Points d ' o r g u e , c o n t a i n s cadenzas written in
m o s t ma j o r keys. The se c o n d section. V a r i a n t e s et p o i n t s
d'o r g u e , contains variations and c a d e n z a s for specified
locations w i t h i n arias c o m m o n to the r e p e r t o i r e . A few
of these c a d e n z a s w e r e w r i t t e n fo r a s p e c i f i c p erson^®
(see the c a d e n z a for N e l l i e Melb a , Figure 8).
From other publications it can be d e d u c e d that
M a r c h e s i was h e l d in h i g h re g a r d by the g e n e r a l public.
In addition to he r m u s i c p u b l i c a t i o n s and her reminis
cences, her " Singing L e s s o n s " appeared in H a r p e r ' s B a z a a r
f r o m 1900-1901^^ and in b o o k f o r m in 1 9 0 1 . Bet w e e n
1907-1908, the La d i e s Hom e J o u r n a l p r i n t e d he r answers
to submitted q u e s t i o n s u n d e r the title, "Quest i o n s of
composées pou r les p r i n c i p a u x airs du r é p e r t o i r e pour

les ëleves de ses c l a s s e s de chanté (Paris: He u g e l and
Co., 1900). The ter m p o i n t d ' o r g u e is n o r m a l l y used to
indicate a c a d e n z a in a c o n certo. M a r c h e s i 's a p p l i c a t i o n
o f this t erm to voc a l c a d e n z a s a p p e a r s to be u n p r e c edented.
See Willi Apel, e d . , H a r v a r d D i c t i o n a r y of M u s i c , 1969
e d . , s.v. "point d ' o r g u e . "
H a r p e r 's
Ba zaar 33 (September 8 1900): 1187-90, (September 15):
1235-8, (September 29): 1367-9, (October 13): 1507-10,
(October 27): 1619-21, (November 10): 1742-5, (December 8):
1875-8, (December 22): 2025-9, 2166-9; 34 (January 4
1901): 49-52.
^ ^ Mathilde Mar c h e s i , Ten S i n g i n g L e s s o n s (New

York: Harper and B r o ., 1901.)
Cadunzii écrite pour V.'"'’Melba.
F I G U R E 8: M ARCHESI: C A D E N Z A W R I T T E N F O R N E L L I E MELBA.
For i n s e r t i o n in "II dolce suono" (The "Mad Scene")
fr o m A c t II of Doni z e t t i ' s L u c i a di L a m m e r o o r . From
Marchesi, Var i a n t e s et points d ' o r g u e , 51.
130
Vocal S t u d e n t s . H e r vocal principles were set down
in numerous short articles, among them her "Correct
Methods of Vocal Study," which appeared in The Music of
the Modern World. From these sources and from a
n u m b e r of her a v a i l a b l e bo o k s of v o c a l i s e s , M a r c h e s i 's
p r i n c i p l e s of t e a c h i n g m a y be studied.
A Categorical Description
o f M a r c h e s i 's T e a c h i n g
At t i t u d e s and A p p r o a c h e s in G e n eral
More information is r e c o r d e d c o n c e r n i n g M a t h i l d e
M a r c h e s i 's a t t i t u d e s and a p p r o a c h e s to teaching than
c o n c e r n i n g th o s e of Garcia, Battaille, or Stockhausen.
M a r c h e s i was of s t r o n g c o n v i c t i o n and was v e r y o u t s p o k e n
in reg a r d to m o s t asp e c t s of her t e a c h i n g principles.
Sev e r a l areas to w h i c h she d e v o t e d m u c h w r i t t e n s p ace
are (1) the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f both s i n g i n g teachers and
students, (2) the l e n g t h of voice study which she required,
(3) g e n eral p r o c e d u r e s in the t r a i n i n g of voices, and
(4) d e s c r i p t i o n s of h e r v o c a l c l asses. Each of t h ese areas
de s e r v e s some analysis.
^^M a t h i l d e M a rchesi, "Ques t i o n s of Vo c a l Stu d e n t s , "

L a d i e s Home Jou r n a l 24 (September 1907): 3, (October): 2,
(November): 2, 25 (February 1908): 3 , (April): : 3, (June):
3, ( O c t o b e r ) : 36, (November): 29.
^^M a t h i l d e M a r c hesi, "Correct M e t h o d s of V o c a l

S t u d y , " The M u s i c of the M o d e r n W o r l d , 2 vols., ed.
A n t o n Seidl (New York: D. A p p l e t o n a n d Co., 1895),
2:159-160.
131
Marchesi was strongly opinionated in r egard to q u a l i
f i c a t i o n s of s i n ging teac h e r s . W h i l e G a r c i a and B a t t a i l l e
o c c a s i o n a l l y d e n o u n c e d e r r o n e o u s teaching, Marchessi fre
q u e n t l y a n d v e h e m e n t l y s p oke out a g a i n s t te a c h i n g abuses.
T h e pages of the c o n t i n u i n g column, " Questions of V o cal
S tudents," off e r e d am p l e o p p o r t u n i t y for her to answ e r a
s i nger's i nquiries b y c o n d e m n i n g the t e a c h i n g appro a c h
in question. A m o n g the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h she a d v o c a t
ed, she u r g e d that t e a c h e r s hav e a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e of
the a n atomy and p h y s i o l o g y of the v o cal organs. (M a r c h e s i
a nd M u s i c , 180-81.) Since she i n s i s t e d tha t te a c h e r s r e
fr a i n from teach i n g b y imitation, she felt that teac h e r s
n e e d not be o u t s t a n d i n g singers. //'Questions," 25 (October
1908): However, an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p e r i o d w a s b e l i e v e d
to be ind i s p e n s a b l e for a t e a c h e r ' s p r eparation. F o r thi s
reason, M a r c h e s i m a i n t a i n e d a g r o u p of "teaching p u p ils,"
w h o m she t r a ined in p e d a g o g i c a l m e thods, w h o fulf i l l e d t h e i r
appre n t i c e s h i p w i t h b e g i n n i n g p u p i l s un d e r her s u p e r vision,
a nd who w e r e a w a r d e d c e r t i f i c a t e s upo n a c h i e v e m e n t of
c om p e t e n c e in the field. ("Singing Less o n s , " 33:1369.)
T h e success of this p r o c e d u r e p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d to
h e r advo c a c y of p u b l i c e x a m i n a t i o n s and c e r t i f i c a t i o n of
t e achers of singing. (M a r c h e s i a n d M u s i c , 300-301.) A
final qua l i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n e d the sex of the teacher. She
firm l y be l i e v e d tha t o n l y m a l e t e a c h e r s are q u a l i f i e d to
t e a c h m a l e students. F o r this reason, she left the m e n
to her husband, Salvatore,while she c o n c e n t r a t e d al l
o f her einergy o n the t e a c h i n g of s o p ranos, mezzo-sopranos,
a nd c o n t raltos. //’Q u e s t i o n s , " 25 (October 1908): 36^
Some d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n a p p a r e n t l y e x i s t e d c o n
c e r n i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of v o i c e s t u dents. While Battaille
p o s s e s s e d a g r e a t deal o f f a i t h in the a b i l i t y of k n o w
l e d g e a b l e t e a c h e r s to c o r r e c t a f a u l t y i n s t r u m e n t (see
p. 84), M a r c h e s i , as w e l l as G a rcia, a d v o c a t e d that o n l y
"good" voices b e trained: " N o wadays m a n y p e o p l e st r i v e to
b u i l d up m e d i o c r e voices; formerly, only good voices were
c h o s e n for c u l t i v a t i o n . " ("Correct M e t h o d s , " 160.)
An a t t r a c t i v e appea r a n c e , t he g i f t s of the m u s i c i a n ,
q uick n e s s o f concep t i o n , and the p o w e r of r e p r e s e n
tation, t o g e t h e r w i t h r e q u i s i t e s of r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r
importance, a goo d ear, a s o u n d a n d r i c h vo i c e of e x
t ended compass, a d d e d to an a r d e n t d e s i r e to b e c o m e
an a r t i s t — s u c h is the e s s e n t i a l e q u i p m e n t of t h o s e
who w o u l d t r a v e l th e fair, if t h o r n y r o a d that s t r e t
ches out b e f o r e them. ("Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:1187.)
Ma r c h e s i looked fo r q u a l i t i e s w h i c h w o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h
o p e r a t i c singers fro m c o n c e r t s ingers. Sh e o b s e r v e d that,
wh i l e the o p e r a t i c si n g e r n eeds "a s t r o n g voice, resonant
in all its r e g i s t e r s , " she m a y r e l y o n stage- s e t t i n g s ,
orchestra, and d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t to e n h a n c e h e r p e r f o r m a n c e .
Th e c o ncert singer, however, h a v i n g n o n e of these, m u s t
B l a n c h e M a r c h e s i , S i n g e r 's P i l g r i m a g e (Boston:
Small, Maynard, a n d Co., 1923; r e p r i n t e d . , N e w York:
Da Capo Press, 1978), 39.
be f i n i s h e d in languages, m u s i c i a n s h i p , and i n t e r p r e t a
tion, as w e l l as in vocal p r o d u c t i o n . T h o s e who had
l i m i t e d a b i l i t y in a n y of t h e s e a r e a s w e r e a d v i s e d to
seek o t h e r fields:
W h e n i n t o n a t i o n is u n c e r t a i n , the v o i c e small
as to c ompass, or worn or d i s p l a c e d t h r o u g h o t h e r
m e t h o d s ; w h e n t he o u t ward a p p e a r a n c e is d i s p l e a s i n g
and the disposition gloomy or re s e r v e d — I u n
h e s i t a t i n g l y a d v i s e the p u p i l a g a i n s t the ch o i c e
of an o p e r a t i c career. ( " S i n g i n g L e s s o n s , " 33:1189.)
M a r c h e s i 's v i e w s on this m a t t e r b e i n g f a i r l y rigid, some
h a v e u s e d t h e m as a basis for n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m of h er
t eaching. R u h a Solis, a s i n g e r w h o w a s a c t i v e in Paris,
V i e nna, Mannheim, a nd Rome w i t h a n u m b e r of M a r c h e s i
p upils, a t t r i b u t e d M a r c h e s i 's s u c c e s s to goo d fortune:
If t h e r e e ver was a t e a c h e r w h o w as f o r t u n a t e
it w as M a r c h e s i . Imagine h a v i n g M e lba, Eames, Gard e n ,
Calve, a n d all the o thers c o m e to y o u for training.
T h e y w e r e all h a l f - t r a i n e d a l r e a d y , a n d m o r e than
that, t h e y had the voice . . . w i t h o u t th a t any
t r a i n i n g is useless. M e l b a she lef t alone. Melba's
v o i c e w a s p e r f e c t l y p l a c e d a n d M a r c h e s i w a s smart
e n o u g h n o t to tam p e r w i t h it.
M a r c h e s i was m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e a b o u t the e a r l y
t r a i n i n g o f g i r l s w h o e n v i s i o n a s i n g i n g career. Like
Garcia, she fe l t th a t students should not begin voice
s t u d y b e f o r e t he a ge o f s e v e n t e e n o r eight e e n . The t e a c h e r
s h o u l d be sur e that t he y o u n g l a d y ' s p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t
is s u f f i c i e n t a n d th a t the v o i c e is s t rong e n o u g h to c o p e
w i t h l e s s o n s a n d practice. ^"Questions," 25 (February
(March 1959), 29-30.
134
1908): 3J I n stead of early vocal training, Marchesi
a d v o c a t e d p i a n o instruction, b e g i n n i n g at the age of seven
or eight, a nd so l f e g g i o w i t h i n a l i mited c o m p a s s of ten
She u r g e d that all sin g i n g cease at the age of t welve
and t h r o u g h o u t e arly adolescence. She e x t e n d e d this
prohibition to include p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c h o r u s e s and
e n s e m b l e s of all types, since such a c t i v i t y p r o h i b i t s
l i s t e n i n g and t h ereby c o n t r o l l i n g one ' s ow n voice.
["'Questions, " 25 (October 1908): 36 J Instead, she u r g e d
that the a d o l e s c e n t years be spent in study of l i t e r a
ture, declamation, history, harmony, m u s i c h i story, and
the French, German, and Italian languages. (" Singing L e s
sons," 33 :1187-88,) W hile the years fro m 17-19 wer e ideal
for the b e g i n n i n g of v ocal study, M a r c h e s i f e l t that a
stud e n t c o u l d b e g i n as late as the late twenties. [^'Ques
tions," 25 (October 1908): Se.'j M a r c h e s i 's c o n v i c t i o n s con
c e r n i n g the le n g t h of study were e q u a l l y strong. She r e
q u i r e d at l e a s t two yea r s of study for the c o n c e r t s i nger
and three for the o p e r a t i c singer. ("Correct M e t h o d s , " 159.)
Generally, she p r e f e r r e d three to fou r y e a r s of study for
all students, [['Questions, " 24 (October 1907): 2, 25 (Feb
r u a r y 1908); 3J
135
O n c e M a r c h e s i h a d c a r e f u l l y c h o s e n her students
a c c o r d i n g to the c r i t e r i a d e s c r i b e d above, she trained
t h e m in w h a t she b e l i e v e d to be the I t a l i a n m e t h o d given
h e r b y M a n u e l Garcia:
Th i s I t alian m e t h o d consi s t s in the r i g h t p l a c

ing of the voice; in t h e aesth e t i c e m i s s i o n of the
sound; in the p e r f e c t i o n of the r e s p i r a t i o n and the
vo c a l i z a t i o n , as wel l as in g r a n d sentiment, noble
style, a n d above all, in the p r e s e r v a t i o n of _the
voice. /^"Questions," 24 (September 1907): 3 .J
In ad d i t i o n , she felt t hat this m e t h o d a i d e d in tra i n i n g
voices " a ccording to the n a tural laws to p r o d u c e a pure and
m e l l o w t one and to b u i l d t h e vocal instrument so as to a c
q u i r e a t e c h n i c a l p r e c i s i o n ." ["'Questions, " 24 (October
1907): 2.J She f o und m o s t b e g i n n i n g v o i c e s to be "rough,
hard, of small compass, u n e q u a l in s t r e n g t h and tonality,
an d f r e q u e n t l y trem u l o u s . " (M a r c h e s i and M u s i c , 181.) To
c o r r e c t t h e s e impe r f e c t i o n s , she b e l i e v e d the Italian
id e a l s to be indispen s a b l e .
Li k e Garcia, Marchesi first g a v e h er stu d e n t s a b as ic
d e s c r i p t i o n of the p h y s i o l o g y of v o i c e prod u c t i o n . ["Ques
t i o n s ," 24 (October 1907): 2.^ She nex t t a u g h t breat h i n g
an d p l a c e m e n t of the v o i c e w i t h i n the c o r r e c t regis t e r zones.
W h e n p l a c e m e n t w as secure, the r e g i s t e r s w e r e u n i t e d t h r o u g h
o u t the voice. The v o i c e w a s then t h o r o u g h l y tra i n e d in the
d e v e l o p m e n t of an eve n sca l e by u s i n g "a p r o g r e s s i v e s i nging
of all k i n d s of diatonic, c h r o matic, m a j o r and m i n o r scales,
arpeg g i o s , g r uppettos, and the t r ill." ["Questions, ""
25 .('April 1908): 3.^ M a r c h e s i 's use of the term
136
g r u p p e t t o was in r e ference to a two- or t h r e e - n o t e fi g u r e
int e n d e d "to be p e r f o r m e d in such a w a y as no t to i n t e r
fere w i t h the p r o p e r entrance of the p r i n c i p a l no t e s . "
In o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s she used the t e r m to d e s i g n a t e a
three-note turn, wh i l e the ter m m o r d e n t e , w h i c h she d e
fin ed as a "transient s h a k e , " a p p a r e n t l y i n d i c a t e d an
i n v erted m o r d e n t (see Figure 9).
If the exerc i s e s and v o c a l i s e s w h i c h she p u b l i s h
ed are any indication, March e s i m a y h a v e bee n the m o s t
e x a c t i n g and thoro u g h p r a c t i t i o n e r of scale s t udies
of any o f the Garcia teachers. Her published exercises
p r e s e n t the v a rious aspects of the te c h n i q u e in p r o g r e s s i v e
order, w i t h f r equent a dmonitions t hat the st u d e n t m o v e to
the next exer c i s e or c a tegory o n l y w h e n ready. In Op. 21,
P art I, E l e m e n t a r y and P r o g r e s s i v e E x e r c i s e s for the
Voice, t h e or d e r of the cate g o r i e s is as follows: (1)
attack, (2) p ortamento, (3) d i a t o n i c and c h r o m a t i c
scales, (4) scales and exercises w h i c h stress r h y t h m i c
figures, (5) arp e g g i o studies, and (6) the m e s s a di v o c e .
Like Garcia, M a r c h e s i urged that the m e s s a di v o c e n e v e r
be p r a c t i c e d by beginners, be c a u s e this e x e r c i s e r e q u i r e s
^^Marchesi, The A r t of S i n g i n g , Op. 21, vol. 1:

E l e m e n t a r y and G r a d u a t e d E x e r c i s e s .
^^Marches
M e t h o d , Op. 31.
Con g razia (Gma-fnlli/)
1 1 —
11
'1 f J . t 1
T ' r * ÿ ’ ..
F I G U R E 9: M A R C H E S I : STUDIES U S I N G G R U P P E T T O S A N D M O R D E N T S .
F r o m T h i r t y V o c a l i s e s for H i g h or M e d i u m Voice, Op. 3 2 ,
48; a nd T w e n t y - F o u r V o c a l i s e s for S o p r a n o ^ Op. 3 ;. 39.
U s e d b y p e r m i s s i o n of B e l w i n M i l l s P u b l i s h i n g C orp.,
M e l v i l l e , N e w Y o r k 11746.
138
"a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of s m o o t h n e s s and f l e x i b i l i t y . " (Op.
21, vol. 1, 36.)
The l a t t e r p o r t i o n s of Op. 21, Vol. 1, and Op.
31, Part 1, are d e v o t e d to the ornaments: t h e a p p ogiatura,
acciaccatura, mor d e n t , gruppetto, an d trill. M a r c h e s i 's
o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n of exercises for t h e v a r i o u s c a t e
g o r i e s of o r n a m e n t s is v e r y m u c h the same as tha t f o llow-
ever, r e c o m m e n d e d no spe c i f i c order, but a r g u e d a strong
case for t h o r o u g h and p r o g r e s s i v e e x e r c i s e s . A l l three
teachers regarded a f i n e trill to be the m a r k of a f i n i s h
ed singer; G a r c i a and M a r c h e s i were p a r t i c u l a r l y exacting
in t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s for its development. However,
w h i l e G a r c i a c o n c e n t r a t e d on the several t y p e s of
t r i l l s an d t h e i r s t y l i s t i c empl o y m e n t in t h e r e p ertoire,
M a r c h e s i w a s m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the c a r e f u l v o c a l d e v e l o p
m e n t of a c l e a n trill:
T h e o n l y w a y to a c q u i r e a good t r i l l is to
p r a c t i c e it in time, w i t h the same n u m b e r of n o t e s
to e a c h beat. In the beg i n n i n g it s h o u l d be p r a c t i c
e d slowly, b u t as the v o i c e gains in s u p p l e n e s s the
s peed m a y be i n c r e a s e d in c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o r t i o n .
To a v o i d f a t i g u e fema l e v o ices m u s t c o m m e n c e p r a c t i
c i n g th e t r i l l in t he m e d i u m register. ^''Questions, "
24 (October 1907): 2 J
^^Garcia, A r t o f S i n g i n g , Part 1, 38-42.
139
T he f o l l o w i n g e x e r c i s e for d e v e l o p i n g t he trill was f r e
q u e n t l y r e c o m m e n d e d by M a r chesi to be m a s t e r e d first
in the m e d i u m register,- thefi t r a n s p o s e d up to th e h ead
register; [^'Questions, " 25 (November 1908): 29 ^
Sloui
M a r c h e s i p r e f e r r e d that her e x e r c i s e s al w a y s be
p e r f o r m e d on the I t alian [aj v owel b e c a u s e it r e a d i l y
reveals t onal imperfections. ("Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:
1877.) O n l y a f t e r attack, breathing, and connection
a nd e q u a l i z a t i o n of the r egisters w e r e m a s t e r e d w i t h
the [a^ d i d she a l l o w her students to sin g w i t h texts.
B y this time, the student was to have p r o g r e s s i v e l y
c o m p l e t e d b o t h the exercises and a n u m b e r of t he v o c a l
ises. T h e n e x t step w a s the st u d y of t h e I t a l i a n songs
and arias of Cariss i m i , Scarlatti, L otti, a n d Ma r c e l l o ,
a nd later t h o s e of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and
Mozart.Sufficient evidence exis t s to i n d i c a t e that
t hese c a r e f u l p r o c e d u r a l factors w e r e p a s s e d to M a r c h e s i
b y Garc i a (see pp. 43-49). E v i d e n c e o f the r e s p e c t
w h i c h w a s hel d for this prog r e s s i v e m e t h o d of v o c a l
^ ^Marchesi, "Singing L e s s o n s ," 33:1509, 2167;

" Questions," 24 (September 1907): 3.
t r a i n i n g m a y be f o u n d in R o s sini's a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of
M a r c h e s i ' s d e d i c a t i o n of her Op. 6 to him:
M Y D E A R M A D A M E M A R C H E S I , — If I ha v e d e l a y e d
t h a n k i n g y o u for the fl a t t e r i n g d e d i c a t i o n of y o u r
24 V o c a l Studies, you must k i n d l y e x c u s e me; t he
state o f m y h e a l t h has h i n d e r e d me. Bra v i s s i m a ,
Madame Marchesi! You r Exercises, w h i c h I h a v e g o n e
t h r o u g h w i t h the grea t e s t interest, n o t onl y d i s p l a y
a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e of the h u man voice, b u t a re
w r i t t e n e l e g a n t l y and clearly. They c o n t a i n e v e r y
t h i n g t h a t is r e q u i r e d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of an art
w h i c h f o r so lon g I have seen trea t e d as if it w e r e
a q u e s t i o n of s t o r m i n g a b a r r i c a d e . M a y yo u r
i n t e r e s t i n g w o r k pr o v e use f u l to students, w h o n o w
ad ays s e e m to h a v e strayed f rom the r i g h t path.
P r a y c o n t i n u e to te a c h the fine Italian method;
it e x c l u d e s n e i t h e r expre s s i o n n or d r a m a t i c effect,
w h i c h u n f o r t u n a t e l y is b e c o m i n g m o r e a nd m o r e a
q u e s t i o n of lungs, and this, too, w i t h o u t the
n e c e s s a r y s t udy t hat m a kes it v e r y easy!
I remain, d e a r madame, y o u r s gratefully,
39
G. R o s s i n i .
M a r c h e s i 's a d m o n i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g p r a c t i c e h a b i t s
w e r e as c o n s e r v a t i v e as her careful, methodical approach
to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the vocal instrument. Beginning
students were told n o t to pra c t i c e their scales, interv a l s ,
an d e l e m e n t a r y e x e r c i s e s more than thi r t y m i n u t e s a day,
w i t h the ti m e d i v i d e d into pe r i o d s of ten m i n u t e s apiece.
W h e n the s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s e d to the m o r e a d v a n c e d exer c i s e s ,
s uch as arpeg g i o s , vocalises, and trills, she w a s to p r a c
ti c e o n e h o u r a day, d i v i d i n g the time into p e r i o d s of f i f
teen m i n u t e s each. M a r c h e s i w a r n e d a g a i n s t the c o n t e m p o
r a r y p r a c t i c e of e n c o u r a g i n g s t u dents to w o r k two to three
h o u r s a d a y u s i n g m e z z a -voce or "half-voice." She b e l i e v
ed this p r o c e d u r e p r o d u c e d habi t u a l b r e a t h y p r o d u c t i o n and
3 ^Marchesi, M a r c h e s i a nd Music, 109.
141
harmed y o u n g voices. She u r g e d tha t her sing e r s p r a c t i c e
"with full v o l u m e of tone, w i t h o u t f o r c i n g or s c r e a m i n g . "
She also i n s i s t e d upon slo w tempi until all scales could
be sung e v e n l y t h r o ughout the voice. ("Singing L e s s o n s , "
33:1876-77.)
M a r c h e s i ' s lessons wer e a d m i n i s t e r e d in t h r e e w e e k l y
class s e s sions of thir t y m i n u t e s apiece. ^ " Q u e s t i o n s , " 24
(September 1907): 3 .J O n e of the m o s t i n t r i g u i n g fact o r s
in M a r c h e s i ' s t eaching p r o c e d u r e is he r w e l l - o r g a n i z e d sys
tem of g r o u p teaching. D e s i g n e d to a c c o m m o d a t e students in
p r o g r e s s i v e levels of d e v elopment, this system assured
that the singers in each c lass w o u l d share s i m i l a r needs.
W hile s t u d y i n g w i t h Garcia, wh o t a u g h t o n l y p r i v a t e pupils,
M a r c h e s i n o t e d a pr o n o u n c e d lack of c o n f i d e n c e in his less
experienced students. She determined, there f o r e , that
she w o u l d p r o v i d e as m u c h p u blic e x p o s u r e as p o s s i b l e for
all stude n t s from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h e i r study.
Obviously, this pro c e d u r e also a l l o w e d her to t e a c h m o r e
students in the same length of time, provided their level
of d e v e l o p m e n t w a s equal. F r o m the outset, equality was
assured b y lim i t i n g her studio to s i ngers w i t h "good"
voices. M a r c h e s i uti l i z e d four c l a s s e s in he r school: a
b e g i n n i n g class, p r e p a r a t o r y class, co n c e r t class, and
opera t i c class. In the b e g i n n i n g class, Marchesi direct
ed the g e n e r a l m u s i c a l e d u c a t i o n o f h er s t u d e n t s a s w e l l
as t heir e l e m e n t a r y vocal dev e l o p m e n t . Interval s t u d y by
solfeggio, s i g h t - singing, an d r h y t h m i c a w areness d e v e l o p
ed b y "beating t i m e " w e r e as i m p o r t a n t at this s tage as
breathing, attack, and r e g i s t e r equalization. ("Singing
L e s sons," 1508-09.) W h i l e all four classes p r o v i d e d
frequent p e r f o r m a n c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for her students,
the b e g i n n i n g cl a s s e s w e r e a l s o the scene of c o r p o r a t e
learning situations. M a r c h e s i did n o t hes i t a t e to d i s
cuss and treat a p u p i l 's v o c a l faults in the p r e s e n c e of
other class m embers. ("Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:2028.) In
the "Singing L e s s o n s , " M a r c h e s i frequently provided
acc ounts of typical c lass sessions. The f o l l o w i n g e x
cerpt illus t r a t e s m a n y as p e c t s of h e r studio m a n n e r a n d
p rocedure:
H o w m a n y b e g i n n e r s a r e t here t o - d a y in this
class? A d e e p c o n t r a l t o ,two h i g h sopranos, one
d r a m a t i c soprano, a n d two mezz o - s o p r a n o s . Attend
c l o s e l y to the i n s t r u c t i o n imparted, not m e r e l y
h e e d i n g that a d d r e s s e d to y o u r s e l v e s and i n t e n d e d
to d i r e c t l y a d v a n c e y o u r studies, b u t to all, in
o r d e r that, shou l d c i r c u m s t a n c e s compel y o u to
teach, you m a y t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r s t a n d the fi r s t
instruction, the f o u n d a t i o n of singing, as w ell
as the rules of d e c l a m a t i o n , pronunci a t i o n , etc.
In the last le s s o n I h a d so m a n y e x p l a n a t i o n s to
off e r that it w a s i m p o s s i b l e to hav e mor e t han
one pu p i l sing; I hope, h owever, that you h a v e
i m p r i n t e d in y o u r m e m o r y w h a t I tol d you c o n c e r n
ing the singer's beari n g , breath i n g , o p e n i n g of
the mouth, and so on. I w i l l f i r s t pr o c e e d w i t h
m y small bu t w e l l - n o u r i s h e d l i ttle contr a l t o
that sang in the f irst lesson. Sta n d upon the
platform, y o u n g lady, p l ease, and begin. What!
Yo u w i s h to sing s t a n d i n g n e a r me, at the p i a n o ?
You say you did so w i t h y o u r f o r m e r teacher?
This I ca n n o t permit. If y o u sta n d behi n d m e I
c a nnot see if y o u o p e n y o u r m o u t h properly, if
you m a k e grimaces, if y o u ra i s e y o u r e yebrows
(as, unhappily, m a n y do) u n t i l t h e s e touch the
skull; in a w o r d I c a n n o t w a t c h y o u r bearing.
Quick, c l i m b u p o n the p l a t f o r m a n d lose no time;
there are fiv e m o r e y o u n g ladies here that m u s t
e ac h h a v e a g o o d lesson. Now, do not cry! I do
n o t like tears. There, t h a t w i l l do: yo u are
courag e o u s , I see: a rea l Spartan. ("Singing
L e s s o n s , " 33:1743.)
W h e n b a s i c v o c a l d e v e l o p m e n t had b een a c c o m p l i s h e d
and I t alian son g s h a d bee n a d d e d to the repertoire, the
singers w e r e m o v e d i n t o the p r e p a r a t o r y class. H e r e the
stu d e n t m e m o r i z e d a n d p e r f o r m e d a r i a s and songs o f the
Italian, G e rman, a n d F r e n c h r e p e r tories, and received
b asic t r a i n i n g in s tyle of p e r f o r m a n c e . In the p r e
pa r a t o r y c lass t h e d e c i s i o n w a s a l s o m a d e as to w h i c h
field the s i n g e r sh o u l d pursue, th e c o n c e r t c a reer or
ope r a t i c career. If n e c e ssary, some o f M a r c h e s i ' s v o c a l
ises w e r e r e t a i n e d fo r st u d y in th e p r e p a r a t o r y class.
Her o pera and c o n c e r t classes, h o w ever, w e r e s o l e l y for
professional training. In t he c o n c e r t class, op e r a and
o rato r i o a rias w e r e add e d to the c o n t i n u i n g stu d y a n d
p e r f o r m a n c e of Italian, German, a n d F r e n c h song. The
opera class w a s for the s tudy of c o m p l e t e o p e r a ro l e s and
for the p r e p a r a t i o n o f s i ngers to p e r f o r m in o p e r a h o u s e s
in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s as wel l as F r ance. Roles from the
o peras of M o z a r t , Gluck, Beet h o v e n , M e y e r b e e r , Weber,
Thomas, Rossini, Verdi, D o n i zetti, G o unod, Delibes,
Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Hum p e r d i n c k , M a s c a g n i , and P u c c i n i
w e r e taught. W h i l e M a r c h e s i w a s n e g a t i v e a b o u t the r e
quir e m e n t s of W a g n e r i a n ope r a u p o n y o u n g voic e s , she c o n
s ented to t e a c h the f o l l o w i n g r o l e s b e c a u s e she f ound
144
t h e m "the least trying for y o u n g t h r o a t s : " E l s a in
L o h e n g r i n , E v a in Die M e i s t e r s i n g e r , E l i s a b e t h in
T a n n h a u s e r , and Senta in D e r f l i e g e n d e H o l l a n d e r .
("Singing Lessons," 33:1508-10.) T h e annual r e c i t a l
programs, or "auditions," of M a r c h e s i ' s c l a s s e s w e r e
given in the Salle Er a r d w h i l e she w a s in P a r i s and
were a t t e n d e d b y hundreds. One such program, quoted
in Fig u r e 10, is i n dicative o f b o t h the r e p e r t o i r e
studied and the wide ran g e of c o u n t r i e s fr o m w h i c h she
d r e w students.
Attack
Wh i l e her t e r m i n o l o g y u n d e r w e n t some s l i g h t m o d i
fication, M a r c h e s i ' s c o n c e p t s of a t t a c k as a p a r t of the
act of p h o n a t i o n were ve r y si m i l a r to those of h er t e a c h
er. Lik e G a r c i a and B a t t a i l l e , she f r e q u e n t l y u s e d the
term "emission" in r e f e r e n c e to p h o n a t i o n a n d a t t a c k of
the tone. Q u e s t i o n s , " 24 ( S eptember 1907): 3.J H er c o n
cept of the co u p de g l otte w a s al s o c o m p a r a b l e to tha t of
Garcia. She d escribed it as a n a t u r a l a c t i o n of t he v o cal
l igam e n t s coor d i n a t e d w i t h t he e x p i r a t o r y breath:
A f t e r the lungs are filled, it is ne c e s s a r y ,

for the pr o d u c t i o n of a sound, th a t the p u p i l should
h e r m e t i c a l l y close the g l o t t i s so th a t its e x t r e m e
edges, c a l l e d the V o c a l C o r d s , m a y be set v i b r a t i n g
by the a ir which b u r s t s t h r o u g h at the m o m e n t of
E x p i r a t i o n . The C o u p de G l o t t e requires, t h e n a
sudden and energ e t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t he l i p s of
C O N C E R T C L ASS
A v e M a r i a ("Meditation de T h a i s " ) .................. M a s s e n e t

M i s s Kat h e r i n e G l a d h i l l (London) a nd M. Touss a i n t ,
V i o l i n i s t of the G r a n d O p e r a
(a) "Von e wiger L i e b e " ..............................Brahms

(b) "Vittoria! v i t t o r i a ! " ..................... C a r i s s i m i
Mile. A n n a T h o m s e n (Denmark)
(a) "Pur d i c e s t i " ..................................... Lo t t i

(b) " M a t t i n a t a " ....................................... T osti
M i s s A m y C a s t l e s (Melbourne)
(a) A i r des "noces de F i g a r o " .................... M o z a r t

(b) A i r de "Don J u a n " .............................. M o z a r t
Mis s Zelie R o l k e r (New York)
L e R e v e de J e sus (des C o n t e s M y s t i q u e s ) ...... Mme. Viardot

Mile. Pau l i n e B a l t s c h e f f s k y (Helsingfors)
R ecit. et A i r d ' "Acis et G a l a t e e " .................... Hand e l

Mme. Suz a n n e P e r t a t (Paris)
(a) E l e g i e ......................................... M a s s e n e t
(b) A i r de " T e r s e " .................................. H a n d e l
Mis s F l o r e n c e G a u (Grahamstown. S o u t h A f r i c a ) ,
a nd M. Co u r r a c e , V i o l o n c e l l i s t of t he G r a n d
Opera
A i r de "Marie M a g d a l e i n e " ............................ M a s s e n e t

Mile. Ida C h r i s t o n (The Hague, Holland)
Ai r , "Le Bar b i e r de S e v i l l e " .......................... R o s s i n i

Mlle. M a r i e Fowl i n (St. Petersburg)
(a) A i r d ' " H e r o d i a d e " .......................... M a s s e n e t

(b\ "Noël P a i e n " .................................. M a s s e n e t
M iss L o u O r m s b y (Central City, N e braska)
A i r de "Don P a s q u a l e " ................................ D o n i z e t t i

Mme. Tr y p h o s a B a t c h e l l e r (Boston)
A i r de " T i t u s " ............................................ M o z a r t

M i s s Cl a r a A d a m s ( C h i c a g o ) ,a n d M. L e f e bure, C l a r i n e t
tis t of the Grand O p e r a
F I G U R E 10: R E C I T A L P R O G R A M O F M A R C H E S I ' S O P E R A A N D C O N C E R T
C L ASSES; DECEMBER, 1900. F r o m "Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:2026.)
O P E R A CLASS
Air, "Les D r a g o n s de V i l l a r s " ....................... M a i l l a r d

Mlle. M a r g a r e t K a f t a l (Warsaw)
D u e de "Romeo et J u l i e t t e " ............................. G o u n o d

Mlle. G l a c i a C a l l a (Boston), and Mr. Lafit t e , of the
Grand Opera
(a) Air "Le C i d " .................................. M a s s e n e t

(b) Air "Samson et D a l i l a " ............. .....Sai n t - S a ë n s
Mlle. E l s i e M a r n y (Breslau
D u e t , "Aida " ................................ Verdi

Mis s A u g u s t a D o r i a (Boston) and M. L a f f i t t e
W a l t z an d Ma d r i g a l , "Romeo et J u l i e t t e " ..............G o u n o d

M i s s E l i z a b e t h P a r k i n s o n (Kansas City) a n d M. L a f f i t t e
Air, "Le F r e i s c h ü t z " ...................................... W e b e r

Mlle. M a r i e R o m a n e c k (Stuttgart)
Duo, "Le Roi d " Y s " ......................................... L a l o

M i s s e s P a r k i n s o n a n d D oria
A t the P i a n o : M. M a u g i n , C o n d u c t o r at the G r a n d Opéra,

an d M. F r é d é r i c P o n s o t
FIGURE 10— C o n t i n u e d .
the glottis, an i n s t a n t b e f o r e E x p i r a t i o n commences.'^®

(Op. 31, xii.)
M a r c h e s i also p r e f e r r e d Gar c i a ' s m e t h o d of p r a c t i c i n g
the cou p de g l o t t e on the I t alian [a'J , "slig h t l y d a r k e n
ed," a nd w i t h lo o s e j a w or "lowered c h i n . " (Op 21, v.)
T y p i c a l of M a r c h e s i ' s exe r c i s e s for t h e coup de g l otte is
^ Marchesi 's d e s c r i p t i o n is s i m i l a r to tha t u s e d

b y c u r r e n t v o i c e t h e r a p i s t s to d e s c r i b e a h a r m f u l g l o t t a l
attack. See Zemlin, 176-177.
the f o l l o w i n g excerpt, w h i c h w a s to be p r a c t i c e d b y
"avoi d i n g all je r k i n e s s as wel l as e f f o r t : ( O p .
31, 1.)
- :=^=^- S
,
'.Tll . t"! y J J i J "

—
P r i o r to 18 95, w h e n h er a rticle, " C o rrect M e t h o d s
o f V o c a l Stud y , " w a s p rinted, M a r c h e s i m o d i f i e d h e r t e r m
i n o l o g y for the c o u p de g l o t t e . In o b v i o u s r e f e r e n c e to
the r e c e n t c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n V i c t o r M a u r e l a nd G a r c i a
(see p. 32) she a d v o c a t e d c h a n g i n g the t e r m to se r r e r
la g l o t t e , "drawing it t o g e t h e r as the f l u t i s t a nd o b o i s t
d r a w t h eir lips." ("Correct M e t h o d s ," 159.) According
to the c o n t e x t of t h e article, M a r c h e s i ' s d e f i n i t i o n of
t he t e r m r e m a i n e d t h e same.
W h e n r e f e r r i n g to the i m p o r t a n c e o f a sec u r e v o cal
attack, Marchesi frequently warned against the open glot
tis.
'^^This d e s c r i p t i o n ap p e a r s to c o n t r a d i c t the
" sudden a n d e n e r g e t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the li p s of the
g l o t t i s ."
C o n c e r n i n g the o p e n i n g of the glottis w h e n
a t t a c k i n g th e tone: This n e w discovery, thi s fant a ^
sy o f an o v e r w r o u g h t brain, m u s t be s t e a d f a s t l y
op posed. F o r the c o m p l e t i o n of the tone, th e c l o s
ing o f the glottis, o n the two e dges of w h i c h , as
it is known, the v o c a l c ords lie, is i n d i s p e n s a b l e .
T he e f f i c i e n c y of the v o c a l cords m u s t be i n c r e a s e d
by t h e i r b e i n g d r a w n together, p r o v i d e d a l w a y s tha t
in th e a t t a c k of a tone a h a r d imp u l s e . . . be
s e d u l o u s l y avoided. ("Singing L e s s o n s , " 3 3 :1237.)
T h i s r i g i d a d h e r e n c e to Gar c i a ' s con c e p t of a t t a c k stands
in d r a m a t i c c o n t r a s t to B a t t a i l l e 's m e t h o d of c o m p e n s a
tion. It w i l l be r e c a l l e d tha t B a t t a i l l e 's m e t h o d o r i
ginated f r o m his stu d y of the r e l a t i v e l y ope n g l o t t i s
during phonation, and t h a t it m a t u r e d as a c o n c e p t of
r e p l a c i n g t e n s i o n in the v o c a l ligaments w i t h p r o p o r
t i o n a t e l y m o r e air c u r r e n t (see pp. 110-114) . \-Jhere
Battaille fel t t h a t he had fo u n d a b e t t e r e m p h a s i s ,
Marchesi a l i g n e d h e r s e l f w i t h G a r cia's stroke a p p r o a c h .
It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r M a r c h e s i was d i r e c t l y r e f e r r i n g
to B a t t a i l l e 's m e t h o d in suc h s t atements as t h a t q u o t e d
above. If so, she did not r e a l i z e that B a t t a i l l e 's idea
of the o p e n g l o t t i s w a s o n l y the o r i g i n of the c o n c e p t .
F o r t onal c l a r i t y he r e q u i r e d that the a r y t e n o i d s b e
b r o u g h t toget h e r , c l o s i n g the glottis, but with les s
t e n s i o n r e s u l t i n g in the v o c a l ligaments.
Marchesi and B a t t a i l l e m u s t have b een a c q u a i n t
ed. B o t h s t u d i e d w i t h Garc i a in P aris d u r i n g t h e y e a r s
1845r-1847 a n d b o t h w e r e t e a c h i n g in P a r i s f r o m 1 8 6 1 -
1865. N e i t h e r w a s found to ref e r d i r e c t l y to t h e o t h e r
149
in any of their w r i t i n g s or methods. However, Marchesi
d e n o u n c e d the ope n glottis s y stem of at t a c k on s e veral
occasions. ("Singing L essons," 1367, 1508.) Battaille
w as equa l l y o u t s p o k e n a b out abuse of the solfeggio,
w h i c h M a r c h e s i reg u l a r l y used in the m u s i c a l training
of her s i n g e r s . B o t h p e r s o n a l i t i e s r e f e r r e d to these
respe c t i v e m e t h o d s as devi c e s of m i s g u i d e d teachers.
Other, m o r e p o i n t e d statem e n t s indicate t h a t o p e n d i s a
greement, if not rivalry, m a y have bee n p r e s e n t amo n g
the three G arcia teach e r s (see also pp. 153-154, 192,
194-196).
Registration
Since p l a c e m e n t of the vo i c e in the c o r r e c t r e
gi s t e r zones was of fundam e n t a l impo r t a n c e to M a r chesi,
and since p l a c e m e n t va r i e s s o m e w h a t a c c o r d i n g to vo i c e
cl a s s i fication, M a r c h e s i c l a s s i f i e d h er si n g e r s v e r y
soon after study h a d begun. ^[''Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:1875;
"Questions," 25 (November 1908): 29.J
A careful a nd a c c u r a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the
di f f e r e n t voices is u n d o u b t e d l y the e s s e n t i a l
el e m e n t a r y founda t i o n of v o i c e - c u l t u r e and v o i c e -
p r e s e rvation, and the igno r a n c e of thi s f u n d a m e n t a l
p r e c e p t is, no doubt, one of the p r i n c i p a l c a u s e s
of the actual d e cline of the art of song. /["Ques
tions , " 24 (October 1907): 2 JJ
Marchesi's sole c r i t e r i o n for v o i c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was
v ocal quality. She found m e z z o - s o p r a n o s to hav e a d a r k
er qu a l i t y than sopranos, and l yric sop r a n o s to h a v e a
42 Battaille, De La Physiol o g i e , 27.
"clearer" q u a l i t y t h a n d r a m a t i c sopranos. ^'Questions/'
24 (October 1907): 2^ If u p p e r n otes wer e undepen d a b l e ,
M a r c h e s i was pr o n e to b e l i e v e t hat the v oice had been
w r o n g l y c l a s s i f i e d or w r o n g l y p l a c e d b y a form e r teacher.
(/'Questions, " 25 (April 1908): 3 .J Marchesi classified
female v o i c e s as one of two t ypes of contraltos, or as m e z z o
soprano, drama t i c soprano, or "high, l ight Sopr a n o
(s f o g a t o ) . (Op. 21, vi.) Rang e s of p r o p e r l y pl a c e d
female v o i c e s as d e r i v e d from M a r c h e s i ' s w r i t i n g s are
p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 11.
Following classification, the n e x t fu n d a m e n t a l
task was v oice plac e m e n t . Marchesi f ound c o r r e c t r e g i s
t r ation to be "the A l p h a and O m e g a of the f o r m a t i o n and
d e v e l o p m e n t of the f e m a l e v oice, the t o u c h s t o n e of all
s ing i n g m ethods, ol d an d new." (Op. 31, xiii.) Marchesi
a t t e m p t e d h e r m o s t seri o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s in
r e g a r d to r e gistration, s ince she fel t that stu d e n t s should
hav e a c lear u n d e r s t a n d i n g of this v o c a l p h e nomenon. She
g av e anatomical, physiological, and a c o u s t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n
in this area to all of h e r p u p i l s w i t h the aid of a n a t o m i
cal c harts and an a r t i f i c i a l hu m a n larynx. The p h y s i o l o g
ical m a t e r i a l w h i c h she e n t e r e d in Op. 31 was a p p a r e n t l y
n o t the r e s u l t of her o w n r e s e a r c h and w a s s o m e w h a t
J. A. F u l l e r - M a i t l a n d d e s c r i b e s the so p r a n o
sfogato as "a thin, acu t e v o i c e of a som e w h a t v e i l e d
quali t y , " in Grov e ' s D i c t i o n a r y of M u s i c an d M u s i c i a n s ,
5 th ed., s.v. " s f o g a t o , " b y J. A. F u l l e r - M a i t l a n d .
Contralto Giusto Contraltone
(no h e a d register)
ysi.
Mezzo-Soprano
(This range wa s in d i c a t e d for a m e z z o - s o p r a n o of l i m i t e d
range w hose a c t i v i t é s w ould be l i m i t e d to conc e r t p e r
formance.)
D r a m a t i c Sopra n o s and Lyr i c S o p r a n o s
-&
.FIGURE 11: MARC H E S I : V O I C E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S A N D RANGES.

Fro m "Questions," 24 (November 1907): 2; and 25 (Nov
ember 1908): 29 .
erroneous. In the a r e a of b a s i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l princi p l e s ,
she listed three th i n g s n e c e s s a r y for the p r o d u c t i o n o f a
sound: a motor, v i b rator, and reso n a t o r . She i d e n t i f i e d
these factors in the h uman b o d y as the lungs, glottis,
and walls of the cav i t i e s a bove the g l o t t i s . F r o m thi s
point on, however, inaccuracies crept in. She b e l i e v e d
that the glottis incre a s e s and d e c r e a s e s the inten s i t y
152
of the sound w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e s and de c r e a s e s
in the n u m b e r of v i b r a t i o n s of the v o c a l ligaments.
B o t h G a r c i a a n d B a t t a i l l e n o t e d tha t d i f f e r e n c e s in
s peed of v i b r a t i o n s are r e l a t e d to pitch, n ot i n tensity,
an d c u r r e n t s c i e n c e has p r o v e n t h a t t h e r e is a di r e c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p i t c h and rat e of v o c a l - f o l d v i b r a
tion.^^
Ma r c h e s i a l s o f o s t e r e d a n o t h e r u n i q u e o p i n i o n :
"It is the L a r y n x which, b y chan g e o f posit i o n , di r e c t s
the column of air e s c a p i n g f rom the V i b r a t o r (the glottis)
towa r d s the t h r e e r e s o n a n t w a l l s a l t e r n a t e l y . " (Op. 31,
xiii.) She c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t r e g i s t r a t i o n and r e s o n a n c e
we r e a r e s u l t of t he same c o o r d i n a t i n g action. Using
Garci a ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e g ister, she i m p a r t e d h e r own
interpretation :
Since, then, e a c h r e g i s t e r of the v o i c e c o n s i s t s

of a seri e s o f c o n s e c u t i v e an d h o m o g e n e o u s sounds,
of an e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d to t h o s e o f the
ot h e r r e g i s t e r s , it foll o w s tha t the v o c a l a p p a r a t u s
should c o n t a i n t h r e e q u i t e d i s t i n c t r e s o n a n c e c h a m b e r s
( w alls). T h e s e th r e e R e s o n a t o r s , f o r m e d of d i f f e r e n t
o r ganic t i s sues, impart, by r e a s o n of t heir s p ecial
p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r to
each s e ries of s ou nds c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the li m i t s of
each r e g ister: (Op. 21, xiv.)
March e s i n e v e r c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d the a n a t o m i c a l p o s i t i o n
of the three r e s o n a t o r s . O n e statement, however, may
indicate he r o p i nion: "The f e male v o i c e h as t h r e e r e g i s
ters : chest, m e d i u m , a n d head. It is t h e d i f f e r e n t
Garcia, " O b s e r v a t i o n s , " 408, a n d Batt a i l l e ,

N o u velles R e c h e r c h e s , 43. See a lso Zemlin, S p e e c h and
H e a r i n g S c i e n c e , 182.
153
r e s o n a n c e that gives t h e m t heir d i f f e r e n t names." ^"Ques
tions," 25 (October 1908); 36 .J M a r c h e s i ' s theo r y was,
of course, far r e m o v e d f rom t h a t of Garc i a and from
physiological fact as w e l l (see pp. 50-57). .
In her o p i n i o n s of r e g i s t e r limits and of t r a i n
ing v o i c e s to a c h i e v e a h o m o g e n e o u s q u a l i t y t h r o u g h o u t
the r e gisters, M a r c h e s i w a s m u c h c l o s e r to Garci a ' s
concepts. S he f ound c h a n g e s in ti m b r e to be natu r a l
in d i c a t o r s of r e g i s t e r cha n g e s in u n t r a i n e d voices.
/^"Questions," 25 (October 1908): 36.^ Marchesi's d e s i g
n a t i o n s of r e g i s t e r limits, w h i l e the y v a r i e d s l i g h t l y
in her v a r i o u s w r i t i n g s , m a y be seen in F i g u r e 12.
Ma r c h e s i ' s t h r e e - r e g i s t e r c o n c e p t w a s i n e x t r i c
abl y b o u n d to h e r t h e o r y of thr e e resonators. She
p r e f e r r e d to r e s e r v e th e term f a l s e t t o for a r e g i s t e r
w h i c h she b e l i e v e d b e l o n g s e x c l u s i v e l y to m e n ' s voices.
In this aspect, we f i n d a r a t h e r d i r e c t a s s e r t i o n c o n
ce r n i n g the t w o - r e g i s t e r t h e o r y a n d p o s s i b l y B a t t a i l l e
hi m s e l f :
ed sonogr a p h i c a n a l y s e s of e a c h r e g i s t e r and p a s s a g g i o
area w i t h p e r c e p t u a l tests, J o h n L a r g e and Th o m a s M u r r y
found M a r c h e s i ' s p a s s a g g i o areas to be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
test f i n dings for the c h e s t - m e d i u m a d j ustments. T he
findi n g s als o w e r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the th e o r y that d i f
fere n t r e g i s t e r s are p r o d u c e d b y d i f f e r e n t laryn g e a l
adjustments. D a t a f r o m this st u d y on the m e d i u m - h e a d
p a s s a g g i o area w e r e m u c h less s u b stantial, b u t t e n d e d
to s u p p o r t laryn g e a l a d j u s t m e n t in this are a also. See
Jo h n L a r g e and T h o m a s Murr y , "Studies of the M a r c h e s i
Mo d e l for F e m a l e R e g i s t r a t i o n , " J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in
Sing i n g 1 (January, 1978), 1-14.
U p p e r L i m i t s of the C h e s t Reg i s t e r
C o n t r a l t o and M e z z o - S o p r a n o
Soprano
U p p e r Li m i t s of the M e d i u m R e g i s t e r
i / 7) O
A l l voic e s
Some Sop r a n o s o
FI G U R E 12: MAR C H E S I : D E S I G N A T I O N S OF R E G I S T E R LIM I T S .

F r o m Op. 31, xv; and "Qu e s t i o n s , " 24 (November 1907): 2.
E m p i r i c i s m , w h i c h in t h e s e days appears to
s t ruggle m o r e than e v e r a g a i n s t all rules of
m o d e r n pe d a g o g y , has p u t in c i r c u l a t i o n , a m o n g
o ther abs u r d i t i e s , th e a s s e r t i o n t h a t the f e m a l e
voice o n l y p o s s e s s e s two regi s t e r s , viz.: C h e s t
and Fa l s e t t o . T h i s g r a v e e r r o r has also b e e n e n
d orsed b y several e m i n e n t m o d e r n p h y s i o l o g i s t s ,
who h a v e p e r s u a d e d t h e m s e l v e s t hat the y have
e s t a b l i s h e d this theory, a f t e r th e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s
wit h the lar y n g o s c o p e , b u t w h o are i n c a p a b l e of
m a k i n g c o m p a r a t i v e e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h their o w n
vocal o rgans. (Op. 21, xiv.)
Cl e a r d e f i n i t i o n o f the li m i t s o f the t h r e e r e
gisters wa s of ut m o s t i m p o r t a n c e to Mar c h e s i . Other
wise, "there w i l l a lways be a seri e s o f unce r t a i n ,
w e a k and f a l s e tones in s i n g i n g scal e s w i t h full voice,
or in s u s t a i n e d p a s s a g e s . " (Op. 21, vi.) She
155
c o nsidered it dangerous, however, to w o r k e a c h reg i s t e r s e
parately. ^ ’Que s t i o n s , " 25 (June 1908): 3.^ Instead, she
used one b a s i c p r i n c i p l e for b l e n d i n g the r e g i s t e r s . Chest
tones should be sung w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e bri g h t n e s s , bu t
in ascending scales the las t two n o t e s of the che s t
should be s l i g h t l y d a r k e n e d or "closed" in q uality, in
o rder to m a k e the m b l e n d w i t h the m e d i u m register. In
d escen d i n g fro m m e d i u m to chest, the last two n o t e s of
the m e d i u m s h ould be b r i g h t e n e d or "opened" to m a t c h t h e m
w i t h the chest. The same p r i n c i p l e w a s a p p l i e d to b l e n d
ing of the m e d i u m a n d h e a d registers. ("Singing L essons,"
33:2168, and Op. 21, xv.) Fo r a p p l y i n g this principle,
she recomm e n d e d that the s tudent p r a c t i c e t he chr o m a t i c
t hird in the p a s s a g g i o areas of the voice. £”" Q u e s t i o n s ,"
25 (November 1908): 29.J A t the same time, the s t udent
should study M a r c h e s i ' s e l e m e n t a r y e x e r c i s e s and scales
(i.e., those in Op. 21 and Op. 31) w h i c h "are i n t e n d e d to
pla c e every note of the v o i c e and d e v e l o p its v o l u m e and
its compass, as w e l l as to even its r e g i s t e r s . " These
w e r e to be sun g s l o w l y w i t h e qual intensity. Variations
in intensity and v o c a l c olor w ere n o t to be a t t e m p t e d
until the "second p e r i o d " of study, w h e n s ongs in Italian
wer e studied. (/'Questions, " 24 (November 1907): 2^
Ma r c h e s i a s c r i b e d m a n y v o c a l faults to erron e o u s
register p l acement. S ince spe c i f i c c r i t e r i a w e r e e x p e c t
ed from w e l l - p l a c e d voices, vo i c e s w h i c h did n o t fulfill .
156
t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e v i e w e d as m i s p l a c e d instrum e n t s :
W h e n y o u hear th a t t he p a s s a g e of the r e g i s t e r s is
qu i t e even, th a t the e m i s s i o n of e v e r y sou n d of yo u r
vo i c e is e a s y a n d n a t ural, t h a t you r i n t o n a t i o n is
perfect, and th a t the w h o l e of the p o s s i b l e r a nge of
the v o i c e has b e e n d e v e l o p e d , then y o u can s a y that
y o u r v o i c e has b e e n p r o p e r l y placed. "Questions,"
25 {February 1909): 3 ^
A p e r s i s t e n t p r o b l e m w h i c h M a r c h e s i e n c o u n t e r e d w a s t hat
of swi t c h i n g the r e g i sters. Br e a k s or "hi c c o u g h s , " breath
in e s s in some notes, a nd t h e c h e v r o t e m e n t w e r e o f t e n d e c l a r
ed to be t he r e s u l t of u s i n g the head r e g i s t e r in the m e d i
um r a nge or c a r r y i n g t he c h e s t or m e d i u m too high. ^'Ques
tions," 24 (November 1908): 2; 25 (February 1909): 3; 25
(October 1908): 36 T h e t e r m c h e v r o t e m e n t w a s u s e d by b o t h
M a r c h e s i a nd B a t t a i l l e to de f i n e an o b j e c t i o n a b l e vibrato,
or "bleat." M a r c h e s i b e l i e v e d this p r o b l e m to be c a u s e d
b y r e l a x a t i o n of the e x t r i n s i c laryn g e a l m u s c l e s d u e to
v i o l a t i o n o f r e g i s t e r limits. ["'Questions, " 24 (November
1907): 2.[J B a t t a i l l e b e l i e v e d the m u s c u l a r r e l e a s e to be
caused by excessive air power ag a i n s t t he c r i c o t h y r o i d
m us c l e s . Obviously, he fel t t h a t h is m e t h o d of c o m p e n
s a t i o n w o u l d p r e v e n t the c h e v r o t e m e n t , if it c o u l d not
c o r r e c t it.^^ Marchesi a l m o s t alw a y s fo u n d that c a r e
le s s r e g i s t e r p l a c e m e n t r e s u l t e d in "a ser i e s of u n c e rtain,
w e a k a nd false t o n e s in s i n g i n g s c ales w i t h full voice, or
in susta i n e d p a s s a g e s . " (Op. 21, vi.)
^^Battaille, D e la p h y s i o l o g i e , 30-31.
157
Marchesi's m a j o r o b j e c t i o n to the t w o - r e g i s t e r
theory was the p r o b a b i l i t y that it fo s t e r s t he act of
carrying the m e d i u m r e g i s t e r too high. She d e c r i e d t h e
n e g l e c t of t he h e a d r e g i s t e r by some t e a c h e r s w h o f eel
that "it is n o t w o r t h w h i l e , b e i n g t oo we a k . " ^"Questions,"
25 (April 1908) : 3 .J S he a c k n o w l e d g e d th a t t he head r e
gis t e r is w e a k e r t h a n t he o t h e r two regis t e r s , but f o u n d
th a t it b e c o m e s s t r o n g e r w i t h practice. ^'Questions," 25
(October 1908): 36.J T h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n to h e r t h e o r y
was one of t wo t y p e s of contralto, t he c o n t r a l t o n e ,
w h i c h she f o u n d to l a c k a head register. The contral
t one has o n l y a t w o - o c t a v e range, theref o r e , w h i l e the
contralto giusto possesses some notes in the h e a d r e g i s
t e r ‘d^ (see F i g u r e 12).
Marchesi's exercises for a c q u i r i n g e v e n n e s s t h r o u g h
out the v o c a l registers were constructed on the same p r i n
ciples as t h o s e of G a r cia. L i k e G a r c i a and B a t t aille,
she i n c l u d e d e x e r c i s e s on the port de v o i x o r p o r t a m e n t o
e a rly in her b o o k s o f e x ercises. So m e of t h e s e are p r a c t i
cal l y i d e n t i c a l to t h o s e u s e d by G a r c i a (see p. 45 a nd
p p . 98-99) . All t h r e e t e a c h e r s us e d the c o n c e p t of a d d i n g
wider intervals as f l u e n c y w i t h the e x e r c i s e improved.
Oth e r e x e r c i s e s introduced arpeggiated portamentos (see
d e s i g n a t i o n s for the c o n t r a l t o voice. No other re

ference t o t h e s e t e r m s c o u l d be located.
F i g u r e 13). M a r c h e s i ' s exerc i s e wh i c h str e s s e d the c h r o m
atic thi r d w a s i n t e n d e d to be pract i c e d in slow, regular
s i x t e e n t h notes: (Op. 21, 5.)
Tierce chromalique. Chromalir ThirHc

îrcicp poiir la fusion des regislrcs. Exercise in blending the rcgisti
Marchesi's scales, like Garcia's, were designed
to h e l p the student to add p e r fected n o t e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y
to her vo c a l r ange (see Figure 14). Gradua l l y , the
full v ocal r ange w a s req u i r e d in vari o u s ty p e s of scale
f ig u r e s and in c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h p o r t a m e n t o s (see F i g
ure 15). F o r light sopranos, who u s u a l l y a c q u i r e f l e x i
b i l i t y m o r e r e a d i l y t h a n singers of o t h e r cl a s s i f i c a t i o n s ,
she r e q u i r e d p r a c t i c e of m o r e complex figu r e s (see F i g
u r e 16). L i k e Garcia, she r egarded e x e r c i s e s of two-,
three-, f o u r - , s i x - , and ei g h t - n o t e f i g u r e s to be e x t r e m e
ly v a l u a b l e "for b l e n d i n g the registers, increasing flexi
bility, and for a c c u r a c y of intonation." (Op 31, 24.)
H e r d i r e c t i o n s for t h e i r p r a c t i c e were s i m i l a r to o t h e r
pr o c edures:
. . . t h e y m u s t be sung slowly at first, b r e a t h i n g at

intervals, and t r a n s p o s i n g t h e m a s e m i - t o n e at a time,
hi gher or lower to suit the vo i c e . . . the speed m a y
be i n c r e a s e d and the f requent b r e a t h i n g o m i t t e d w h e n the
p upil is s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced. (Op. 31, 24.)
Port de v o ix chrom atique et dia tonique. I Portam ento in Tones and Semitones.
* 2
1
g t'W ?^
1
J^
r—
' 3 ■'9^ U -f— U— ^— T ■— \=f=i=^
Port de VOÏX diatonique. Portamento in Diatonic Tones.
Port de VOIX. Portamento.
FI G U R E 13: MARCH E S I : P O R T A M E N T O E X ERCISES. F r o m Op. 21,

4-5, and Op. 31, 5. U s e d ' b y permi s s i o n .
SCALES.
; T h e voice in its natural stale is as a rule rough, uneven,, heavy, and o f limited compass. Having
secured accuracy of intonation in the attack of each sound (by the stroke of the glottis) the next
task should be the development of volume, power, and compass of the voice, and the blending of
the registers. T iie pupil should nor ac firsc aueinpc lo sing die coiiipicic scale, hut hegh. hj,
practising exercises of two three and four notes, etc, otherwise there is a risk of never succeeding
in any kind of passage.
A ll scales should be transposed throughout the compass of the voice a semitone at a time up and
down, care being taken not to over-exert the extreme limits of the voice ; they should be sung with
perfect equality of length and power as well as with correct intonation of the half tones. When the
descending scale Is out of tune it is because the semitones are too wide.
FI G U R E 14: MARCHESI: F U N D A M E N T A L S C A L E EXERCISES. From

Op. 31, 6 . Used b y permission.
F I G U R E 15: M A R C H E S I : A D V A N C E D S C A L E EXERCISES. From
Op. 31, 8, 10. U s e d by p e r m i s s i o n .
F I G U R E 16: MARCHESI: S CALE E X E R C I S E S F O R LIGHT SOPRANO.
F r o m Op. 21, 16, 19. U s e d by p e r m i s s i o n .
EXERCISES ON TWO NOTES.
EXERCISES ON THREE NOTES.
FI G U R E 17; MARCHESI: E X E R C I S E S O F M U L T I P L E FIGURES.

F r o m Op. 31, 24-25. U s e d b y p e r m ission.
M
F I G U R E 18: M A R CHESI: SCALES W I T H ORNAMENT A T I O N . From

Op. 31, 22. U s e d by permis s i o n .
165
As in o t h e r examples, M a r c h e s i ' s procedures, if not her
e x e r c i s e s themselves, hav e m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h G a r c i a ' s
f igu r e d e x e r c i s e s (see F i g u r e . 17). One p a r t i c u l a r p a t
t er n w a s a p p a r e n t l y a f a v orite of M a r c h e s i and Garcia. It
c o n s i s t e d of an a s c e n d i n g scale foll o w e d by a trill, turn,
or oth e r o r n a m e n t a l p a s s a g e a bout the upp e r octave, and
end e d by a d e s c e n d i n g sc a l e (see Fi g u r e 17 and pp. 47-48) .
B r e a t h i n g and C o o r d i n a t i o n
Lik e v o i c e placement, b r e a t h i n g was t a u g h t from the
b e g i n n i n g of a stude n t ' s study w i t h M archesi. While Garcia
and B a t t a i l l e r e c o m m e n d e d that b r e a t h i n g a c t i v i t y take
pla c e in the lower ribs an d u p p e r a b d o m i n a l regions, Mar
chesi a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t e d only abd o m i n a l breathing. She
bel i e v e d that a b dominal b r e a t h i n g is a natu r a l action,
c o m p a r a b l e to that w h i c h o c curs " w ithout any i n t e r v e n t i o n
of the will, as du r i n g sleep," and tha t it s h ould be ta u g h t
as such. (Op. 31, xi.) Marchesi's teaching approach began
b y ha v i n g the student a s s u m e "the m o s t natu r a l p o s t u r e : "
T he b o d y m u s t be held upright, l i k e w i s e the head.

The shoul d e r s are to be d rawn bac k w i t h o u t c o n s traint,
and the c hest to r e m a i n q uite free. A n y sti f f n e s s of
the b o d y m u s t be avoided, in ord e r to secure the c o m
p lete i n d e p e n d e n c e of the orga n s of p h o n a t i o n d u r i n g
their working. ^"Que s t i o n s , " 25 (February 1908): 3 .~J
C o n s i s t e n t w i t h h e r a t titude t o w a r d n a t u r a l b r e a t h
ing for singing, M a r c h e s i nev e r a s s i g n e d e x e r c i s e s w h i c h
s tressed b r e a t h i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the s i n g i n g act.
T h e one ex a m p l e she gave of a b r e a t h i n g e x e r c i s e emphasized
e f f i c i e n t p h o n a t i o n on s u s t a i n e d tones:
T h e r e is no o t h e r e x e r c i s e to l e a r n b r e a t h c o n trol
t h a n to inh a l e slowly, and w h e n t h e lu n g s are full
cl o s e the g l o t t i s in a t t a c k i n g the sound, and e x hale
the air.slowly, k e e p i n g t he v o c a l c o r d s t i g h t l y
closed. ^"Questions, " 25 (October 1908): 36.J
A f t e r the student u n d e r s t o o d t he c o n c e p t of n a t u r a l b r e a t h
ing, M a r c h e s i r e c o m m e n d e d that it be p r a c t i c e d wi t h the
r e p e r t o i r e itself. In o n e instance, she suggested pasf
sages in the o r a t o r i o s of Bac h and H a n d e l for p r a c t i c e of
lengthy, susta i n e d pas s a g e s . Q u e s t i o n s , " 24 (September
1907): 3J
Stylisti c a l l y , Marchesi r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t the s t u
d e n t use the m o r e l e n g t h y re s t s w i t h i n v o c a l m u s i c for
full inhalation, t a k e n q u i e t l y and slowly. In s h orter
rests she r e c o m m e n d e d u s e of the "I t a l i a n m e t h o d m e z z o -
respiro ( h a l f - b r e a t h ) , s o m e w h a t q u i c k e r a n d s h o r t e r than
t h e full breath, b u t w i t h o u t m a k i n g a n y effo r t , contrac
tion, or d i s a g r e e a b l e noise. [^'Questions," 25 (April
1908): 3^ She fo u n d b r e a t h m a n a g e m e n t to be t h e sole
c o n t r o l l e r of the m e s s a di v o c e , the c r e s c e n d o being
b r o u g h t about b y the s t e a d y i n c r e a s e of a i r d i r e c t e d
f r o m the lungs to t h e v o c a l folds and t he d e c r e s c e n d o
t he dominating c o n c e r n w h i c h t he G a r c i a t e a c h e r s had in
re g a r d to attack. If t h e v o c a l folds a r e " t i g h t l y c l o s e d , "
p h o n a t i o n m a y e i t h e r be i mpossible, or, at best, improper,
d ue to excessive tension. See Zemlin, 209.
since c o n t raction of c e r t a i n m u s c l e s of i n h a l a t i o n is
al w a y s neces s a r y in t h e b r e a t h i n g p r o cess.
167
b y t h e o p p o s i t e action. {^Questions," 25 (June 1908): 3^
A final M a r c h e s i a d m o n i t i o n c o n c e r n e d the l i m i t a
t i o n s put o n b r e a t h i n g b y c o n t e m p o r a r y fashion. She c o n
demned corsets because they interfere "with the f r e e d o m of
th e w a i s t " and "prevent the i n f l a t i o n of the l ungs at
th e b ase." (Op. 31, xii.) G a r c i a also h ad o b j e c t i o n s to
corsets. When one soprano a u d i t i o n e d for his studio,
G a r c i a sent her a w a y w i t h t h e i nstruction.
T h a n k you . . . w i l l y o u p l e a s e go home at once,

t a k e o f f tha t d ress, r i p off th o s e stays, and let
your waist out to at least twenty-five inches!
W h e n y o u hav e d o n e so y o u m a y come b a c k and s i n g tO(-„
me, and I w i l l t e l l y o u w h e t h e r you hav e any voice.
In r e g a r d to c o o r d i n a t i o n of b r e a t h m a n a g e m e n t
w i t h gl o t t a l attack, M a r c h e s i wa s not as v e r b a l as Ga r c i a
o r B a ttaille. To M a r c h e s i , u l t i m a t e fine s s e in b r e a t h
c o n t r o l is d e p e n d e n t o n fine coordination with attack
and r e t e n t i o n of a c l o s e d glottis. ["Questions, " 25
(November 1908): 29 ^ M a r c h e s i was i n s i s t e n t t h a t attack,
r e g i s t e r plac e m e n t , and b r e a t h c o n t r o l as a c o o r d i n a t e d
u n i t be p e r f e c t e d b e f o r e t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a reas of
r e p e r t o i r e a nd p e r f o r m a n c e be attempted. ["Questions,"
25 (April 1908): 3J
R e s o n a n c e and D i c t i o n
W hi l e e x p r e s s i v e c o n t r o l of ti m b r e w a s r e g a r d e d
as a m a r k of a f i n i s h e d s i n g e r b y M a r c h e s i (Op. 21, vii) ,
168
she n e v e r r e f e r r e d to d e l i b e r a t e use of spe c i f i c colors,
such as G a r c i a ' s v o i x clair a nd v o i x s o m b r e . Instead,
she a p p a r e n t l y sou g h t the s t u d e n t ' s b e s t tone q u a l i t y as
the fir s t p r i o r i t y . In the s t u d e n t ' s later de v e l o p m e n t ,
vowel colors c o u l d be al t e r e d for in t e r p r e t i v e m e a ning:
"In o r d e r to p r o p e r l y r e nder the sense of the situation,
it is ne c e s s a r y , therefore, to c l o s e or open the v o w e l
of a w o r d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the s e n t i m e n t to be e x p r e s s e d . "
(Op. 31, xvii.)
As d i s c u s s e d above, M a r c h e s i ' s registration theory
w as c o m b i n e d w i t h h e r t h eory of resonance. (See pp. 152-
153.) W h i l e s he e r r o n e o u s l y d e s c r i b e d the h a r d a nd soft
p a l a t e s as p r i n c i p a l r e s o n a t o r s o f the v o i c e , ^ ' Q u e s t i o n s ,"
25 (November 1908) : 29^ a nd i m p l i e d that the h e a d a n d
ch est p l a y s o m e r ole in r e s o n a t i o n as a p a r t of r e g i s t r a
tion (see pp. 152-153), she r e j e c t e d a ttempts to c o n s c i o u s l y
dir e c t tone to a r e s o n a t o r or c o n t r o l it fr o m one p h y s i o
logical location. jF'Questions, " 24 (October 1907) : 2 .'J
N e i t h e r did she a d v o c a t e use of the senses of f e e l i n g
and h e a r i n g by the st u d e n t in r e g a r d to p e r c e i v e d ton e
quality. Instead, she a p p a r e n t l y r e l i e d fully on w i s e
tors in the h u m a n vo i c e as those c a v i t i e s a l o n g the v o c a l

tract w h o s e s ize a n d shape are a l t e r e d by ton g u e posit i o n ,
particularly, the c a v i t y b e h i n d t he t o ngue a nd the m o u t h
cav i t y in f r o n t o f the tongue. See P e t e r B. D e nes a n d
Elli o t t N. P i nson, The Spe e c h Chain: The P h y s i c s and
Bi o logy of S p o k e n L a n g u a g e (Baltimore: W a v e r l y Press, Inc.
1963), 58-65; a n d G u n n a r Fant, A c o u s t i c The o r y of S p e e c h
Prod u c t i o n (The Hague: M o u t o n and Co., 1960), 121-22.
169
r e g i s t e r p l a c e m e n t and sound v o c a l t e c h n i q u e to s e r v e
the s t u d e n t ' s p e r c e p t i o n of produc t i o n . In o n e case,
however, s he u r g e d that the c#^ in the m e d i u m r e g i s t e r be
directed " t o w a r d the h a r d palate, else it takes on a
L i k e G a r c i a and B a ttaille, M a r c h e s i b e l i e v e d that
fr e e d o m o f t he o r g a n s of p h o n a t i o n is r e q u i r e d b e f o r e the
t one is a t t a c k e d . Q u e s t i o n s , " 25 (October 1908): 36^
U n l i k e the o t h e r t wo t eachers, w h o de a l t w i t h l a r y n
geal p o s i t i o n as an i n f l u e n c e r of tone, she m e n t i o n e d
laryngeal p o s i t i o n on l y once, a nd then in r e g a r d to its
r e l a t i o n s h i p to p i t c h and register. Here she m e r e l y
urg e d that r e g i s t e r l i mits be o b s e r v e d in o r d e r t h a t the
larynx be f r e e to a d just its p o s i t i o n as n e c e ssary.
("Singing L e s s o n s , " 33:2028.) I n s t e a d of the l o o s e jaw,
she i n s i s t e d "that the lower j a w be d e p r e s s e d , " (Singing
L essons," 3 3 : 1508), a fac t o r w h i c h also i n f l u e n c e s m o u t h
position:
The m o u t h in si n g i n g m u s t be o pen in q u i t e a n a t u r a l
way, d e p r e s s i n g the chin, as if ab o u t to p r o n o u n c e an
Ital i a n A. H e r e it is a d v i s a b l e to r e m i n d t h e s tudent
that t h e m o u t h can be o p e n e d o n l y d o wnward, t he upp e r
part b e i n g immovable, hen c e the n e c e s s i t y o f p u s h i n g
down t h e chin. j^'Questions, " 24 (November 1907): 2.J
suited in a li f t i n g of t he soft palate, thereby correcting

the e x c e s s i v e n a sal quality.
170
Like G arcia, she o b j e c t e d to g r o s s a l t e r a t i o n s of m o u t h
position while s inging w i t h words, and r e c o m m e n d e d th a t
the s t u d e n t c o r r e c t this h a bit b y si n g i n g b e f o r e a mirror.
[/'Questions," 24 (October 1907): 2 .J Some of M a r c h e s i 's
statements concerning mouth position were made in r e g a r d
to a c o n t e m p o r a r y t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d sing
ing w i t h a smile. She found t his to c a use t h e v o i x b l a n c h e ,
which she c o u l d not t o l e r a t e . ("Correct M e t h o d s , " 160.)
In o ne instance, M a r c h e s i also m e n t i o n e d ton g u e
p o s i t i o n a nd its inf l u e n c e o n tone. She n o t e d that w h e n
Gar c i a f o und t h a t a stude n t ' s t o n g u e tip w a s r i s i n g a nd
o b s t r u c t i n g t he tone, he w as not ab o v e d e p r e s s i n g it w i t h
a s m ooth object, such as a " p a p e r - c u t t e r . " Marchesi
concurred: "To br i n g f o rth a b e a u t i f u l and r e s o n a n t to n e
the t o n g u e m u s t be qu i t e flat, so th a t a t h r o a t y tone is
avoided . . . ( "Singing Les s o n s , " 33:1508.)
S i n c e co r r e c t m o u t h p o s i t i o n and the I t a l i a n
w e r e joi n t c o m p o n e n t s in M a r c h e s i 's conc e p t o f b a s i c v o w e l
color, other vowels were added to the student's practice
o n l y a f t e r v o c a l regist r a t i o n , brea t h i n g , and t e c h n i q u e we r e
secure. In Op. 31, P art I w a s d e v o t e d to b a s i c technique
and e x e r c i s e s o n [a] , Part II to v o c a l i s e s o n faj , and
Part III to v o c a l i s e s w i t h w o r d s (see p. 126) . Part III
was p r o v i d e d "for a c c u s t o m i n g t h e pu p i l to p r o n o u n c e t h e
that w h a t M a r c h e s i m e a n t by a flat t o n g u e w a s t o n g u e t i p
w h i c h r e m a i n s down, since a flat p o s i t i o n of t h e b o d y of
the t o n g u e m a k e s v o wel p r o d u c t i o n impossible. S ee pp.
210-213.
171
words distinctly, w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g the e m i s s i o n of the
v oice, a n d n o t n e g l e c t i n g to co r r e c t the f a u l t s of p r o
nunciation." (Op. 31, xvi.) For the v o c a l i s e s in P a r t
III, she c h o s e the I t a l i a n language, sin c e it is fr e e
of "gutteral consonants." A n o t h e r r e a s o n for h e r p r e f e r e n c e
for I t a l i a n w a s t hat its o p e n v o w e l s are c o n d u c i v e to good
v o c a l q u a l i t y and ten d to p r e v e n t the v o i x b l a n c h e . ("Cor
rect Methods," 160.) In P a r t III, the s t u d e n t w a s e x p e c t
ed to se e k e q u a l i t y t h r o u g h o u t the v o cal r a n g e on t he five
Italian vowels [ a ] , [e], fi}, f o ) , and [uj, a nd c o r r e c t
defective articul a t i o n . S he u r ged that t h e student car e
fully practice consonants until their production takes
place freely without altering "the e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e t e n
sion a nd t h e r e g u l a r i t y of the v i b r a t i o n s of the v o c a l
cords, b e c a u s e the m o v e m e n t s of the t o n g u e jerk t he l a r y n x . "
(Op. 31, xviii.) In a n o t h e r inst a n c e she u r g e d t h a t as
many consonants as p o s s i b l e be p r o d u c e d w i t h the a i d of
the t o n g u e tip, p a r t i c u l a r l y [r], ,[ n], [ d ] , a n d [t].
She s t r e s s e d the "sharp" p r o n u n c i a t i o n of Italian double
c o n s o n a n t s a n d of a ] 1 c o n s o n a n t s at the b e g i n n i n g of words.
(" S i n g i n g L e s s o n s , " 33:2168.) Whe n the s t u d e n t c o u l d
enunciate f r e e l y in I t a l i a n w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g v o c a l
q u a lity, si n g i n g in a d d i t i o n a l langu a g e s w a s begun:
W h e n o n c e a c o m p l e t e m a s t e r y has b e e n o b t a i n e d
o v e r t he m e c h a n i s m of t h e voice, as w e l l as o v e r all
t h e d e g r e e s of power, e x p r ession, a nd of q u a l i t y
a n d c o l o u r of sound t h a t the voc a l o r g a n s c a n p roduce,
a n d w h e n the m o v e m e n t s o f the ton g u e a n d lips a r e
t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r co nt r o l , then the p u p i l c an e a s i l y
l e a r n t o sing in a n y l anguage, w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g
b e a u t y of s o u n d to c l e a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n of e a c h s y l
lable, or d i s t i n c t p r o n u n c i a t i o n to b e a u t y of sound.
(Op. 31, xvii.)
V. THE TEACHING PRINCIPLES OF
STOCKHAUSEN
J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n was b o r n in Par i s on J u l y 22,
1825, the son of Franz S t o c k h a u s e n (1792-1868), a harp
ist a n d co m p o s e r , and M a r g a r e t e S c h m u c k Stockhausen (1803-
1877) , a w e l l - k n o w n soprano. His e a r l y m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
i n c l u d e d t r a i n i n g in piano, violin, cello, and o r g a n in
G e b w e i l e r a n d Str a s s b u r g . ^ A f t e r r e c e i v i n g his e a r l y e d u
cation in Alsa c e , he s t udied p i a n o in P aris from 1 845-1846
with Charles H alle (1819-1895) an d C a m i l l e Stamaty (1811-
1870)
S t o c k h a u s e n was a g a i n in Par i s in 1848 and b e c a m e
i n v o l v e d in d e f e n d i n g aga i n s t the same i n s u r r e c t i o n w h i c h
h a d d i s r u p t e d Char l e s B a t t a i l l e 's de b u t at the O p e r a
Com i q u e . As m u c h for r o o m and b o a r d as for oth e r reasons,
S t o c k h a u s e n e n l i s t e d in the N a t i o n a l Guard, and w h i l e in
service in P a r i s sought out M a n u e l G a r c i a as a teac h e r . ^
After three m o n t h s of study w i t h Garcia, Stockhausen
10t h ed., s.v. "Stockhausen, Jul i u s . "
^G r o v e 's Dict i o n a r y of M u s i c and M u s i c i a n s , 5th

ed., s.v. "Stockhausen, Julius," b y Sir Geor g e Groves.
^M ackinlay, Garcia, the C e n t e n a r i a n , 166-167.
173
174
received an invitation from the Swiss city of Basel to
sing the title role in Mendelssohn's Elijah. Although
the young baritone was recovering from "catarrh and sore
throat" brought on by bivouacking outdoors with the
regimentals, Garcia trained him in the role and helped him
memorize it w i t h o u t overworking his recuperating voice.
Th e c o m b i n a t i o n of Garc i a ' s teaching and Stockhausen's
a b i l i t y a p p a r e n t l y w r o u g h t quick r esults. A r e v i e w of the
B a s e l p e r f o r m a n c e of M a y 26, 1848, sp e a k s of Stock h a u s e n ' s ,
"fresh, spacious, f u l l - r i n g i n g voice, consummate style,
an d u n e q u a l l e d de c l a m a t i o n " ^
Like Marchesi, Stockhausen followed Garcia to L o n d o n
in 1849 a nd st u d i e d w i t h h i m unt i l 1851. D u r i n g this
p e r i o d S t o c k h a u s e n p e r f o r m e d wide l y , b o t h in E n g l a n d and
on the continent. He p e r f o r m e d S c h u b e r t ' s D ie schone
M u l l e r i n a n u m b e r of times and s a n g . a t the L o n d o n P h i l
h a r m o n i c S o c i e t y on three o c c a sions. His first appear
anc e s in ope r a took p l ace in M a n n h e i m from 1852-53. From
1 857-59 he was e n g a g e d at the O p e r a C omique, w h e r e he was
m o s t succ e s s f u l in the role of S e n e s c h a l in Jea n de P a r i s ,
4 Ibid., 160.
^ F r i e d r i c h Chrysander, "Berichte: B a s el," A l l g e -

m e i n e m u s i k a l i s c h e Z e i tung 50 (26 M a y 1848): 406.
Grove's D i c t i o n a r y , s.v. " S t o c k h a u s e n , ".
175
lacked the p h y s i q u e for this role, he " c o m p e n s a t e d for
this s h o r t c o m i n g w i t h the q u a l i t y of his voice.
S t o c k h a u s e n a p p a r e n t l y f i l l e d the y e a r s b e t w e e n
the M a n n h e i m a nd Op e r a C o m i q u e engagements with recital
performances. In 1856, in Leip z i g , he a p p e a r e d at the
Gewandhaus in two r e c i t a l s in w h i c h he sang o p e r a t i c
a r i a s of Boieldieu, B a c h c a n t a t a arias, I t a lian songs, and
Schubert l i e d e r .^ In the same year, Stockhausen appear
e d a t the R h i n e Mu s i c F e s t i v a l in D ü s s e l d o r f in E l i j a h .
In o t h e r f e s t i v a l p e r f o r m a n c e s he sang arias b y B o i e l d i e u
a n d songs b y Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Sc h u m a n n . ^ Dur
i ng the Rhine f estival an intimate friendship with Johan
nes B r a h m s (1833-1897) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d w h i c h ve r y s oon grew
to b e c o m e an i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r in the care e r s of b o t h men.
Within a m o n t h after the f e s t i v a l S t o c k h a u s e n h ad p r e
s e n t e d two re c i t a l s w i t h B r a h m s as a c c o m panist. B o t h p er-
^So u b i e s and M a l h e r b e , H i s t o i r e de 1' O p e r a C o m i q u e ,

1:282. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writ e r .
Âlfred Dorffel, G e s c h i c h t e d e r G e w a n d h a u s c o n c e r t e
zu Leipzig: v o m 25 N o v e m b e r 1781 bis 25 N o v e m b e r 1881
(Leipzig: 1884), 142.
^Karl G e iringer, B rahms: His Life and W o r k (London:

G e o r g e A l l e n a n d Unwin, Ltd., 1948), 62; and F l o r e n c e May,
T h e Life of Joha n n e s B r a h m s , 2 vols. (London: William
Reeves, 1905), 1:208.
(London: W i l l i a m Reeves, 1905), 1:208-209.
176
T h u s began a f r i e n d s h i p w h i c h ca m e to i n c l u d e in
its small circle J o s e p h J o a c h i m (1831-1907) a nd C l ara
Schumann (1819-1896). S t o c k h a u s e n m e t J o a c h i m a nd F rau
S c h u m a n n at a m u s i c a l evening organized by Brahms in
185 9, not long af t e r S t o c k h a u s e n ' s last p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h t he
O p e r a C o m i q u e . F r o m t h a t p o i n t on, the four n a m e s are
closely intertwined in biographies, collections of letters,
and a c c o u n t s of r e c i t a l perf o r m a n c e s . The y frequently
t o o k reci t a l tours as a group, and b e f o r e long, Joachim,
Stockhausen, and F r a u S c h u m a n n e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y b e g a n to
c h a m p i o n Brahms' m u s i c a n d to i n t r o d u c e it to t he public.
In this way, S t o c k h a u s e n ' s nam e b e c a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
some of Brahms' most important lieder:
It w a s the u n a n i m o u s o p i n i o n of all c o g n o s c e n t i
that n one cou l d be c o m p a r e d w i t h £stockhausenJ 7 as
singer of the songs o f S c hubert, S c humann, and
Brahms. It has b e e n said tha t he w a s to Brahms'
songs m u c h as J o a c h i m w a s to Brahms' c h a m b e r
M a n y of B r a h m ' s fin e s t s o ngs w e r e w r i t t e n for
S to c k h a u s e n , who, in turn, i n t r o d u c e d t h e m to co n c e r t
audiences.Some i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e s of th i s p r a c t i c e
a r e the first six s o ngs of Brahms' Magelone lieder.
These were composed to texts by L u d w i g T i e c k (1773-1853),
a n d T h e o d o r Bill r o t h : L e t t e r s f r o m a M u s i c a l Friends~hip
( N o r m a n : U n i v e r s i t y o f O k l a h o m a P r e s s , 1957), 17, n.
177
p u b l i s h e d in 1861, a n d d e d i c a t e d to J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n . ^ ^
This same year was o n e of the b u s i e s t for Brahms, Clara
S c h umann, Joachim, a n d S t o c khausen. T h e r e w e r e f r e quent
r e c i t a l tours a n d so i r e e s d u r i n g w h i c h the c i rcle of
f r i e n d s p e r f ormed, w i t h F r a u S c h u m a n n or Bra h m s a c c o m
p a n y i n g Stockhausen:
J o a c h i m and S t o c k h a u s e n came in A p r i l for the

P h i l h a r m o n i c c o n c e r t of the 16th, and the b r i l l i a n t
sea s o n c l o s e d w i t h S t o c k h a u s e n ' s and Brahms' soirees
o n the 19th, 27th and 30 t h of t he month. A t the
f i rst two conce r t s , at H a m b u r g a nd A l t o n a r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
t he ent i r e s eries of S c h u b e r t ' s " Schone Mul l e r i n " was
given; a n d at the l a s t — w h o can i m a g i n e a mo r e e n t h r a l
l ing feast of sou n d th a n the p e r f o r m a n c e of B e e t h o
v e n ' s m e l t i n g lov e - s o n g s , "To t he D i s t a n t B e l o v e d , "
the v e r y t h o u g h t of w h i c h b r i n g s t e a r s to the eyes,
sung b y S t o c k h a u s e n to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of Brahms,
f o l l o w e d b y o u r c o m p o s e r ' s l o v e l y sec o n d serenade,
a n d this b y S c h u m a n n ' s "Poet's L o v e - S o n g s . " Happy
H ambur g e r s , h a p p y S t o c k h a u s e n , c h a p p y Brahms, to ha v e
sha r e d such d e l i g h t s together.
Th e f e e l i n g s w i t h i n the c i r c l e m u s t c e r t a i n l y h ave
b e e n t r i e d in 1863 b y t he f a i lure of B r a h m s to re c e i v e
the p o s t in H a m b u r g as D i r e c t o r of the P h i l h a r m o n i c C o n
c e rts and of t he Si n g a k a d e m i e . Instead, the p o s i t i o n was
a w a r d e d to J u l i u s Stockha u s e n , a p p a r e n t l y d ue to his
im m e n s e p o p u larity, w h i c h m i g h t serve as an a t t r a c t i o n
to t he p u b l i c a nd to s ingers for the A c a d e m y ' s choirs.
W h i l e Bra h m s n e v e r r e c o r d e d his feelings, Joachim was
p u b l i s h e d in 1868. See May, L i f e of B r a h m s , 1:285.
^^May, L i f e of B r a h m s , 1:283.
16„
G e i r inger, B r a h m s , 74.
178
appalled. In a l e t t e r to a friend, da t e d J a n u a r y 31,
1863, he remarked:
You know how highly I esteem Stockhausen's talent,

a nd he is c e r t a i n l y th e b e s t m u s i c i a n among singers,
b ut h o w anyone, h a v i n g to c h o o s e the d i r e c t o r of a
c o ncert i n s t i t u t i o n b e t w e e n h i m and Johannes, can d e
cide for the former, I withîyy l i mited m u s i c a l u n d e r
sta n d i n g ca n n o t co mp r e h e n d .
Although most s o u r c e s a s s e r t that fr i e n d s h i p s and
m u s i c a l p a r t n e r s h i p s w e r e not a l l o w e d to suffer fro m this
incident, r e cital a c t i v i t y i n v o l v i n g the circle ap p e a r s
to h a v e d w i n d l e d for s e v e r a l years. T h i s ma y a l s o have
b e e n due to the tim e r e q u i r e d for S t o c k h a u s e n ' s n e w
duties. No f u rther d e s c r i p t i o n s or recital a c t i v i t y i n v o l v
ing Stoc k h a u s e n w i t h t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s are n o t a b l e u ntil
1867, whe n the b a r i t o n e sang t h e M a g e l o n e lieder on a
Leipzig program with Clara Schumann a c c o m p a n y i n g . B y
1868 m u c h of the o l d a c t i v i t y ha d bee n resumed. In that
ye a r Brahms and S t o c k h a u s e n t o g e t h e r m o u n t e d a v e r y s u c
ce s s f u l recital series w h i c h too k t hem to Hamburg, Dresden,
Berlin, and Copenhagen. T h e y a l s o a ppeared in soir e e s and
rec i t a l s t o g e t h e r in Hambu r g , B udapest, and Vienna, dur
ing wh i c h S t o c k h a u s e n p e r f o r m e d some of B r a h m s ' m o s t r e
cen t songs, among t h e m t h e duets. Op. 28, w h i c h the b a r i
tone sang w i t h his pupil, F r a u l e i n Girzi k . ^ ^
In 1869 S t o c k h a u s e n r e s i g n e d his post in H a m b u r g
to b e c o m e c h a m b e r singer to t h e Kin g of W u r t t e m b u r g at
Stuttgart, r e s i d i n g in Canstatt. His recital t o u r s c o n
t i nued w i t h J o a chim, C l a r a S c h u m a n n and Brahms. In 1870
he took his pu p i l S o p h i e L o w e ^ ’ to E n g l a n d for t h e i r
in 1871, Brahms' G e r m a n R e q u i e m r e c e i v e d its f i rst E n g l i s h
p e r f o r m a n c e b e f o r e an in v i t e d a u d i e n c e in London. Stock
h a usen b o t h c o n d u c t e d the p e r f o r m a n c e and sang the b a r i t o n e
s o l o s . O f i n t e r e s t d u r i n g the same per i o d w a s a London
p a r t y at w h i c h P a u l i n e V i a r d o t - G a r c i a joined S t o c k h a u s e n
in t he p e r f o r m a n c e of two d u e t s f rom Brahms' Op. 28.^^
In 1874 S t o c k h a u s e n left S t u t t g a r t to ta k e o n the
name n o w b e g i n s a p p e a r i n g in c o n cert p r o g r a m s and r e v i e w s
as c o n d u c t o r a nd vocal t e a c h e r as w e l l as l i e d e r
singer. In 1874 he s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n d u c t e d se v e r a l B e r l i n
No d a t e s are a v a i l a b l e for Girzik. S he is

o c c a s i o n a l l y m e n t i o n e d in r e g a r d to con c e r t s i n v o l v i n g
S t o c k h a u s e n a nd Brahms. S ee May, L i f e of Brahms,
2:403 and 425-432.
p u b l i s h e d the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s
Gesangsmethode.
180
p e r f o r m a n c e s of Elij ah and H a n d e l ' s J u d a s M a c c a b e u s w h i c h
w e r e d e s c r i b e d in the A l l g e m e i n e m u s i k a l i s c h e Z e i t u n g .
S t o c k h a u s e n m o v e d to F r a n k f o r t - a m - M a i n in 1878
to h e a d t h e d e p a r t m e n t of singing at H o c h ' s Conserv a t o r y .
Du e to a c o n t r a c t d i s p u t e w i t h the s c h o o l ' s administ r a t o r ,
J o s e p h J o a c h i m R aff (1822-1882), he r e s i g n e d his p o s i t i o n
the f o l l o w i n g y e a r and took p r i v a t e p u p i l s in hi s home.
In 1882 h e r e t u r n e d to his p o s i t i o n at the C o n s e r v a t o r y . ^ ^
He r e t i r e d f r o m t h i s p o s i t i o n in 1898 and from t h e n c e f o r t h •
t a u g h t o n l y p r i v a t e pupils. His G e s a n g s m e t h o d e a p p e a r e d
in two v o l u m e s in 1886 and 1887, lat e r f o l l o w e d b y a shorter
work, G e s a n g s t e c h n i k und S t i m m b i l d u n g . H e r e m a i n e d clo s e
to Joa c h i m , C l a r a Schumann, and B r a h m s t h r o u g h o u t his
life. Stockhausen's last m e e t i n g w i t h B r a h m s o c c u r r e d
whe n the t w o of t h e m and J o a c h i m a t t e n d e d C l a r a S c h u m a n n ' s
A c c o u n t s of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s p e r f o r m i n g a b i l i t y are
co n s i s t e n t in t h e i r p r a i s e of his taste, style, and atten
tion to c o m m u n i c a t i o n :
Allgemeine musikalischer Zeitung 4 9 (4 M a r c h a nd 9 December

1874): 136 a n d 779.
hausen, Julius."
^^G r o v e ' s D i c t i o n a r y , s.v . "Stockhausen."
The r i c h b e a u t y o f the voice, the n o b i l i t y of the
style, t he p e r f e c t phrasing, the i n t i m a t e sympathy,
and, n ot t h e least, the i n t e l l i g i b l e w a y in w h i c h
the w o r d s w e r e g i v e n — all c o m b i n e d to m a k e „ h i s s i n g
ing of songs an u n f o r g e t t a b l e e x p e rience.
Th o s e w h o c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h B r a h m s f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d
the c o m p o s e r ' s songs a nd S t o c k h a u s e n in the same sentence.
Occasionally this correspondence included descriptive
accounts:
I shall n e v e r f o r g e t an e v e n i n g at S t o c k h a u s e n ' s w h e n
he sang D i c h t e r l i e b e to F r a u S c h u m a n n ' s a c c o m p a n i m e n t .
It w a s all so f r esh and sp o n t a n e o u s . I h ad n e v e r
h eard h i m do t hat p a r t i c u l a r cycle, and w a s q u i t e
c a r r i e d ^ a w a y at t i mes by h i s p r o f o u n d s i n c e r i t y a n d
vigour.
In this regard, o ne state m e n t b y B r a h m s h i m s e l f r e f l e c t s
his a d m i r a t i o n f or S tockhausen:
I h a v e k n o w n two peo p l e w h o u n d e r s t o o d s o m e t h i n g
of music. O n e of t h e m p l a g u e d h i m s e l f in v a i n for a
life t i m e to l e arn ab s o l u t e pitch. The o t h e r too k n o
pai n s b e c a u s e he k n e w he c o u l d n e v e r a c q u i r e it. One
of t h e m w a s c a l l e d J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n ; t he o t h e r —
Ri c h a r d W agner. Still, y o u know, in spite of t h e i r
lack, b o t h h a d some idea o f m u sic!
The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n h ad m a j o r
in f l u e n c e in the a r eas o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t e a c h i n g and
performance. As a teacher, he p u b l i s h e d i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d s
2“ibid.
^ ^ H a n n a h Bryant, t r a n s . , and M a x Kal b e c k , ed.,
J o h a n n e s Brahms: T he H e r z o g e n b e r g C o r r e s p o n d e n c e (London:
J o h n Murray, 1909, 158; and Bark a n , 144.
^ ^ E l i s a b e t v on H e r z o g e n b e r g to Brahms, 13 J u l y
1882. Bryant, 161-162.
H i s Life, C h a r a c t e r , a n d W o rks (New York: Dodd, Mead,

an d C o . , 1933), 181.
182
and u t i l i z e d u n i q u e a p p r o a c h e s d e v e l o p e d from G a r c i a ' s
method. He n u m b e r e d a m o n g his students H e r m i n e S pies
(1857-1893), Antonia Kufferath (1857-1939), F e l i x von
Kraus (1970-1937), Anton Van Rooy (1870-1932), M a x A l v a r y
(1859-1923), Anton Sistermans (1865-1926), Max Friedlander
(1852-1934), Sir G e o r g e H e n s c h e l (1850-1934), and the
Americ a n s , Robe r t B l a s s (1867-1930), Pu t n a m G r i s w o l d
(1975-1914), and C l a r e n c e W h i t e h i l l (1871-1932) It is
somew h a t ironic that, w h i l e Garc i a and M a r c h e s i w e r e
n e g a t i v e t o ward W a g n e r and t r a i n e d their singers p a r t i c u l a r
ly for the florid s t y l e s of Bellini, Donizetti, and Rossi
ni, a n u mber of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s students w e r e b e s t k n o w n
for the i r W a g n e r i a n roles. Some of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s basses
and b a r i t o n e s who m a d e t h e i r fame in the W a g n e r fe s t i v a l s
of B a y r e u t h and e l s e w h e r e w e r e vo n Kraus, V a n Rooy, Alvary,
Blass, Griswold, and Whitehill.
As a perfor m e r , S t o c k h a u s e n b r ought the a t t e n t i o n
of the p u blic to the songs of Schubert, Schumann, and B r ahms,
^'^Die M u s i k in G e s c h i c h t e un d G e g e n w a r t , 1965 ed. ,

s.v. "Stockhausen, J u l i u s , " by H a n s Kuhner; I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C y c l o p e d i a , s.v. " S i n g i n g ; " and Mackinlay, Garcia, the
C e n t e n a r i a n , 195.
^^Garcia, H i n t s on S i n g i n g , iv; and p. 143 of this

project.
^^For d e s c r i p t i o n s of t hese singers, see t h e i r

separate entries in B a k e r ' s B i o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y ; and
in K. J. Kuts c h and L e o Riemans, A Conc i s e B i o g r a p h i c a l
Di c t i o n a r y of Singers: F r o m the B e g i n n i n g of R e c o r d e d
S ound to the P r e s e n t , trans. H a r r y Earl J o n e s (Phil a d e l
phia: Chil t o n Book Co., 1969).
a n d h e l p e d to s t a n d a r d i z e t heir p e r f o r m a n c e on
c o n c e r t p r o grams. W h i l e he w a s h i g h l y a c c l a i m e d as a
r e c i t a l i s t on the c o ntinent, he bro k e n e w gr o u n d in
England:
S t o c k h a u s e n w a s the f irst . . . to make the Lie d

of S c h u b e r t a n d S c h u m a n n k o n z e r t f a h i g . The songs of
S c h u b e r t and S c h u m a n n had b e e n r e s e r v e d for fa m i l y
use by e n t h u s i a s t i c a m a teurs, but S t o c k h a u s e n w a s
the f irst si n g e r of note to bri n g the m w i t h i n r e a c h
of the p u b l i c b y i n t r o d u c i n g them h a b i t u a l l y in
concert programmes. To do this in Ge r m a n y was an
i n n o v a t i o n r e q u i r i n g e n t e r p r i s e ra t h e r t h a n courage.
To do it in E n g l a n d forty an d f i f t y yea r s ago w a s a
p iece of s p l e n d i d a u d a c i t y w h i c h e n d e a r e d S t o c k h a u s e n
to the small b a n d of S c h u b e r t a nd S c h u m a n n w o r s h i p p e r s ,
b u t e x p o s e d h i m to the h o s t i l i t y of the le a d i n g p r o
f e s sional c r i t i c s of the d a y . . . He s u c c e e d e d at
length in e x t o r t i n g fro m the r e l u c t a n t C h o r l e y . . .
the a d m i s s i o n t h a t in S c h u b e r t a n d B e e t h o v e n he w a s
un r i v a l l e d in a c c e n t and p a s s i o n . ^7
St o c k h a u s e n ' s Publications
One m a j o r pub l i c a t i o n , the G e s a n g s m e t h o d e , e m
bodies m o s t of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s v i e w p o i n t s and a p p r o a c h e s to
vocal teaching. T here is some d i s c r e p a n c y c o n c e r n i n g its
date of pub l i c a t i o n . W h i l e some r e f e r e n c e s n o t e its a p
p e a rance in two c o n s e c u t i v e v o l u m e s in 1886 a n d 1887 (see
p. 180), an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n by S t o c k h a u s e n ' s p u p i l
a translation of the original, it is probable that
Stockhausen's method was published sometime prior to
97 (27 Oc t o b e r 1906): 619.
^^Julius S t o c k hausen, A M e t h o d o f S i n g i n g , trans.

Sophie Lowe ( L o n d o n : Novello. Ewer, a n d Co., 1884).
184
1884. According to J u l i a W i r t h - S t o c k h a u s e n 's b i o g r a p h y
o f h e r h u s band, the G e s a n g s m e t h o d e w a s p u b l i s h e d in 1884.
A s h o r t e r work, Gesangstechnik und S t i mmbildung, appeared
in v o l u m e s for h i g h a nd l o w v o i c e in 1886 and 1887 and
w a s d e v o t e d to voc a l e x e r c i s e s . T h e latter work
was unavailable for e x a m i n a t i o n b y the writer.
A n u m b e r of a r t i c l e s c o n c e r n i n g S t o c k h a u s e n and his
t e a c h i n g a p p e a r in the A l l g e m e i n e m u s i k a l i s c h e Zeitung,
edited by Stockhausen's f r i e n d a nd collea g u e , Friedrich
Chrysander (1826-1901). While seve r a l of these arti c l e s are
d e v o t e d to d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of his c o n t r a c t
d i s p u t e w i t h Raff,'^® a nd r e v i e w s of c o n c e r t s by himself,
h is choruses, a nd h is s t u d e n t soloists, oth e r s r e v i e w in
d et a i l his e d i t i o n of C h e r u b i n i c a n o n s for use as si n g
ing e x e r c i s e s ^ ^ and p r o v i d e r e p o r t s o n S t o c k h a u s e n ' s fir s t
y e a r as m a s t e r o f h is o wn singing s c h o o l . T h e latter
two sets of a r t icles are u t i l i z e d to e n d o r s e canon and
D e r Sanger des D e u t s c h e n L i e d e s ( F r a n kfurt-am-Main:

E n g l e r t and Schlosser, 1927), 442-43.
^*^Friedrich Chry s a n d e r , "Das H o c h 'sche C o n serva-

t o r i u m u nd seine D i r e c t i o n , " A l l g e m e i n e m u s i k a l i s c h e
Zeitung 15 (27 S e p t e m b e r - 1 3 O c t o b e r 1880): 618-654.
Gessangubungen," Allgemeine musikalische Z e i tung 15 (16

J u n e-23 June 1880): 369-388.
^ ^Frie d r i c h Chrysa n d e r , "J. S t o c k h a u s e n ' s ers t e r

J a h r e s b e r i c h t u b e r seine G e s a n g s c h u l e in F r a n k f u r t a.M."
A l l e g e m e i n e m u s i k a l i s c h e Z e i t u n g 16 (10 A u g u s t - 1 7 A u g u s t
1881): 510-520.
185
s o l mization for b u i l d i n g musica l i t y , to u n d e r s c o r e the
impor t a n c e of g o o d d i c t i o n for singers, and to explore
the influ e n c e of v o w e l s upo n t o n e quality.
The G e s a n g s m e t h o d e , in the L o w e transl a t i o n , A
Me t h o d of S i n g i n g , w a s the m a j o r source fro m w h i c h S t o c k
hau s e n ' s t e a c h i n g a p p r o a c h e s w e r e d r a w n for this research.
Th i s wor k dr a w s m u c h m o r e h e a v i l y upo n o u t s i d e sources
than the m e t h o d s of Garcia, Battaille, an d Marchesi. Wh i l e
Stockhausen's method is m u c h m o r e tha n a c o m p i l a t i o n of
ideas, it re l i e s h e a v i l y u p o n theoret i c a l , p e d agogical,
and p h o n e t i c a l w o r k s for supp o r t and c l a r i f i c a t i o n of
his views, and even in some c a s e s for v o c a l exercises.
Some of the s o urces f r o m w h i c h S t o c k h a u s e n d r e w vocal
exercises, o r n a m e n t a t i o n exercises, and st y l i s t i c e x amples
were Anleitung zur S i n g k u n s t , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of Tosi by
(1588-1666) , G e s a n g l e h r e , 1886, by F r a n z Hauser (1794-
1870), Le n u o v e m u s i c h e , 1602, by Giulio Caccini (1550-
1618) , and T r a i t e c o m p l e t de l 'art du c h a n t , b y Garcia.
He c o r r o b o r a t e d his v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g t he acoustics,
p hysiology, and d e v e l o p m e n t of singing v o i c e s w i t h mat e r i a l
d r a w n f r o m G a r c i a and Ba t t a i l l e , from an i m p o r t a n t w o r k on
th e p h y s i o l o g y of s p e e c h p r o d u c t i o n b y E d u a r d S i evers
(Frankfurt: 1653).
by Emma Seiler (d. 1887) , a s i n g i n g t e a c h e r w h o had b e e n
associated with Hermann Helmholtz in his r e s e a r c h on v o w e l
production, A l t e s u n d ne u e s ü b e r die A u s b i l d u n g des

46
Gesangorgans,
The G e s a n g s m e t h o d e c o n t a i n s lengthy introductory
m a t e r i a l s w h i c h set a p a r t the a u t h o r ' s v i e w s on the v a r i o u s
p h y s i o l o g i c a l and f u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t s of v o i c e production.
Th e s e m a t e r i a l s are e m b o d i e d in an i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n
ent i t l e d "The T w e l v e P a r a g r a p h s , " in w h i c h S t o c k h a u s e n
dis c u s s e d vo w e l and c o n s o n a n t p r o d u c t i o n , attack, mouth
position, tone, l a r y n x p o s ition, brea t h i n g , and registra
tion. In t h i s s e c t i o n he a l s o t r e a t e d some a p p r o a c h e s
to vocal teaching. T h e bod y of the G e s a n g s m e t h o d e is d e
v o t e d to s p e c i f i c ar e a s of b u i l d i n g t e c h n i q u e and s i nging
style, w i t h vo c a l e x e r c i s e s a n d exa m p l e s i n c l u d e d for eac h
area. T h e s e are a s i n c l u d e a t t a c k and s u s t a i n i n g the voice,
the portamento, le g a t o and a s p i r a t e d styles, ornamentation,
scales, and sta c c a t o and m a r t e l l a t o , or marked s i nging
styles.
^ Êduard Sievers, G r u n d z ü g e der P h o n e t i k (Leipzig:

B r eitkopf and Hartel, 1901).
^Êmma Seiler, A l t e s u n d n eues u b e r die A u s b i l d u n g

des G e s a n g o r g a n s (Leipzig: L e o p o l d Voss, n . d . ); t r a n s l a t e d
as The Vo i c e in S i n g i n g , trans. W. H. F u r n e s s ( P h iladel
phia: J. B. L i p p i n c o t t and Co., 1868).
A Categorical Description
of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s T e a c h i n g
A t t i t u d e s a nd A p p r o a c h e s in G e n e r a l
P u b l i s h e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s a t t i t u d e s
a nd approa c h e s t o w a r d v o c a l t e a c h i n g are li m i t e d to the
years i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of his o wn
singing school in h is hom e in F r a n k f u r t - a m - M a i n , O c t o b e r 1,
1880. Obviou s l y , his a s p i r a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g vocal t e a c h i n g
found the g r e a t e s t r e a l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h a p e d a g o g i c a l p r o
g r a m gui d e d by h is own adm i n i s t r a t i o n . He b r o u g h t into
this s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d t e a c h i n g program, in a d d i t i o n to
ma n y years of p e r f o r m a n c e a nd t e a c h i n g e x p e rience, some
concerns born of f r u s t r a t i o n w i t h his own training. An
example of this f r u s t r a t i o n is fo u n d in an 1872 letter
wr i t t e n f rom S t o c k h a u s e n in S t u t t g a r t to " French a r t i s t s ,"
who had a p p a r e n t l y c l a i m e d that the P a ris C o n s e r v a t o r y
was r e s p onsible f o r S t o c k h a u s e n ' s s uccess as a performer.
Stockh a u s e n i n f o r m e d his c o r r e s p o n d e n t s t hat Garcia, Jenny
Lind, and P a u l i n e V i a r d o t - G a r c i a w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for the
bulk of his k n o w l e d g e and t r a i n i n g in singing. As for
his education at the P a r i s Co n s e r v a t o r y :
An artist is not m a d e in a s i n ging cl a s s with

some F r e n c h or I t a l i a n airs. He r e q u i r e s that w h i c h
is w o r t h y a nd o f the be s t q uality, e i t h e r in Paris
or a n y where else. B u t in r e g a r d to y o u r Co n s e r v a t o r y ,
where the p o l k a is d a n c e d in the cl a s s e s of Mr. P o n -
chard, w h ere no one recei v e d , p r o p e r l y speaking, a
musical e d u c a t i o n d u r i n g m y time, w h e r e the names of
Bach and H a n d e l are n e v e r m e n t i o n e d in h a r m o n y
S t o c k h a u s e n p l a c e d great e mphasis up o n the d e v e l o p
m e n t of m u s i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of a
s i n g e r ' s e d u c a t i o n w i t h the use of two m u s i c a l aids, canon
a nd solfeggio. He s t r e s s e d u n a c c o m p a n i e d c a nons as a c h ief
m e a n s of d e v e l o p i n g independence. In F r i e d r i c h C h r y s a n d e r ' s
r e v i e w of S t o c k h a u s e n ' s ed i t i o n of C h e r u b i n i ' s canons,
the f o l l o w i n g a s s e r t i o n is e x c e r p t e d f r o m S t o c k h a u s e n ' s
p reface:
I m u s t e m p h a s i z e th a t the b e g i n n e r r a r e l y b e
co m e s m u s i c a l t h r o u g h solo singing of m o n o d i c songs,
lieder, and arias. C h o r a l s i nging l i k e w i s e is not
ideal. The a c c o m p a n i m e n t aids the lieder, w h i l e in
c h o r u s e s the a c c o m p a n i m e n t and the p a r t i c i p a t i o n
of m a n y s i n gers a d d s too m u c h support. Only one proce
d u r e c an t r u l y d e v e l o p ind e p e n d e n t singers: r e p e a t e d
u n a c c o m p a n i e d p r a c t i c e of p o l y p h o n i c p i e c e s w i t h one
sin g e r on ea c h p art.^^
In t he G e s a n g s m e t h o d e , some of the f i rst vocal e x e r c i s e s
are p i e c e s by J. J. Fux (1660-1741) in c a n o n i c style.
T h e s e wer e a p p a r e n t l y inte n d e d to be p e r f o r m e d by a solo
i n s t r u m e n t on the t o p pa r t and a solo v o i c e on the b o t t o m
part (see F i g u r e 19). Su b s e q u e n t exercises, taken from
G. W. Teschner (1800-1883), con s i s t e d of a num b e r of
imitative two-part pieces in v arious t e m p i and meters, in
t e n d e d for h i g h and l o w v o i c e or solo v o i c e and p i a n o
(see F i g u r e 20).
Julia Wirth-Stockhausen, Julius S t o c k h a u s e n ,

360. T r a n s l a t e d b y t h e writer.
Chr y s a n d e r , " C h erubini's Cano n s , " 386.

T r a n s l a t e d b y the writer.
(^cicr^t>
/T . IT. f
S£>f?rA.At0^
FIGURE 19: E X E R C I S E A CANO N E IN UNISON. F r o m S t o c k hausen,

A Method of S i n g i n g , 18-19.
In subsequent s t udies S t o c k h a u s e n d i s c o u r a g e d the use of
piano to support student singers. He f ound t h i s practice,
prevalent at that time in Germ a n singing schools, to be
fostered by p r e s s u r e to prod u c e singers q uickly. "While
instrumentalists de v o t e seven, eight, ye a e v e n ten yea r s
to their training, singers are bro u g h t to the s tage in as
figure 20: IMITA T I V E E X E R C I S E F O R H I G H AN D L O W V O I C E . From
Stockhausen, A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 30.
little as four months. S t o c k h a u s e n felt tha t th e
piano, "tuned in i n t e r v a l s t h a t are o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y
correct," serves o n l y to hid e intonation problems in sing
ers. He s u ggested i n s t e a d t h a t p i t c h be g iven and c o r r e c t
ed vith a v i o l i n or t u n i n g fork, and that the bes t a c c o m -
paniment for student v o i c e s is a n o t h e r voice.
The o t h e r m e a n s for d e v e l o p i n g musi c a l indepen
dence, solfeggio, was s t r e s s e d by S t o c k h a u s e n for b e g i n n e r s
cerause of the c o o r d i n a t i o n of v a r i o u s factors involved
in its practice:
Talid for one h u n d r e d y e a r s for the jo i n i n g of

wori and pitch, s o l f e g g i o of syllables, such as do, re,
""Chrysander, "J. S t o c k h a u s e n ' s erster J a h r e s b e r i c h t , "

Translated b y the w r iter.
^'^Stockhausen, A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 10.
mi, fa, sol, la, ti, a s s u r e d l y brings f l e x i b i l i t y
to the v o c a l m e d i u m . . . in singing by n a m i n g e a c h
n o t e r a t h e r t h a n m e r e v o c a l ization, b e g i n n e r s w i l l
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x e r c i s e the ears, lungs, larynx,
an d v o c a l organs. In addition, ins t e a d of fatigue,
m u s c u l a r d e x t e r i t y is assured, and, w h e n the t e a c h e r
is w i l l i n g , th e b e g i n n e r can e xtend s o l f e g g i o to v o c a l
exer c i s e s , e s p e c i a l l y in the m i d d l e voice.
S t o c k h a u s e n a d v o c a t e d that t e a c h e r s return to c e r t a i n
e l e m e n t a r y g r a d u a t e d p r o c e d u r e s utili z e d b y e a r l i e r
teachers. However, he e m p l o y e d no direct r e f e r e n c e to an y
hi s t o r i c a l t e a c h e r or p e d a g o g i c a l work to d o c u m e n t t hese
T h e o l d I t a l i a n and G e r m a n masters, w h o s e s chools

p r o d u c e d suc h e x c e l l e n t sing e r s of b o t h sexes, show
by t h e i r w r i t i n g s that the i r first e n d e a v o u r w a s
to t e a c h t h e i r p u p i l s h o w to for m b e a u t i f u l tone and
to r e n d e r t h e i r vo i c e s f l e x i b l e and of a t e l l i n g
q uali t y . T h e r e w a s no q u e s t i o n of e x e r c i s e s in a
l arge com p a s s , n o r of d e v e l o p i n g a p o w e r f u l t one on
one vowel, as is n o w t h e fashion. In the e l e m e n t a r y
instruction — that is to say, in the s o l f e g g i o —
ou r a n c e s t o r s b e g a n by t e a c h i n g how to e s t a b l i s h
and s u s t a i n t h e voice. T h e y n e x t p r o c e e d e d to e x
er c i s e s in a small compass, such as are p r o v i d e d
b y o r n a m e n t s (a p p o g i a t u r a s , turns, m o r d e n t s , etc.),
and t h e n let t h e i r pu p i l s p r a c t i c e on the five
e l e m e n t a r y v o w e l s and w i t h o u t accomp a n i m e n t . We
hav e t o p r o c e e d in the same w a y if we w i s h ou r
p u p i l s t o a c q u i r e not o n l y a p owerful, but a l s o a
b e a u t i f u l and e x p r e s s i v g ^ t o n e , a flexi b l e voice,
and g o o d p r o n u n c i a t i o n .
St o c k h a u s e n further stressed slow vocalises in s o l f e g g i o
for b e ginners, f o l l o w e d by songs an d airs in solfe g g i o
" C h e r u b i n i ' s C anons," 386. Translat

ed by the writ e r . F r o m song p h r a s e s i n c l u d e d in his
m e t h o d w i t h s o l m i z a t i o n syl l a b l e s superimposed, it is
a p p a r e n t t h a t S t o c k h a u s e n a d v o c a t e d a fix e d - d o system.
See e x a m p l e s in A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 20.
^^ S t o c k h a u s e n , A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 15.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproductioh prohibited without permission.
192
r a t h e r t h a n t he a d a p t a t i o n of words to " i n f e r i o r v o c a l i
se s . " ^ ^ The l atter p r a c t i c e was oc c u r r i n g fai r l y of t e n d u r
ing S t o c k h a u s e n ' s time. Some of the v o c a l i s e s p u b l i s h e d
b y M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s i ' s husband, Salvatore, are notable
examples.While Mathilde Marchesi's name was never
mentioned, S t o c k h a u s e n string e n t l y o p p o s e d h e r p r a c t i c e of
singing vocalises on [aj . He bel i e v e d th i s "uninterrupt
ed a c t i v i t y " to be ti r i n g for the larynx, a n d found that
c l e a r s y l l a b l e s p r o v i d e a r t i c u l a t i o n as w e l l as m u s i c a l
independence :
T h e s o l m i z a t i o n s y l l a b l e s build into t h e e x e c u t i o n
a c l a v i e r - l i k e touch, which, w h e n p r o p e r l y utilized,
must insure distinctiveness. A l m o s t l i k e the keys
of t he organ, ,the sylla b l e s are t he i n t e r v e n i n g
p r i n c i p l e b e t w e e n the w ill and the i n s t r u m e n t .^ c They
are t he b e g i n n i n g of ease in vocal produ c t i o n .
S t o c k h a u s e n al s o b e l i e v e d t he pr a c t i c e of s o l f e g g i o to
be an i m p o r t a n t m e a n s of s t r e ssing go o d c o n s o n a n t and
v o w e l p r o d u c t i o n for b e g i n n i n g singers. This f actor
is t r e a t e d in m o r e d e t a i l in subseq u e n t a n a l y s e s of his
c o n c e p t s of r e s o n a n c e and diction.
S t o c k h a u s e n l i m i t e d s o l feggio e x e r c i s e s to the
m i d d l e o f the vo c a l range. He c o n s e r v a t i v e l y felt the
diatonic scale to be t oo d i f f i c u l t for b e g i n n i n g singers.
^ ^ S a l v a t o r e Mar c h e s i , T w e n t y E l e m e n t a r y and P r o g r e s
sive V o c a l i s e s , Op. 15 (New York: G. S c h i rmer, 1899).
^ ^ C h r y s a n d e r , "J. S t o c k h a u s e n ' s e r s t e r J a h r e s -
b e r i c h t , " 517. T r a n s l a t e d b y the writer.
since "few b e g i n n e r s h ave eight n o t e s of eq u a l p o w e r in
their v o i c e . I n s t e a d , he u s e d the hexa c h o r d , whi c h he
a n d F r i e d r i c h C h r y s a n d e r called "the h o m e of the voice,"
b e c a u s e of its m o r e limi t e d compass, because it does not
i n c l u d e a c o m p l i c a t e d tritone, and b e c a u s e it c o n t a i n s
y o u n g g i r l s b e g i n n i n g th e i r training, S t o c k h a u s e n found
t h e f o l l o w i n g h e x a c h o r d s to c o n t a i n the p r o p e r compass:
g^, a^, b^, c^, d^, e^ for the h i g h soprano; e^, f#^,
g#^, a^, b^, c#^ for th e m e z z o - soprano; a n d c^, d^, e^,
f ^ , g^, a^ for t h e a l t o .^^ C o n s i s t e n t w i t h his empha s i s
upon c a n o n and i m i t a t i v e exercises, S t o c k h a u s e n found the
h e x a c h o r d to be w e l l - s u i t e d to c o n t r a p u n t a l v o c a l e x e r c i s
es. On e ex a m p l e w h i c h he u s e d w a s from the M i s s a ut re
mi fa sol la or M i s s a s uper vo c e s m u s i c a l e s b y Gio v a n n i
^ ^Stock h a u s e n , A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 10.
is found in a l e tter fro m S t o c k h a u s e n to C h r y s a n d e r ,

26 June, 1880, in J u l i a W i r t h - S t o c k h a u s e n , " F r iedrich
C h r y s a n d e r s Br i e f e an J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n , " Di e M u s i k -
for s c h u n g 7 (1954), 194.
^ ^ C h r y s a n d e r , "J. S t o c k h a u s e n ' s e r s t e r Ja h r e s -
b e r i c h t ," 517-18. N o solm i z a t i o n syl l a b l e s w e r e i n c luded
in this description.
^ ^ S t ockhausen, A M e t h o d of S i n g i n g , 18.
8c - ffr - Jit~- 3"' -
-e- ZT ° ^.
- à:c- — - Mi'h
m: ia! '
The c o n t r a p u n t a l exercises w h i c h wer e adapted f r o m F u x in
the G e s a n g s m e t h o d e we r e used to t e ach vo c a l independence
and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to stress g o o d tone q u a l i t y and v o c a l
p r o d u c t i o n in the m o s t a c c e s s i b l e n o t e s of the voice.
St o c k h a u s e n ' s singing sch o o l w a s c o m p a r a b l e in
two a s p e c t s to that of March e s i : he u t i l i z e d t e a c h i n g
assistants for a good p o r t i o n of the work, a n d the s uccess
of the school e v e n t u a l l y l ed to an i m p o r t a n t se r i e s of
c o n c e r t p e r f o r m a n c e s by his students. H owever, Marchesi
c o n c e n t r a t e d m o s t of her e f f o r t s w i t h b e g i n n e r s on s ight-
s i n g i n g and v o cal technique, w h i l e w i t h mor e advanced
s tud e n t s she em p h a s i z e d t e c h n i q u e a n d style. Languages
and k e y b o a r d w e r e t aught o u t s i d e h e r o w n studio. Stock
h a u s e n p ut m o r e emphas is on the d e v e l o p m e n t of indepen
dent musical skills from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of a p u p i l ' s
study. W h i l e he did not find the c h o r u s ideal for d e v e l o p
ing m u s i c i a n s h i p , he i nvolved h is s t u d e n t s in c h o r a l
a c t i v i t y and p e r f o r m a n c e b e c a u s e of h i s c o n c e r n t hat i m p o r
t a n t G e r m a n c h oral wor k s be p e r f o r m e d and a p p r e c i a t e d .
195
Marchesi, on the o ther hand, w a s t o t a l l y o p p o s e d to the
c h o r u s as a p e d a g o g i c a l medium. In S t o c k h a u s e n ' s school
each stud e n t wa s inst r u c t e d in solo song in two h a l f - h o u r
s e s s i o n s w e e k l y and w a s e n r o l l e d in a p r e p a r a t o r y class
for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of v o c a l technique, also for two half-
hour s e s s i o n s per week. F o r two h o u r l y s e s s i o n s w e e k l y the
st u d e n t s w e r e inst r u c t e d in the solfeggio, counterpoint
a nd harmony, choral singing, in the I t a l i a n language,
and in elocution. Stockhausen personally taught each
s t u d e n t in solo song, c a r e f u l l y s u p e r v i s e d the p r e p a r a t o r y
c lass, and cond u c t e d the chorus. Hi s m o s t a d v a n c e d
students served as t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t s by t e a c h i n g basic
t e c h n i q u e to t hose in the p r e p a r a t o r y class, w h i l e o u t
s ide t e a c h e r s wer e emp l o y e d for the o t h e r areas. Apparent
ly t h e p r e p a r a t o r y c lass w a s c o n d u c t e d c o l l e c t i v e l y w i t h all
begi n n e r s , w h i l e the i n s t r u c t i o n in solo song t o o k p l ace
u n d e r S t o c k h a u s e n privately.
S t o c k h a u s e n s t r essed d i l i g e n t w o r k b y his pupils.
H e d i f f e r e d w i t h M a r c h e s i c o n c e r n i n g time s pent in v ocal
p r a c t i c e and d i v e r s i f i e d t r a i n i n g for c o n c e r t s i n g e r s and
opera singers, and, wh i l e a di r e c t r e f e r e n c e to M a r c h e s i
d o e s not occur, his vie w s s p eak p l a i n l y enough:
It is a great m i s t a k e to im a g i n e t h a t y o u n g
v o i c e s s hould be c u l t i v a t e d in a d i f f e r e n t w a y for
the stage and for the concert - r o o m ; and w o r s e still
to t h i n k tha t d i l i g e n t p r a c t i s i n g d e s t r o y s the
fresh n e s s of a voice. It is i m m a t e r i a l w h e t h e r the
stage or the c o n c e r t - r o o m is to be the s i n g e r ' s
f i e l d of activity: the c u l t i v a t i o n of g t h e v o i c e and
t h e gen e r a l stu d i e s m u s t be the same.
Du r i n g the y e a r s 1881-1883, S t o c k h a u s e n pr e s e n t e d
his s t u d e n t s and choi r s in a spri n g seri e s of m a t i n e e s
a n d e v e n i n g perform a n c e s . H is r e s u m p t i o n of t e a c h i n g
d u t i e s w i t h the H o c h s c h u l e in 1883 i n t e r r u p t e d these p e r
f o r m a n c e s temporarily. F r o m 18 9 2 - 1 8 9 6 he w a s once again
a b l e to p r e s e n t his students, thi s t i m e in an impo r t a n t
Frankfurt series of P o p u l a r e S o n n t a g s k o n z e r t e . In addit i o n
to p r o v i d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e e x p e r i e n c e and c h a l l e n g e for m a n y
talented singers, his i n t e n t i o n w a s to p r e s e n t the finest
in v o c a l and c h o r a l r e p e rtoire. In a d d i t i o n to s t andard
I t a l i a n arias, m u c h e m p h a s i s w a s p l a c e d on the g e neral
r e p e r t o r y of G e r m a n lied, w h i l e his c h o i r s p e r f o r m e d a
w i d e r a n g e of a c a p p e l l a and a c c o m p a n i e d works. Stock
h a u s e n w a s con s c i o u s of his c o m m u n i t y an d i n v i t e d c o m
m u n i t y s i ngers to p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h his chorus. This e n
a b l e d h i m to p e r f o r m w i t h a 30-35 v o i c e chorus. Consis
te n t w i t h his c o n c e r n for m u s i c a l inde p e n d e n c e , he plac e d
g r e a t e m p hasis u p o n p o l y p h o n i c a c a p p e l l a wor k s in the
fir s t m o n t h s of rehearsal. Later, a c c o m p a n i e d piec e s
fr o m the large r e p e r t o r y of G e r m a n c h o r a l w o r k s were
added. S t o c k h a u s e n d e l i g h t e d in p r o g r a m m i n g little-known
w o r k s of Germ a n c o mposers. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e w o r k s of this
ge n r e w h i c h were b r o u g h t to F r a n k f u r t by S t o c k h a u s e n for
197
h is c o n c e r t s were: "Lazarus, e i n e O s t e r k a n t a t e ," b y
Schubert (1797-1828), "Das l e i d e n und s t e r b e n J e s u , " by
Schütz (1585-1672), t he "Zigeunerleben," "Deutschen
V o l k s l i e d e r , " and " T a l f e l l i e d , " b y Brahms, and "Der Rose
Pilgerfahrt," by Schumann (1810-1856)
Attack
W h i l e he a c c e p t e d G a r c i a ' s coup de g l o t t e as a
v a l i d technique, S t o c k h a u s e n co u l d not s e p a r a t e att a c k
from vowel formation:
In the same w a y th a t t he o u t - r u s h i n g a i r m e e t i n g an
o b s t r u c t i o n in t he c a v i t y of the m o u t h p r o d u c e s a
consonant, so the b r e a t h e s c a p i n g t h r o u g h the
n ar r o w e d a p e r t u r e in t he v o c a l c h ink p r o d u c e s a
vowel sound. Compare, for instance, p a a nd a, ^ and a,
ma and a, w h i l e i m i t a t i n g w i t h t he v o w e l a t t a c k
the r e l a x a t i o n of the t e n s i o n s on the lips. It
will then be fou n d that, in o r d e r to si n g w i t h
expression, the v o w e l att a c k h a s to b e q u i t e as
v a r i e d as the c o n s o n a n t attack. The l a t t e r b e i n g
v isible serves to e x p l a i n t he former, w h i c h is
invisible. (A M e t h o d , 9.)
Wh ile the above v i e w s are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h some o f G a r c i a ' s
concepts of vo w e l formation (see p . 57), t h e y are also
unique in that two d i s t i n c t f u nctions, attack and vowel
formation, are b e l i e v e d to occur t o g e t h e r in o n e c o
or d i n a t e d action.
S t o c k h a u s e n a l w a y s e m p h a s i z e d that t he c o u p de
glotte mu s t be a c c o m p a n i e d by a l o w e r i n g o f t he larynx.
If this ac t i o n do e s n o t occur, "it m a k e s t h e n o t e s po o r
and thin, and in the m i d d l e r e g i s t e r o f t e n t h r o a t y and
^^Clara W i r t h - S t o c k h a u s e n , Julius S t o c k h a u s e n ,
non-resonant." (A M e t h o d , 9.) T h e exam p l e s are t a ken
fr o m e x e r c i s e s wh i c h S t o c k h a u s e n u s e d to e s t a b l i s h a ttack
and v o w e l p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a s t a b i l i z e d or l o w e r e d larynx.
S u c h e x e r c i s e s helped the sin g e r to comb i n e v o w e l f l o w
with s u s t a i n e d notes: (A M e t h o d , 25, 28.)
Attack with "closed v o w e l s :"
w w fej P3WW pJNH PZM M IXIMM
" Shocks of the glottis w i t h fix e d larynx:"
W h i l e he a c k n o w l e d g e d the h i s t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y
of t h e a p p o g i a t u r a as u t i l i z e d for an attack, a nd q u o t e d
t his e x a m p l e from M u s i c a m o d e r n a p r a t t i c a : (A M e t h o d , 15)
S t o c k h a u s e n obj e c t e d to its o v e r u s e in c u r r e n t G e r m a n vocal
p r actice. An e xample w h i c h he cit e d is as follows: (A
Method, 15)
at n>oU lir o -f - W c^f '«-i/f/<f' - //fY TP-lfh
Registration
W h i l e S t o c k h a u s e n r e l i e d on the r e s e a r c h of bot h
Garcia and Battaille for h i s c o n c e p t s of r e gistration,
his vie w s w e r e m o r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h those of Garcia.
He b e l i e v e d that the m a t u r e hum a n voice p o s s e s s e s t hree
registers: chest, falsetto or " m i d d l e - v o i c e , " and head.
He dep e n d e d upon B a t t a i l l e for p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s
between chest and f a l setto: ".. . for the chest v oice
the w hole w i d t h of th e v o c a l co r d s is required, for the
falsetto only t w o - t h i r d s . " (A M e t h o d , 11. See also p.
91 .) Properly, m a l e v o i c e s should use o n l y c hest
ana falsetto, the h e a d v o i c e b e i n g too m u c h like tha t of
women and girls. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s to the
clarification of d e s c r i p t i o n s u s e d by Ga r c i a (see p..
42} • S t ockhausen b e l i e v e d fema l e v oices to u se all
three registers, e x c e p t for v e r y h i g h sopranos, who use
only falsetto and head. F e m a l e vo i c e s p r i n c i p a l l y use
falsetto, male v o i c e s the chest. Ranges, p i t c h e s c o mmon
tr all voices, and r e g i s t e r s of e a c h v o i c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
according to S t o c k h a u s e n ar e shown in F i g u r e s 21 and 22.
COA/tfa.fic______________oJ-f-ç
, é:
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F I G U R E 21: S T O C K H A U S E N ' S T A B L E OF THE F O U R V O I C E C L A S S I F I C A

T I O N S A N D P I T C H E S C O M M O N T O ALL. Fro m A Meth o d , 12.
S t o c k h a u s e n s t r e s s e d a m o d e r a t e l y l o w a n d stable
l a rynx p o s i t i o n for r e g i s t e r e q u a l ization. W i t h the
lary n x fi x e d m o d e r a t e l y low for the "sombre q u a l i t y , " he
found that c h e s t and f a l s e t t o r e g i s t e r s can b e b l e n d e d in
as c e n d i n g the scale. Conver s e l y , in d e s c e n d i n g the scale,
S t o c k h a u s e n u r g e d that a "clear q u a l i t y of t one" be use d
for b l e n d i n g the registers. (A M e t h o d , 13.) This procedure
is co m p a r a b l e to tha t of March e s i , who u s e d it for t r a n s i
tions bet w e e n c h e s t and m e d i u m w i t h her fema l e s t u dents
(see p. 155). However, Stockhausen believed that a
p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e w a s involved. He t h e o r i z e d that.
neoLd l'Oie e
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l F A ^ ie tt» o-f fep-fA gV/tf t 'o ic e f J
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F I G U R E 22: S T O C K H A U S E N ' S T A B L E OF REGISTERS. From A

M e t h o d y 12.
202
in a s cending, the epiglottis c o v e r s the l a r y n x to some
ex t e n t o n the v o w e l s [o] , [bj, f a c t i n g some
w h a t like the h a n d of a horn player; (A M e t h o d , 13.)
. . . the no t e s d# and e^ get the c o v e r e d to n e r e

q u i r e d for the tran s i t i o n into the f o l l o w i n g r e
gi s t e r m o r e e a s i l y on the c l o s e d v o w e l s t han on the
o p e n { a J , a n d t h erefore th e y a s s i m i l a t e b e t t e r
w i t h the f#. One m i g h t say that the s i n g e r w a s s i n g
ing c o n s o r d i n i . In d e s c e n d i n g o ne s h o u l d v o c a l i z e
on the c l e a r vowels, in o r d e r to give the f a l s e t t o
m o r e power; for instance :
-e-
A s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of r e g i s t e r e v enness, Stock
h a u s e n u s e d the m e s s a di v o c e , which, in his o p i n i o n , can
o n l y be e x e c u t e d in the m i d d l e of the v o i c e u s i n g two r e
gisters. In o t h e r words, the s i n g e r m u s t p r a c t i c e the
no t e s c o m m o n to b o t h r e gisters b y u s i n g the f a l s e t t o
for the p i a n o p o r t i o n s of the exe r c i s e , with a crescendo
i n t o che s t for the forte portion, and a ret u r n to f a l s e t t o
for the p i a n o closing. This d e s c r i p t i o n of the p h y s i o l o g i
cal events w h i c h o c c u r in the m e s s a di vo c e is e x a c t l y
t h a t of G a r c i a in his A r t of Singing. (A M e t h o d , 17.
See also Garcia, A r t of S i n g i n g , 33.) Batt a i l l e , h o w ever,
in u s ing the l a r y n g o s c o p e to o b s e r v e the a c t i o n o f the
gl o ttis d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n of the m e s s a di v o c e , w a s unable
to note a n y r e g i s t r a t i o n changes. (Battaille, Nouvelles
203
r e c h e r c h e s , 48-49.) U n l i k e G a r c i a and Marchesi, Stock
h a u s e n use d the m e s s a di v o c e n e a r the b e g i n n i n g of a
s i n g e r ' s v o i c e st u d y as a m e a n s to an end rath e r than as
an i n d i c a t i o n of a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . In the m e s s a di v o c e ,
as in the ble n d i n g of a s c e n d i n g and d e s c e n d i n g scales,
S t o c k h a u s e n i n s i s t e d on a fix e d la r y n x position. (A M e t h o d ,
pp. 13 and 17.)
Li k e the o t h e r G a r c i a teachers, Stockhausen
u t i l i z e d the p o r t a m e n t o for e v e n n e s s of v ocal qua l i t y and
ease of m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n registers. In the m e d i u m of the
v o i c e he u r g e d tha t the v o w e l r e m a i n the same in exer c i s e s
such as t hose in F i g u r e 23. W h e n the po r t a m e n t o with i n
the m i d d l e r e g i s t e r w a s est a b l i s h e d , S t o c k h a u s e n urged
its u s e b e t w e e n registers. P r e l i m i n a r y to this exercise,
he r e c o m m e n d e d p r a c t i c e w i t h the a l t e r a t i o n of registers
on v a r i o u s vowels, a routine s i m i l a r to t h a t a d v ocated
by B a t t a i l l e and G a r c i a on one vowel: (A Method, 44.)
c ^ A
The p o r t a m e n t o wa s the n p r a c t i c e d in two registers, with
the student ta k i n g car e tha t the lary n x r e m a i n e d stable.
T h e s e exercises, like m o s t of tho s e in S t o c k h a u s e n ' s
work, were c a r e f u l l y d e s i g n e d for t h e limits of a
204
p a r t i c u l a r v oice classification. B y c ontrast, this was o n l y
i n f r e q u e n t l y d o n e b y Ga r c i a and the o t h e r teachers. (See
Figure 24.) Portamento exercises were c a r r i e d step by
step int o l a r g e r e x t e n s i o n s . The most extensive portamento
exercises i n c l u d e d the following: (A M e t h o d , 45.)
7f
jfatJ — ------ -------- -----------------
[dl —
E5ri
— — !a.y — — —
1— - - -
Jff Ml qO d» fo l Jio Ji 0 /*f,' Jc Ml fo l Jo fû t Jo Jo Jo
F I G U R E 23: S T O C K H A U S E N ' S P O R T A M E N T O E X E R C I S E S F O R T H E M E D I U M
VOICE. F r o m A M e thod, 39.
c c
FIG U R E 24: S T O C K H A U S E N ' S P O R T A M E N T O E X E R C I S E S F O R

S P E C I F I C VOICES. F r o m A M e t hod, 45.
Stockhausen, lik e the o t h e r teachers, devoted a
large po r t i o n of his m e t h o d to scales of all v a r i e t i e s
for t he purpose of u n i f i c a t i o n of the e n t i r e v o c a l range.
His scales em p h a s i z e d s t e p - w i s e m o v e m e n t in all types
of r h y thmic figures, o f t e n c o m b i n e d w i t h the p o r t a m e n t o .
The styles are c o m p a r a b l e t o those u s e d b y G a r c i a and
the ot h e r teachers a nd are shown in F i g u r e 25. By
c o n trast with the o t h e r teachers, S t o c k h a u s e n d i d n ot
use m a n y exercises w h i c h i n v o l v e d d i f f i c u l t interv a l s .
In m a n y instances in h i s G e s a n g s m e t h o d e , he u t i l i z e d
p o r tions of i m p ortant a r i a s f or i l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d exercises.
For the more co m p l e x s c a l e m o v e m e n t s , he u r g e d t h e u s e of
coloratura lines from B a c h a n d Handel. Some of t h o s e he
~Z2P~ etc .
HeiêAf //fiti'-
etc
F I G U R E 25: E X A M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N 'S S C A L E EXERCISES.

F r o m A M e t h o d y 100.
e m p h a s i z e d are in F i g u r e 26.
B r e a t h i n g a nd C o o r d i n a t i o n
The areas of b r e a t h i n g and c o o r d i n a t i o n d r e w the
least amount of t r e a t m e n t b y Stock h a u s e n . However, t h ese
areas were no less i m p o r t a n t to S t o c k h a u s e n and his
a. F r o m C a n t a t a No. 8 , L i e b s t e r Gott, w a n n werd' ich
sterben, J. S. Bach.
— — 'hr * 1 - — _
- — fe/i^ Ver-êh-l!'ehef^ ôr— _ v'er-jci-h'- <Jm Sorê^-

b. F r o m T he S e a s o n s , Haydn.
/a
3
fentj ’cc*'f -fkt
le ffA i - p e -
— ■ , !< 7fM-/7c — —
d. F r o m S u s a n n a , Handel.
/WV _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ /u/ ' JrtJ
FIG U R E 26: S T O C K H A U S E N ' S S C ALE ST U D I E S E X C E R P T E D F R O M

BA R O Q U E ARIAS. F r o m A M e t h o d , 98, 105, 110.
208
c o n c e p t s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h those of the o t h e r teachers.
S t o c k h a u s e n w o u l d not a l l o w h i g h chest o r c l a v i c u l a r
br e a t h i n g b e c a u s e "the r e s t l e s s state in w h i c h the larynx
is t h u s k e p t is fatal to the d e v e l o p m e n t of th e v oice
and to t e c h n i q u e in gener a l . " (A M e t h o d , 11.) He d i s
t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n two p r o p e r types of b r e a t h i n g for
singers: d i a p h r a g m a t i c b r e a t h i n g he f ound to be sufficient
for the q u i c k or half breath, wh i l e r i b - b r e a t h i n g is " i ndis
pe n s a b l e " for full breaths. Stockhausen also fou n d that
b r e a t h i n g t h r o u g h the n o s e aids d i a p h r a g m a t i c activity. (A
M e t h o d , 11.)
S t o c k h a u s e n ur g e d an e m p h a s i s on the legato style
from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of a s inger's s t u d y in o r d e r to
fa c i l i t a t e b r e a t h control. He ta u g h t b e g i n n e r s to control
o n l y a small am o u n t of e x h a l e d ai r in s i n g i n g and to
resi s t the t e m p t a t i o n to us e t oo m u c h a ir in u n c o n trolled,
e r r a t i c volumes. (A M e t h o d , 46.)
In re g a r d to c o o r d i n a t i o n of the v a r i o u s parts
of the vocal m e chanism, S t o c k h a u s e n r e c o m m e n d e d tha t the
singer learn as m u c h as p o s s i b l e about the p h y s i o l o g y
of th r e e p r i n c i p l e p a r t s i n v o l v e d in s i n g i n g activity,
the lungs, larynx, and "cav i t y of a r t i c u l a t i o n . " His
a p p r o a c h a p p e a r s to i mply tha t the s i nger s h o u l d e x e r
cise as m u c h di r e c t c o n t r o l o v e r these p a r t s as possible:
If . . . he sings a n o t e too sharp o r t o o flat, he

wil l not . . . appeal to the m u s c l e s of the c h est
or diaphragm, nor in o r d e r to c o r r e c t t h e note
sing louder, or a lter the m o v e m e n t s o f th e m o u t h or
the q u a l i t y of the vowel, a m i s t a k e so o f t e n m a d e
by beginners. He has n o w l e arnt t h a t it is the w o r k
of the v o c a l c h o r d s d i r e c t e d b y th e ear to cr e a t e
the n e c e s s a r y tensions. (A M e t h o d , 3.)
S t o c k h a u s e n ur g e d that, wh i l e the si n g e r c o n c e n t r a t e s on
the part of the vocal a p p a r a t u s bei n g u t i l i z e d for a c e r
ta i n function, care s h o u l d be t a k e n to c o o r d i n a t e the f u n c
tions of all t hree a r e a s i n v o l v e d in the s i n g i n g action.
A final a rea of c o o r d i n a t i o n the n b e c o m e s n e c e ssary,
t h a t of u n i t i n g i nward e m o t i o n w i t h the t hree areas, the
resu l t b e i n g be a u t y of expression:
Th e v a r i e d q u a l i t i e s of eac h tone, of e a c h vowel,

are d e p e n d e n t on th e form of vibrat i o n s , a n d can
then o n l y exp r e s s o u r f e elings w h e n force and q u a l i t y
of tone are in h a r m o n y w i t h the laws of a c oustics.
(A M e t h o d , 3,)
In o rder to a c hieve c o o r d i n a t i o n of b r e a t h i n g and v o c a l
apparatus, S t o c k h a u s e n u r g e d p r a c t i c e of the portam e n t o .
B e f o r e the p o r t a m e n t o c a n be perf e c t e d , however, he r e
c o m m e n d e d that the m e s s a di voc e be s u c c e s s f u l l y practiced,
t h e r e b y u n i t i n g two r e g i s t e r s on one p i t c h in c o o r d i n a
t i o n w i t h b r e a t h control. (A M e t h o d , 37.)
R e s o n a n c e and D i c t i o n
Stock h a u s e n ' s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d r e s o n a n c e cann o t
be separated from his s tress on the e l e m e n t s of s p eech
and their foundation for p r o d u c t i o n of the s i n g i n g voice.
He also found vocal m u s i c and spee c h to be i n s e p a r a b l e
elements in the c o m m u n i c a t i o n of v ocal music. He e x p r e s s e d
m u c h disappo i n t m e n t w i t h the f a u l t y d i c t i o n u s e d by singers
210
of his t i m e and u r g e d a s t r o n g e r e mphasis u p o n the stu d y
of s p e e c h e l e m e n t s in c o l l e g e s a n d s econdary schools.
He b e l i e v e d t h a t w h e n a s t u d e n t has m a s t e r e d the s ubtle
differences in the v a r i o u s v o w e l s a n d consonant sounds,
when these "come to be f o r m e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r co r r e c t
classification, a nd w h e n all sp e e c h elements a re e f f i c i e n t
ly c o o r d i n a t e d , o n l y the n ar e the f o u n dations of t o n e p r o
d u c t i o n and b e a u t i f u l enunciation s u c c e s s f u l l y laid."
( Chrysander, "J. S t o c k h a u s e n ' s e r s t e r J a h r e s b e r i c h t ," 511.
T r a n s l a t e d b y the w riter.) In his t e a ching approach,
S t o c k h a u s e n u r g e d t h a t the st u d e n t t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r s t a n d
the v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s of v o c a l o r g a n s as the y are i n
v o l v e d in sp e e c h p r o d u c t i o n and i m plement this k n o w l e d g e
b y m e a n s of the f o l l o w i n g rule: "The greater the a c t i v i t y
in the c a v i t y of a r t i c u l a t i o n (the m o u t h and u p p e r t h r o a t ) ,
the less t h e r e is in the larynx, and vice v e r s a ." (A
M e t h o d , 5.) Th e r e f o r e , he t a u g h t that good d i c t i o n as e x e
c u t e d b y p h y s i o l o g i c a l p a r t s a b o v e t he larynx aids in the
r e t e n t i o n of l a r y n g e a l freedom.
S t o c k h a u s e n t a u g h t v o w e l p r o d u c t i o n by m e a n s of
a c hart w h i c h he n a m e d "The S i n g e r ' s Alph a b e t , " placed
in F i g u r e 27. Her e he o b s e r v e d the influence of t o n g u e
p o s i t i o n on vo w e l s o u n d s an d n o t e d v o w e l s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g
tong u e p o s i t i o n s a l o n g the s ides of a triangle. High
t ongue p o s i t i o n s and t h e i r b r i g h t v o w e l sounds w e r e p l a c e d
o n one side, w h i l e d a r k v o w e l s and t h e i r low t o n g u e p o s i
tions w e r e p l a c e d o n th e o t h e r side. All v o w e l s w e r e
211
s caled a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r tong u e pos i t i o n s r e l a t i v e to
the [ a J , w h i c h he ca l l e d "the final ai m of V o c a l i s a t i o n . "
as a m e a n s of v o w e l stu d y use d by v o i c e teachers, current
s peech r e s e a r c h has p r o v e n the v alue of such diagrams.
R ece n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by G u n n a r Pant, among others, have
r es u l t e d in x - r a y t r a c i n g s w h i c h p r o v i d e a b asis for a
m o r e d e f i n e d v o w e l diagram. P ant m e a s u r e d tong u e p o s i t i o n s
for each v owel a c c o r d i n g to the h i g h e s t po i n t s on the
u p p e r tong u e s u r f a c e and c h a r t e d t h e s e acc o r d i n g to the
vowel f ormants w h i c h resu l t e d . Pa n t ' s diagram, a p p e a r s in
P i g u r e 28, w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l tracing.
St o c k h a u s e n r e c o m m e n d e d the p r a c t i c e of sin g i n g
v a rious vowel soun d s on s u s t a i n e d p i t c h e s in o r d e r to
learn to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s "a c c o r d i n g
to the space in the c a v i t y of the m outh, and no t a c c o r d
ing to the c o n t r a c t i o n s in the larynx." (A M e t h o d , 8.)
While he u rged a g a i n s t c o n s t a n t p r a c t i c e on [ a J , (see p.
170), and urg e d b a l a n c e d p r a c t i c e of all v o w e l s w h i l e s i n g
ing, he did not e the c a p a c i t y of some v o w e l s to c o r r e c t
^^S t o c k h a u s e n ' s vow e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is inaccurate.

The vowels alo n g the r i g h t side of his t r i a n g l e a c t u a l l y
corres p o n d in t o n g u e p o s i t i o n to t hose on the left side.
Therefore, the [u] and [irj use a hig h tong u e posit i o n , the
£oJ and a m i d d l e t o n g u e position, and the £ a j a lo w
tongue position. See D e n e s and Pinson, The S p e e c h
Chain, 54-75.
(The Hague: M o u t o n and Co., 1907), 110-113.
T H E SINGERS’ ALPHABET.
The A is the middle position of the tongue and

T h e final aimÂ^ of Vocalisation.
D i phthong (ei) i „a (au) Diphthong

{eu)
Diphthong
passive position
of the tongue
(Stick) i (Fûrst) ùe (Fülle)
(rühren) ui («) (ftihlcn)
Primary Vo w e l Primary Vo w el
(highest position of the tongue). (lowest position of the longue).
F I G U R E 27: STOCKHAUSEN'S " S I NGER'S A L P H A B E T . "

M e t h o d , 6.
deficiencies in v o c a l quality:
Th e p r i m a r y vow e l [uj n e c e s s i t a t e s a lo w e r p o s i
t io n of the l a r y n x w h i c h is f a v o u r a b l e to v o i c e p r o d u c
tion; a n d a g a i n b y the h i g h p o s i t i o n w h i c h the tongue
t ak e s in the fo r m a t i o n of [ i j , the e p i g l o t t i s is
p r o t e c t e d f r o m the p r e s s u r e of the roo t of the
tongue. E x p e r i e n c e also t e a c h e s that w i t h the help
of the open vowels . . . a w e a k v o i c e can be s t r e n g
thened; and b y the clos e d o n e s . . . a har d v o i c e can
a c q u i r e m e l l o w n e s s and roundness. (A M e t h o d , 8-9.)
p
X A
>
FI G U R E 28: PANT ' S V O W E L D I A G R A M W I T H X - R A Y TRACING. From

Fant, A c o u s t i c Th e o r y of S p e e c h P r o d u c t i o n , 112.
Not o n l y does d i c t i o n o c c u p y a u n i q u e l y strong
p o s i t i o n in S t o c k h a u s e n ' s method. H i s c o ncept of the i n
f l u e n c e of vowe l s on v a r i o u s r e g i s t e r s is unpreced e n t e d .
N o o t h e r G a rcia t e acher fo u n d this r e l a t i o n s h i p im p o r t a n t
en o u g h to be u s e d as a t e a c h i n g approach, nor at t e m p t e d
to c l a s s i f y it, as did Stockhausen:
Expe r i e n c e t e aches us that c l o s e d v o w e l s . . .

suit the weak e r register; ope n one s . . . the s t r o n g
er. When a note in t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r of the
vo i c e . . . is f o r c i b l y p r o d u c e d first on the cl o s e d
vow e l In'], then on the h i g h - c l o s e d vow e l [ i ^ ,and
then on the m e d i u m [aJ, it w i l l be f ound that [uJ wil l
pr o d u c e the l east sound, fi j a little more, and f a j the
most; £‘u'3 , b y c a u s i n g a m e m b r a n o i d t e n s i o n of the
vo c a l chords, s uits the so f t e r fal s e t t o register;
Ci] s t r e n g t h e n s it; and [a"} , by i n c r e a s i n g the bulk
of the v i b r a t i n g part, p r o d u c e s the d e s i r e d c hest
voice. (A M e t h o d , 13.)
By s u s t a i n i n g t h e s e t h r e e v o w e l s on one b r e a t h in cal
c u l a t e d order, fu}, [i], a], £a^, £ij, fu], S t o c k h a u s e n
n o t e d that a m e s s a di voc e a u t o m a t i c a l l y resulted. He
represented suc h a m e s s a di v o c e , u sing v o w e l s and c o n
sona n t s as follows;
F e m a l e Voices:
head-voice head-voice
piano mezzo-forte mezzo-forte

falsetto increased decreased
f a l setto chest v o i c e
M a l e Voices:
W h e n the b e g i n n e r is c a p a b l e of the above, Stockhausen
r e c o m m e n d e d that he b e g i n p r a c t i c e of the m e s s a di v o c e
on one vowel. (A M e t h o d , 13-14.)
C o n s i s t e n t w i t h his attitu d e s , Stockhausen provided
for m o s t of the v a r i o u s v o w e l soun d s in the e x e r c i s e s in
his method. He i n c l u d e d p r a c t i c e of v o w e l s w i t h d i p t h o n g s
and v o w e l s w h i c h are t r o u b l e s o m e in v a r i o u s a r e a s of the
voice, whi l e alwa y s i n s i s t i n g on the loose j a w a nd s t a b i l i z
ed larynx. S o m e of t h e s e e x e r c i s e s are p r o v i d e d in
Figure 29.
m
£■■53— — / e ] ------- £ t 7------- Co"]- —
[g] - - [ÔI - - [o]------
FI G U R E 29: E X A M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N ' S U S E OF V O W E L S W I T H
V O C A L E X E R CISES. F r o m A M e t h o d , 49, 59, a n d 60.
W h i l e S t o c k h a u s e n d i d not set d o w n a t h e o r y or
sys t e m of v o w e l m o d i f i c a t i o n , as d i d G a r c i a , he n o t e d
its n e c e s s i t y in t h e hig h e r areas o f t he v o c a l range.
He was u n e q u i v o c a l l y o p p o s e d to the u s e o f o p e n v o w e l s
in u p per not e s b y Italian singers o f his time. In t his
case, he u r g e d " c o v e r i n g or m o d i f i c a t i o n of the
v o wel tow a r d [ e j , as did Garcia:
Such errors are c u r r e n t l y a l l o w e d by toda y ' s Italian
singers. Sin c e t hey think, for example, that in
the u p p e r r e g i s t e r [E] m u s t no t be c overed, their
q u a l i t y is u n a b l e to a t t a i n homoge n a i t y , and the y
s ing s tridently. (Chrysander, " C h erubini's Canons,"
370. T r a n s l a t e d by the writer.)
VI: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FO R F U R T H E R S TUDY
A t t i t u d e s and A p p r o a c h e s in General
The f a c t o r w h i c h appears to be r e s p o n s i b l e for
the s u ccess o f all of the tea c h e r s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n was
a p p a r e n t l y t h e i r d e v o t i o n to careful, t horough p r e p a r a t i o n
of voi c e st u d e n t s . The sin g u l a r tenet str e s s e d above all
others in t h e i r w r i t i n g s and t e a c h i n g accou n t s wa s th e i r
consuming i n t e r e s t in s ound vo c a l development. All of the
teach e r s e m p h a s i z e d the n e c e s s i t y of y e a r s of m e t h o d i c a l
v ocal p r e p a r a t i o n . An impor t a n t p a r t o f this t r a i n i n g
was in the a r e a o f m u s i c ianship. C o r r e c t rhyt h m and
in t o n a t i o n w e r e i m p o r t a n t to all of the teachers. Garcia,
Marchesi, and S t o c k h a u s e n also a f f i r m e d the i m p o r t a n c e of
solfeggio. B a t t a i l l e was t o tally o p p o s e d to its use.
The t e a c h e r s gave v a r i e d e m p h a s i s to the i m p o r t a n c e
of p h y s i o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g in vocal teaching. Garcia
and B a t t a i l l e d e l i b e r a t e l y set a bout to stress those t e a c h
ing f a ctors g r o u n d e d in scie n t i f i c fact. Traditional e m
ph ases on r e g i s t r a t i o n a n d vo w e l s w e r e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the
physiological knowledge and res e a r c h of G arcia and Battaille.
In addition, G a r c i a ' s i n t erest in atta c k and v oice
quali t i e s led to a s i milar stress in these areas. Battaille
d e r i v e d h i s own u n p r e c e d e n t e d e m p h a s i s on c o o r d i n a t i o n
217
218
f r o m his research, r e sulting in his "method of c o m p e n s a
ti o n . " I'Thile some of the r e s e a r c h of G a rcia and B a t t a i l
le w a s s omewhat in error and i n c o mplete, t heir s i g n i f i
cance in the area of voice s c ience a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p
to v ocal p e d a g o g y was c o nsiderable. Marchesi a nd S t o c k
h a u s e n acknow l e d g e d the impor t a n c e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l study,
b u t neit h e r a p p a rently felt q u a l i f i e d to a t t e m p t to br e a k
n e w g round in this area. Marchesi's f e w a t t e m p t s at
physiological j u s t i fication w e r e o f t e n misgui d e d . Stock
h a u s e n ' s wer e less so.
T heir general appro a c h e s to v o c a l t e a c h i n g w e r e
a l s o varied. Garcia taught stu d e n t s o n l y on a p r i v a t e
b a s i s and a d hered to a rele n t l e s s l e s s o n schedule. Stock
h a u s e n taught basic v ocal te c h n i q u e priv a t e l y , but u t i l i z e d
g r o u p instruction for studies in sty l e and m u s i c i a n s h i p .
M a r c h e s i 's a p p roach to i n s t r u c t i o n w a s u n ique in its total
ad h e r e n c e to group teaching. Her g r o u p s c o n s i s t e d of a
class for b eginners in vocal t e c h n i q u e and m u s i c i a n s h i p ,
an interm e d i a t e class for i n t r o d u c t o r y studies in style
and repertoire, and two a d v a n c e d c l a s s e s w h i c h a l l o w e d
st u dents to specia l i z e in e i t h e r o p e r a or c o n c e r t areas.
No r e cord was found of B a t t a i l l e ' s p r e f e r e n c e in this area.
It is p robable that all of the t e a chers chose t heir
st u dents by careful audition. G a r c i a a nd B a t t a i l l e gav e
pa r t i c u l a r emphasis to c o r r e c t i n g v o c a l faults. They
w e r e confi d e n t that a t h o rough u n d e r s t a n d i n g of vocal
p h y s i o l o g y is an i m p ortant aid in b r i n g i n g a b o u t c h a n g e in
219
v o c a l production. Marc h e s i , on the o t h e r hand, gave a
g r e a t deal of empha s i s to the sel e c t i o n of "good" voices
fo r training. The i n f e r e n c e can be mad e tha t she was
h e s i t a n t to train vo i c e s w i t h problems. S t o c k h a u s e n did
n o t address himself to this issue.
Attack
Garcia's i n t e r e s t in the act of p h o n a t i o n , result
i n g in his teaching of the coup de g l o t t e , h a d s i g n i f i
c a n t i n f luence on the d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o n c e p t f or d e
s c r i b i n g vocal attacks. It was the s u b j e c t of i n t e n s e
c o n t r o v e r s y for m a n y ye a r s f o llowing its inception.
W h i l e Garcia's students e m p h a s i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of an
a t t a c k w e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h breath, the i r terminology
a n d descrip t i o n s varied. B a t t a i l l e o p p o s e d the c o u p de
g l o t t e as b eing too e x t r e m e and sought to r e p l a c e it w i t h
an emp h a s i s on the "method of c o m p e n s a t i o n " and hi s open
g l o t t i s concept. M a r c h e s i m o d i f i e d the c o u p de g l o t t e , at
l e a s t in name, cal l i n g it s errer la g l o t t e , b u t r e t a i n e d
i ts essential meaning. She v i g o r o u s l y d e n o u n c e d B a t t a i l l e 's
i d e a of tne open g l ottis attack. S t o c k h a u s e n a c c e p t e d the
c o u p de glotte as valid, b u t e r r o n e o u s l y b e l i e v e d atta c k
a n d vowel formation to o c c u r in one c o o r d i n a t e d a c t i o n
and, to some extent, in one p h y s i o l o g i c a l l o c ation. Bat
taille, Marchesi, and S t o c k h a u s e n a g reed w i t h G a r c i a that
a free lower jaw s h ould a c c o m p a n y p h o n ation. Battaille
and S tockhausen also s t r e s s e d Garcia's c o n c e p t of the
m o d e r a t e l y - l o w e r e d la r y n x d u r i n g attack. M a r c h e s i d i d not
s p eak to the issue of larynx po s i t i o n .
Registration
W h i l e n o t unpreced e n t e d , the em p h a s i s given r e g i s
t r a t i o n b y the G a rcia teachers w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s signifi
cant. In a d d i t i o n to the b l e n d i n g of p a s s a g g i o areas and
the u n i f i c a t i o n of the total v o c a l scale, for these
te a c h e r s the p e r f e c t i o n of r e g i s t r a t i o n also bore i m p l i
ca t i o n s for freedom, range, a nd f l e x i b i l i t y n e e d e d for
bel can t o v o c a l music.
Som e i n t e r e s t i n g v a r i a n c e a p p e a r s in the t e r m i n o l o g y
and p i t c h ran g e s of spec i f i c registers as set by eac h t e a c h
er. G a r c i a b e l i e v e d three r e g i s t e r s to e x i s t in wo m e n ' s
voices: chest, fal s e t t o o r med i u m , a n d head. Mar c h e s i and
S t o c k h a u s e n agreed. Battaille f o u n d e v i d e n c e of o n l y two,
ch e s t a nd falsetto. For m e n's vo i c e s , Garcia believed
o n l y the t e n o r to p o s s e s s a h e a d regis t e r , f o und in the
v e r y h i g h e s t no t e s of the range. B a t t a i l l e a nd S t o c k
ha u s e n n o t e d o n l y c h est and f a l s e t t o for all ma l e voices.
Marchesi, of course, did not r e f e r to the a r e a of r e g i s t r a
tion in m a l e voices.
In r e g a r d to p a s s a g g i o a r e a s in female voices, the
te a chers w e r e g e n e r a l l y in a g r e e m e n t as to the d e f i n i t i o n
of the a r e a b e t w e e n the c h est a n d f a l s e t t o or m e d i u m (see
Figure 30). T h e r e was w i d e d i v e r g e n c e c o n c e r n i n g the
p a s s a g g i o b e t w e e n f alsetto a nd head. Marchesi noted a
de f i n i t e t r a n s i t i o n area into t he h e a d register. G a rcia
and S t o c k h a u s e n saw e v i d e n c e of a la r g e o v e r l a p p i n g area
B at t a i l l e
c he s t f alsetto hea d chest f a l setto hea d
Marchesi Stockhausen
ri t o ----------- — I----------
MEZZO-SOPRANO
Battaille
(Did no t refer to this

classification.)
St o c k h a u s e n
hSi
b-kr-e-^ rS*-
March e s i
FI G U R E 30: C O M P A R A T I V E R E G I S T E R RANGES.
chest f a lsetto
No ranges specif i e d .
Stock h a u s e n
No ranges p r o v i d e d for
male voices.
N o ranges specified.
S toc k h a u s e n
B a ttaille
falsetto hea d
No ranges specified.
St o c k h a u s e n
FIGU R E 2 7 — Continued.
223
in w h i c h n o tes c o u l d be s ung in e i t h e r register. Battaille,
b e c a u s e of his t w o - r e g i s t e r theory, f o u n d the f alsetto
r e g i s t e r to ha v e a ra t h e r e x t e n s i v e r a n g e with, of course,
no t r a n s i t i o n a r e a into head. An e x a m i n a t i o n of the c o m
p a r a t i v e r e g i s t e r r a nges in F i g u r e 27 ind i c a t e s tha t B a t
t a i l l e 's t w o - r e g i s t e r c o n c e p t a nd the w i d e area of o v e r
l a p p i n g ranges d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y G a r c i a a nd S t o c k h a u s e n m a y
a c t u a l l y be s i m i l a r concepts. Marchesi's r e g i s t e r ranges
fo r f a l s e t t o a nd h e a d w e r e d e c i d e d l y d i f f e r e n t , w i t h little
o r n o overlap p i n g .
For m ale voices, Garcia, Battaille, and S t o c k h a u s e n
were in g eneral a g r e e m e n t as to the p i t c h limits o f the
c h e s t register. F o r the f a l s e t t o r e g i s t e r less a g r e e m e n t
is a p parent, to some e x t e n t due to the in c o m p l e t e range
l i m i t s p r o v i d e d by B a ttaille, a nd the w i d e area of o v e r
la p p i n g n o t e d by Stock h a u s e n .
Wh i l e the t e a c h e r s d i f f e r e d in t e r m i n o l o g y and
d e s i g n a t i o n s of r e g i s t e r limits, t h e i r m e t h o d s of a c h i e v
ing a un i f i e d v o c a l scale were v i r t u a l l y the same. G a rcia
f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d t he c h e s t voice, t h e n a d d e d n o t e s of the
f a l s e t t o u s ing s u s t a i n e d n o t e - b y - n o t e v o c a l i z a t i o n until
the two re g i s t e r s w e r e eq u a l in s t r e n g t h a nd quality. Low
er n o t e s of the h e a d r e g i s t e r w e r e a d d e d in the same way,
w h i l e h i g h e r notes w e r e a p p r o a c h e d b y r a p i d v o c a l i z i n g
pa t t e r n s . For f l e x i b i l i t y and ease of p r o d u c t i o n throughout
the scale, G a rcia d e v i s e d an e l a b o r a t e set of e x e r c i s e s
w h i c h com p r i s e d all c o m b i n a t i o n s of scales, int e r v a l l i c
224
passages, and p o r t a m e n t o s . Finished singers w e r e ex
p e c t e d to n e g o t i a t e t h ese e x e r c i s e s on any I t a l i a n vow e l
a t r a p i d tempos. R e f e r e n c e s to these e x e r c i s e s f r o m o t her
sources indicate t hat th e y m a y n o t have b e e n o r i g i n a l wi t h
G a r c i a h i m self, b u t r a t h e r a p a r t of the I t a l i a n t e a c h i n g
t r a d i t i o n he i n h e r i t e d f r o m h is father.
B a t t a i l l e 's p r o c e d u r e s for r e g i s t e r e q u a l i z a t i o n
w e r e e v i d e n t l y as t h o r o u g h a nd p a i n s t a k i n g as w e r e Garcia's.
Battaille left f ew s p e c i f i c e x e r c i s e s as e v i d e n c e , b ut
s poke of the p r o g r e s s i v e , t h o r o u g h w o r k n e e d e d to b l e n d
the r e g i s t e r s and br i n g f l e x i b i l i t y to the v o c a l compass.
He p l a c e d g r e a t c o n f i d e n c e in the p o r t a m e n t o as a dev i c e
for a c h i e v i n g equality, in a d d i t i o n to scales a n d exerc i s e s
w h i c h i n v o l v e d a l t e r n a t e l y s i n g i n g w i t h ch e s t a n d f alsetto
in the s ame p i t c h region. G a r c i a a lso val u e d these p r o
cedures. Bo t h teac h e r s s t r e s s e d t hat a loose jaw must
always be m a i n t a i n e d for the a c h i e v e m e n t of an e v e n scale.
A dominating emphasis for M a r c h e s i w a s t he a c h i e v e
m e n t of a u n i f i e d scale. She w a s the only t e a c h e r w h o
apparently classified her s i n g e r s ver y soon a f t e r t h eir
t r a i n i n g h a d begun, af t e r w h i c h r e g i s t e r s w e r e e s t a b l i s h
ed w i t h i n the p i t c h r a nges w h i c h she felt to be p r o per.
Like Garcia, she a d v o c a t e d use of "close timb r e " for the
h i g h e s t n o t e s of the c h e s t and m e d i u m registers, in o r d e r
that the s e notes m a y b l e n d w i t h the lowest n o t e s o f the
n e x t register. H er b a s i c e x e r c i s e s are ver y s i m i l a r to
those of Garcia. Like h e r t eacher, she a d v o c a t e d the use
225
of e x e r c i s e s e m p l o y i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y w i d e r inter v a l s in
all sorts of c o m b i n a t i o n s as fluency improved. She also
r e c o m m e n d e d the p o r t a m e n t o as an a id to r e g i s t e r e q u a l i z a -
S t o c k h a u s e n c o n c u r r e d w i t h m o s t of B a t t a i l l e 's r e
s e a r c h on r e gistration, but s u p p o r t e d G a r cia's t h r e e - r e
g i s t e r theory. Like Garcia, he found that, since the male
h e a d v o i c e is ef f i m i n a t e in q u a l i t y , male singers sho u l d
u s e o n l y c h e s t and falsetto. L i k e b o t h G a r c i a and
Marchesi, he t a ught a m a n i p u l a t i o n of q u a l i t y to b l e n d
the regi s t e r s . For a s c e n d i n g the scale, he urged tha t the
l a r y n x be f i xed m o d e r a t e l y low, r e s u l t i n g in the som b e r
quality. F o r d e s c e n d i n g t he scale, he b e l i e v e d in the use
of a b r i g h t e r q u a l i t y for the b l e n d i n g of registers.
S t o c k h a u s e n joined M a r c h e s i a nd G a r c i a in s t r e s s i n g
the m e s s a di vo c e as a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of r e g i s t e r e v e n n e s s
and s u p p o r t e d G arcia's d e s c r i p t i o n of the p h y s i o l o g i c a l
e ve n t s w h i c h o c c u r in e x e c u t i o n of the m e s s a di v o c e . How
ever, w h i l e Gar c i a and M a r c h e s i fel t that this e x e r c i s e
i n d i c a t e s the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f c o n trol and should b e used
late in a s i n ger's training, S t o c k h a u s e n us e d it v e r y e a rly
as a m e a n s to that end. An i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of S t o c k
h a u s e n ' s m e s s a di voce w as t h e influ e n c e w h i c h va r i o u s
v o w e l s e x e r t on the r e g i s t e r s .
L ike all of the o t h e r teach e r s , Stockhausen utilized
the p o r t a m e n t o for the a t t a i n m e n t of an e v e n vowel line.
He u r g e d its e s t a b l i s h m e n t first in the m i d d l e register.
226
then e n c o u r a g e d its use b e t w e e n r e g i s t e r s . As a foun d a t i o n
for a c h i e v i n g a sound p o rtamento, Stockhausen used exer
cises w h i c h c o m b i n e d short slides in the m i d d l e v oice w i t h
the a l t e r a t i o n of registers, the l a t t e r b e i n g the same
devi c e a d v o c a t e d by Garcia and B a t t a i l l e . Stockhausen's
scale e x e r c i s e s for evenn e s s a n d f l e x i b i l i t y are c o m p a r a b l e
to those of the o t h e r teachers. Unlike the o t h e r teachers,
however, S t o c k h a u s e n also u t i l i z e d p o r t i o n s of i m p o r t a n t
arias for exercises.
Voi c e Qualities, Vowels, a nd D i c t i o n
Ga r c i a gav e u n p r e c e d e n t e d e m p h a s i s to voi c e q u a l i t i e s
and the i r p h y s i o l o g i c a l causes. F r o m t e a c h i n g a nd p e r f o r
m a n c e viewpo i n t s , the r e sult of this e m p h a s i s w a s his d e l i
bera t e use of the timbre c lair and t i m b r e sombre as i n t e r
p r e t i v e colors in the voice. Battaille n o t e d the e x i s t e n c e
of b o t h q u a l ities, bu t gave no s u g g e s t i o n s for their s t y l i s
tic use. Garcia, Battaille, and S t o c k h a u s e n e n d o r s e d a
m o d e r a t e l y low la r y n x p o s i t i o n as the b e s t for singers and
id e n t i f i e d the r e s u l t as the v o i x so m b r e or t imbre s o m b r e .
M a r c h e s i did not m e n t i o n the timb r e c l a i r and ti m b r e s o m b r e .
She ins t e a d u r g e d that a s t u dent's b e s t tone q u a l i t y be d e
ve l o p e d through f r e e d o m of the o r g a n s of p h onation. She
o b j e c t e d to n asal qual i t y and the v o i x b l a n c h e , w h i c h r e
sults fro m s i n g i n g w i t h a p e r s i s t e n t smile. Stockhausen
likewise did not m e n t i o n the two v o i c e q u a l i t i e s as b e i n g
distinctive, b u t gave a uniq u e e m p h a s i s to the i n t e r p r e t i v e
colors that cl e a r dic t i o n exer t s u p o n a voice. .
227
G a r c i a e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween
vo w e l q u a l i t y and vo i c e quali t y , and u r g e d that singers
p r a c t i c e the use of vari o u s v o i c e q u a l i t i e s wit h all vowels.
As p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, Garcia, M archesi, and Sto c k h a u s e n
e m p h a s i z e d d a rker q u a l i t i e s for asce n d i n g the scale and
b r i g h t e r qua l i t i e s for d e s c e n d i n g . This c o n c e p t e v e n tually
r e s u l t e d in Garcia's t heo r y of v owel modif i c a t i o n , w hich
g e n e r a l l y called for s l i g h t l y d a r k e n i n g the col o r of the
vo w e l s wh i l e a s cending and r e v e r s i n g the pro c e s s while d e
s cending. Mar c h e s i and S t o c k h a u s e n n o t e d the neces s i t y
for vowel m o d i f i c a t i o n and g a v e rules sim i l a r to Garcia's,
b u t did not treat the su b j e c t in detail. B a t t a i l l e may
hav e p l a n n e d to dis c u s s v o w e l s and dict i o n in one of his
l at e r works, for he n ever m e n t i o n e d e i t h e r of these areas.
A l l of the teachers gave g r e a t empha s i s to cl e a r dic t i o n
f a c i l i t a t e d by the loose ja w an d tongue freedom. They
ta u g h t that conson a n t s shou l d be c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d by
free action of the tongue w i t h o t h e r areas of the mouth,
a nd that vo w e l s shou l d be f o r m e d d e l i b e r a t e l y w h i l e f r eedom
of tongue and lower jaw is mainta i n e d .
M a r c h e s i used only the [ a j for all v o c a l i s e s until
voc a l technique was secure. Be c a u s e of its o p e n vowels
and forward consonants, It a l i a n was the fi r s t l anguage in
w h i c h her students sang. A f t e r careful, extended work with
I talian vowels, songs in o t h e r l a nguages w e r e studied.
S t o c khausen gave a m u c h g r e a t e r emp h a s i s in this a rea
than the oth e r teachers. He w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the poor
228
d i c t i o n b e i n g u s e d by c o n t e m p o r a r y singers, particularly
in the G e r m a n la n g u a g e . He u r g e d c o n c e n t r a t e d st u d y of
s p e e c h a nd d i c t i o n in co l l e g e and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s as
a foundation for s i n gers. He w as the o n l y G a r c i a
te a c h e r to t r e a t d i c t i o n as a study e l e m e n t a p a r t fr o m
singing, an e m p h a s i s w h i c h led to his v o w e l triangle.
While it w a s b a s e d on some m i s t a k e n c o n c l u s i o n s , Stock
ha u s e n ' s t r i a n g l e w as a s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e r u n n e r of the
v o w e l d i a g r a m s u s e d in c u r r e n t speech study. In c o n t r a s t
to Mar c h e s i , he u r g e d t h a t all v o wels be systematically
practised f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of a s i n ger's study. He
n o t e d t hat some v o w e l s h a v e the capa c i t y to c o r r e c t v o c a l
deficiencies a n d t h e r e f o r e was the o n l y G a r c i a t e a c h e r to
em p h a s i z e the p e d a g o g i c a l v a l u e s of c e r t a i n vowe l s . Like
wise, Stockhausen's c o n c e p t of the i n f l u e n c e of v o w e l s on
various registers was unp r e c e d e n t e d . N o n e of the o t h e r
te a chers f o u n d th i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h to be
u s e d as a t e a c h i n g a p proach, nor a t t e m p t e d to c l a s s i f y it.
B r e a t h i n g and C o o r d i n a t i o n
All of the G a r c i a t e a chers a greed t h a t p r o p e r b r e a t h
i ng s h ould be e s t a b l i s h e d f rom the o u t s e t of a s i n g e r ' s
training. They i n s i s t e d u p o n d i a p h r a g m a t i c (abdominal)
b r e a thing, costal (rib) brea t h i n g , or a c o m b i n a t i o n of the
two as the p r o p e r type of singers. B a t t a i l l e did some of
his mos t o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h in this area a n d n o t e d that
diaphragmatic-costal b r e a t h i n g r e sults in the h i g h e s t
g l o ttal effi c i e n c y . The e x e r c i s e s they r e c o m m e n d e d for the
229
a c h i e v e m e n t of p r o p e r b r e a t h i n g w e r e q u i t e simple and
were practiced apart from the s i n g i n g a c t at first. How
ever, it is a p p a r e n t that t he G a r c i a t e a c h e r s d e s i r e d tha t
c o r r e c t b r e a t h i n g b e c o m b i n e d w i t h e f f i c i e n t p h o n a t i o n as
s oon as possible. This c o o r d i n a t i o n of b r e a t h w i t h g l o t t a l
a t t a c k w as of k e y import a n c e , much more so than the a b i l i t y
to s u s t a i n long p h r a s e s . Garcia, Marchesi, and S t o c k h a u s e n
gave f r e quent r e m i n d e r s of this fact, and often provided
s u g g e s t i o n s for s t y l i s t i c b r e a t h i n g p l a c e s w i t h i n long
p h r a s e s and c o l o r a t u r a voc a l lines.
Bat t a i l l e a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d his m o s t s i n g u l a r c o n
tribution to the f i e l d of v o c a l p e d a g o g y to be his a p p r o a c h
to coordination, the "method of c o m p e n s a t i o n . " He b e l i e v e d
this m e t h o d to h a v e i m p o r t a n t and p o s i t i v e e f f ects on p h o n a
tion, intensity, a nd regi s t r a t i o n . No o t h e r Gar c i a t e a c h e r
e x p r e s s e d an a w a r e n e s s of B a t t a i l l e 's m e t h o d toward c o o r d i
nation. Marchesi insisted, h o w ever, t h a t attack, register
placement, and b r e a t h c o n t r o l be w e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d b e f o r e
b a s i c repert o i r e c o u l d be a t t e mpted. Stockhausen e m p hasiz
ed co o r d i n a t i o n of b r e a t h w i t h l a r y n x a nd the "cavity of
articula t i o n . " G a r c i a and S t o c k h a u s e n ga v e a gre a t d e a l of
emph a s i s to a final a rea of c o o r d i n a t i o n , th a t of u n i t i n g
inw a r d emotion w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s of te c h n i q u e , resulting
in b e a u t y of exp r e s s i o n .
Summation
The factors w h i c h were an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of the
p e d a g o g y o f all the teachers u nder c o n s i d e r a t i o n wer e as
f o llows :
1. A c o n c e r n w i t h phonation, well-coordinated with proper
b r e a t h i n g and b r e a t h control
2. A c o n c e r n wit h tho r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t of the vocal scale
an d the b l e nding of registers, s u f f i c i e n t for the
s tudy of bel c anto l i terature
3. A c o n s t a n t emp h a s i s upon freedom, the loose jaw,
to n g u e placement, and vocal f l e x i b i l i t y and control,
as o p p o s e d to v o l u m e of sound
4. An u n u s u a l emp h a s i s on voice q u a l i t i e s as aff e c t e d by
lar y n g e a l p o s i t i o n and m o u t h p o s i t i o n , and upo n v owel
co l o r s and th e i r influence upo n the v ocal scale as
wel l as upon voc a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
W h i l e there wer e impor t a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s in their
approaches to all of the above areas, little e v i d e n c e wa s
f o u n d t h a t the Ga r c i a teachers r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as a
"school" of vocal training. A l t h o u g h Batta i l l e , Marchesi,
an d S t o c k h a u s e n w e r e open l y d e v o t e d to the i r teacher,
t h e y a b s o r b e d i m portant influences f r o m o t h e r s o urces as
well. In addition, they all mad e t h e i r o w n i n n o v a t i o n s in
some a reas of v ocal pedagogy:
1. B a t t a i l l e did o r iginal r e s e a r c h in b r e a t h i n g and c o o r
di n a t i o n of b r e a t h w ith attack, a n d a p p l i e d his f i n d
ings to the s i nging v oice
2. Marchesi gave u n p r e c e d e n t e d emphasis to the gro u p c o n
c ept of v o c a l t r a i n i n g and p r o v i d e d v o l u m e s of e x e r c i s
es, voca l i s e s , a n d etudes for her p u p i l s
3. S t o c k h a u s e n f o u n d d i c t i o n to be an i m p o r t a n t p r i o r i t y
for study, d e v i s e d un i q u e appr o a c h e s to its study w i t h
his vow e l tr i a n g l e , and gave unus u a l e m p h a s i s to vocal
l i t e rature by e x c e r p t i n g phr a s e s from s t a n d a r d w orks
for the stu d y o f t ech n i q u e by his singers
Furthermore, th ere w e r e o b vious p e d a g o g i c a l d i s
agreem e n t s am o n g M a r c h e s i and B a t t a i l l e a n d Stockhausen,
if no t open rival r y . M a r c h e s i d e n o u n c e d the open glottis
atta c k and the t w o - r e g i s t e r theo r y of Battai l l e . Ba t t a i l l e
w as critical of the solfeggio, w h i c h M a r c h e s i and S t o c k
hausen both a d v o c a t e d . Stoc k h a u s e n p o i n t e d l y d i s a g r e e d
w i t h Mar c h e s i 's u s e of the [ei'J as a f o u n d a t i o n a l vo w e l to
be studied b e f o r e al l others, and of he r a t t e m p t s to
d ivide students b y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s into c o n c e r t and o pera
classes. It m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t that all of these areas
of disagr e e m e n t w e r e not cred i t a b l e to a p a r t i c u l a r
principle of G a r c i a himself, but were innovations institut
ed by each teacher.
Recommendations for F u r t h e r S t u d y
While this s t u d y has p r o v i d e d some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n
c erning the t r a d i t i o n a l approa c h e s to v o c a l teaching which
may have in f l u e n c e d G a r c i a and his s tudents, a more
t horough study of thi s tradit i o n a l h e r i t a g e m a y be
232
re w a rding. As sources b e c o m e available, such a st u d y m i g h t
possibly include the t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s of Tosi, Porpora,
Garcia's father, M a nuel del P o p o l o Vi c e n t e Garcia, and
P a u l i n e Via r d o t - G a r c i a , as w e l l as the yo u n g e r Garcia.
A r e l a t e d study mig h t i n clude an i ntensive c o m p a r a t i v e
st u d y of the e x e rcises and v o c a l i s e s u sed by tea c h e r s of
the p e r i o d to d e t ermine the s p e c i f i c e x ercises and types
o f e x e r c i s e s w h i c h wer e p a s s e d d o w n the g e n e r a t i o n line.
Su c h a stu d y could also be m ade of the exerc i s e s and
vo c a l i s e s of the Garc i a teachers, Battaille, S t o c k hausen,
a n d Marchesi. A third are a for future study c o n c e r n s
p e r f o r m a n c e practice. Garcia, Marc h e s i , and S t o c k h a u s e n
de v o t e d m u c h of their w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l to d e t a i l e d s u g
g e s t i o n s for style and v ocal p e r f o r m a n c e p r a c t i c e in the
bel canto period. A detailed s tudy of this f a ctor w o u l d
sure l y reap i m p ortant rewards, p a r t i c u l a r l y for the p e r
forma n c e of the vocal m u s i c of Rossini, Bellini, and
Donizetti. A final area m a y be of some interest. The r e
m a y be more substance to the d i s a g r e e m e n t s a b o u t v o c a l
tr a i n i n g and hints of riv a l r y b e t w e e n the Garc i a t e a chers
as di s c o v e r e d in this project. A study of the w r i t i n g s
and, if available, of the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of t hese teachers,
m a y y ield some i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c l u s i o n s co n c e r n i n g the
i n t r a - p r o f e s s i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h may h a v e bee n
theirs. In a ddition to disagr e e m e n t s , such a study m i g h t
u n c o v e r t eaching appr o a c h e s w h i c h m a y have b een shar e d
b e t w e e n these teachers.
SEL E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y
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233
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et d i c t i o n n a i r e du c o n s e r v a t o i r e . 11 vols ^ Paris;
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v o c a l e et a uditive tec h n i q u e v o c a l e et i n s t r u m e n t a l .
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Taylor
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Co., 1895. Vol. 2, 208-210.
APPENDIX I
T R A N S L A T I O N OF T H E RE P O R T ON G A RCIA'S
M E M O I R E SUR LE VOIX H U M A I N E ^
P H Y S I O L O G I E — Re p o r t on the Thesis on the H u m a n V o i c e ,
prese n t e d to the A c a d e m y of Sciences by M a n u e l Garcia.
(Commissioners: Magendie, Savary, Dutrochet; reported
by ênrij Dutrochet.)
The A c a d e m y nas c h a r g e d Messr==. M agendie, Savary,
and myself w i t h re p o r t i n g on a t r eatise w h i c h has b e e n p r e
sented by Ma n u e l Garcia, e n t i t l e d Thesis on the H u m a n
Voice. The state of h e a l t h of Mr. S avary has not p e r m i t
ted hi m to be a p a r t of the commission. We also re g r e t
the death of Mr. Savart, w h o h ad also joined us, an d to
w h o m we have b e e n i n d e b t e d for his o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h in
acoustics. He was w i t h us w h e n we w i t n e s s e d the e vents
w h i c h we have the h o n o r of r e p o r t i n g to the A cademy.
The t heory of the fo r m a t i o n of v a rious sounds by
the human vocal o r g a n is incomplete. This t h e o r y has yet
to be r e conciled w i t h the type of i n s t r u m e n t to w h i c h the
appeared in Comptes rendus h e b d o m a d a i r e s des sean c e s de

L'Académie des sciences 12 (1841): 638-644.
243
h u m a n v ocal o r g a n o u g h t to be compared. Ne a r l y all
physicists re g a r d it as b e l o n g i n g to the type of w i n d
i n s t r u m e n t in w h i c h the sound is g e n e r a t e d by the
v i b r a t i o n s of c e r t a i n sol i d and e l astic bodies. On the
o t h e r hand, Sa v a r t h a d c o m p a r e d the voc a l o r g a n to the
f l u t e - t y p e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d by h u nters to i m itate the song
o f c e r t a i n birds, in w h i c h the sound is solely g e n e r a t e d
b y v i b r a t i o n s of the air w h i c h b ounce off the w a l l s of a
cavity, or w h i c h are b r o k e n on the edge of a b o a r d . ^
In spite of the a u t h o r i t y whi c h d e s e r v e d l y b e l o n g s
to o ur c o l l e a g u e in a c o u s t i c a l matters, it m u s t be not e d
t h a t his theory of v o i c e has g a t h e r e d f e w followers.
F u r thermore, we a d v i s e d h i m to revise an d c o m p l e t e his
th e o r y a few days b e f o r e his death. It is hop e d that
som e traces of this r e v i s i o n w i l l be fou n d in his papers,
w h i c h will not fail to be of g r e a t interest.
H o w e v e r that m a y be, the v ocal o r g a n is so p e r f e c t
a n d has such m a r v e l o u s a n d d i v e r s e abilities, t h a t one is
t e m p t e d to b e l i e v e tha t it is not a si n g l e i n s trument, but
r a t h e r that we e n j o y the admi r a b l e p r i v i l e g e of c o n t i n u a l l y
t r a n s f o r m i n g it into a m u l t i t u d e of d i f f e r e n t i n struments.
L e t us obs e r v e it, for example, in the c h e s t r egister, or
l et us see it e x e r c i s e d in the falsetto. C ould it not be
sai d that two types of r e g isters are p r o d u c e d by two
The latt e r r e f e r e n c e is a p p a r e n t l y to the type of

edge tones p r o d u c e d by flue o rgan pipes, as d e s c r i b e d in
Helmholtz, 88-92; and C h a r l e s A. Culver, M u s i c a l A c o u s t i c s
(New York: McG r a w - H i l l , 1956), 184-186.
244
instruments which are substituted one for the other? In
the meantime, we remain unsuccessful in determining the
differences which undoubtedly exist in the mechanism of
production of these two sorts of voice, which possess
such contrasting qualities. Yet it is certain that they
are completely distinct parts of the voice. In fac t , in
the area of the junction of these two voices, or registers,
that location where the lowest pitches of the falsetto
give way to the highest pitches of the full voice, there
are several pitches which may be produced by employing
either of these two voices. This fact, well known to
singers, has been acknowledged in p h y s i o l o g i c a l science
only in the last few years. It is set forth for the first
time in the work of Dr. Rusch entitled Philosophie de la
voix humaine, a portion of which has been translated into
English by Dr.- Bennati. "It is not difficult to imagine,"
writes Rusch, "that a part of the scale of this type of
voice (the falsetto) lies between the last pitches of the
natural voice (the chest voice) and the highest pitch
which one is capable of producing. In this sort of produc
tion, a type of falsetto may be formed a little below the
point where lies the natural voice."
The facts which have been submitted to us by Manuel
Garcia have clearly confirmed this assertion. This skill
ful teacher of singing has trained some students to
maneuver their voices with sufficient facility, in o r d e r
that the sounds which derive from the falsetto may be
245
sep a r a t e d w i l l f u l l y a n d d i s t i n c t l y from those w h i c h
d e r i v e f r o m the full voice. T h erefore, after h a v i n g b e e n
t aken to t h e i r h i g h e s t diato n i c p i t c h in full voice, the
v oic e s of m e n and w o m e n can be e x t e n d e d by u s i n g the
f alsetto to r a i s e t h e m higher. The y can then d e s c e n d
d i a t o n i c a l l y , a l ways in falsetto, until a certain d i s
tance b e l o w the li m i t w h e r e the full voi c e o r d i n a r i l y
occurs. In this way, the same d i a t o n i c pitc h e s w h i c h
wou l d have b e e n p r o d u c e d in a s c e n d i n g by the full vo i c e
are p r o d u c e d b y d e s c e n d i n g in falsetto. Furth e r m o r e , we
have hea r d a sing l e s i n g e r p r o d u c e a l t e r n a t e l y and at
wil l the same p i t c h w i t h both full voi c e and falsetto,
thus p r o d u c i n g p a r a l l e l pitches in two voices. The e x
tent of the p i t c h a r e a h eld in c o m m o n by the two voices,
or registers, of c h e s t and falsetto, is v a r i a b l e a c c o r d
ing to i n d i v i d u a l s and acc o r d i n g to the i r facility,
w hi c h more or less e a s i l y gives t h e m the opt i o n a l use
of one or the o t h e r r e g i s t e r in the m i d d l e of the voice.
While this a r e a u s u a l l y e n c o m p a s s e s a s ixth to an octave,
it may s o m etimes e x t e n d to a tenth. According to Garcia,
this area c o m m o n to two regis t e r s is l o c a t e d on the same
pitches for b o t h m e n and women.
According to th e s e facts, it c a n n o t be d o u b t e d
that the full or c h e s t v oice and the f a l s e t t o m u s t e ach be
the prod u c t of an i m p o r t a n t and u n i q u e m o d i f i c a t i o n of
the m e c h a n i s m of the v ocal instrument. This c o n c l u s i o n is
further c o n f i r m e d b y an o b s e r v a t i o n of G a r c i a w h i c h
246
particularly impressed our colleague, Savart, who, like
us, witnessed it. In o r d e r to produce the same pitch in
the part of the diatonic scale which is common to both
registers, the full voice and the falsetto must employ a
quantity of air or breath which is nowhere near the same.
Garcia demonstrated this fact to us with the following
experiment. Having filled his lungs with as much air as
possible, a singer produced in full voice a certain pitch
chosen from the pitch area common to both registers, and
he prolonged this vocal sound until the air in his lungs
was exhausted. The pendulum of a metronome served, by its
oscillations, to indicate the duration of the sound.
Having refilled his lungs, the singer next produced the
same pitch in falsetto and sustained it for as long as
possible. From these comparative experiments, repeated
several times, we noted twenty-four to twenty-six
oscillations of the p e n d u l u m during the duration of the
pitch in full voice, whereas there were only sixteen to
eighteen oscillations while the falsetto was p r o d u c e d .^
This experiment proves that, in p r o d u c t i o n of the
same pitch and in a gi v e n time, the vocal instrument dis
penses more air in producing the falsetto than in produc
ing the full voice or chest voice.
^ D u t r o c h e t 's r e p o r t c o n t a i n s n o i n f o r m a t i o n c o n
c e r n i n g specific pitches, vowels, and m e t r o n o m i c settings
w h i c h w e r e u s e d in th is e x p e r i m e n t .
247
According to the c o m m o n o p i n i o n of a r t ists, the
f alsetto v o i c e forms a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i s t e r w h i c h d i f f e r s
from the r e g i s t e r b e l o n g i n g to the c h est voice, which lies
b e l o w it, and f r o m the h e a d voice, w h i c h lies a b o v e it.
Garcia, however, does n o t a d m i t to this opinion. He
considers the f a l setto v o i c e a nd the hea d vo i c e to b e l o n g
to the same register, u s i n g the same m e c h a n i s m f o r the
p r o d u c t i o n of sounds t h r o u g h o u t its extent. In this re
gard, he draws his o p i n i o n from the fact that the fal
setto and he a d v o i c e p r e s e n t a p e r f e c t and u n c h a n g i n g
continuity. The r e are no a d j a c e n t n o tes he r e w h i c h c an
be p r o d u c e d a l t e r n a t e l y b y one or the o t h e r of t h e s e two
voices, as there are in r e g a r d to the t r a n s i t i o n o f the
chest voi c e to the falsetto. Cons e q u e n t l y , this latter
voice and the h e a d voice b e l o n g to the same regis t e r ,
which Gar c i a d e s i g n a t e s the f a l s e t t o -h e a d regis t e r .
It is g e n e r a l l y k n o w n that w h e n the h u m a n v o i c e
ascends f rom l ow to high, as m u c h in ch e s t v o i c e as in
f a l setto-h e a d , the l a rynx g r a d u a l l y rises. This gradual
ascension of the l arynx has be e n r e g a r d e d as b e i n g in
fluential on the p r o g r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the h i g h e r
pitches, since it resu l t s in the g r a d u a l s h o r t e n i n g of
the vocal tract. Several p h y s i o l o g i s t s hav e d o u b t e d
this s h o r tening of the v o c a l t r a c t a c t u a l l y has the in
fluence a t t r i b u t e d to it, p a r t i c u l a r l y to the e x t e n t of
high vocal pitches. We do not int e n d to be o c c u p i e d
here with t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s tions. Our task is to e s t a b l i s h
248
facts, and w i t h i n the r e a l m of facts the art of son g has
b e e n p r e s e n t e d to us anew. H e r e are those facts of w h i c h
it consists;
The full vo i c e and the falsetto, each s e e m i n g to
reta i n t heir p a r t i c u l a r m o d e of production, can each
p r o d u c e two pri n c i p l e v a r i e t i e s of timbre w h i c h G a r c i a
has d e s i g n a t e d as timbre cl a i r a nd timbre s o m b r e . Th e s e
two vo c a l timb r e s have h e r e t o f o r e bee n d e s i g n a t e d by
a r tists as v o i x blan c h e ^hite voicej and v o i x s o m b r e e
[somber v o i c e ] . In the p r o d u c t i o n of timbre c l a i r or
timbre s o m b r e , ei t h e r in c h e s t vo i c e or f a l s e t t o -h e a d ,
some ver y re m a r k a b l e a l t e r a t i o n s of the larynx and soft
pala t e are manife s t e d . Here are the facts w h i c h G a r c i a
has all o w e d us to w i t n e s s :
In the d i a t o n i c p r o d u c t i o n of pitc h e s f r o m lo w to
hi g h w i t h the t i mbre c l a i r , in full or chest v o i c e as
well as in f a l s etto-head, a c o n t i n u a l and g r a d u a l a s c e n s i o n
of the lary n x is observed. The soft p a l a t e is t h e r e f o r e
cons t a n t l y lowered. This is n o t the case, however, when the
voice passes to timbre s o m b r e .
In the full or ch e s t v o i c e p r o d u c e d w i t h this ti m b r e
s o m b r e , w h i l e as c e n d i n g fro m the lowe s t notes of this r e
gister to the h i g h e s t not e s p r o p e r to it, the l a r y n x r e
mains c o n s t a n t l y fixed in its lo w e s t p o s i t i o n an d the soft
palate is raised. It is the same in the p r o d u c t i o n of the
lowest p a r t of the false t t o in timbre s o m b r e , o r of th o s e
pitches w h i c h can be e q u a l l y p r o d u c e d in the full vo i c e .
However, w h e n the singer, s till u s i n g timb r e s o m b r e ,
passes fro m the h i g h e s t part of the f a l s e t t o to that
are a e s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n a t e d b y a r t i s t s as the v o i x de
tete IJiead voicej, the larynx r ises slightly, b u t not
as m u c h as w h e n the voix de tete is p r o d u c e d w i t h
timbre c l a i r . In o r d e r to m a k e the c o m m i s s i o n e r s aware
of this dis t i n c t i o n , some of G a r c i a ' s students, wh o were
trai n e d to p r o d u c e the timbre c l a i r a n d the timbre
sombre at will, d e m o n s t r a t e d some scal e s in f alsetto in
w h i c h each p i t c h was a l t e r n a t e l y p r o d u c e d in timbre clair
a n d t i mbre s o m b r e . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n these two
qu a l i t i e s w a s then p e r f e c t l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , the one
be i n g r i n g i n g and the other dull. In addition, we could
see the l a r y n x f ixed in a r a i s e d p o s i t i o n for the p r o d u c
tion of a c e r t a i n p i t c h in t i m b r e c l a i r and desc e n d c o n
si d e r a b l y for the p r o d u c t i o n o f this same p itch in timbre
sombre. W e w e r e a l l o w e d to f o l l o w this alt e r n a t e a s c e n
sion and d e s c e n s i o n of the l a r y n x w i t h b o t h the eye and
the fingers.
These o b s e r v a t i o n s are n o t c o m p l e t e l y ne w to the
ph y s i o l o g y of voice.
In fact, on 1 June 1 8 4 0 , ^ D i d a y a n d Pe t r e q u i n p r e
sented a thes i s to the A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
the p h y s i o l o g i c a l s tudy of the v o i x s o m b r e e , a p a r t i c u l a r
D u t r o c h e t n otes here t h a t G a r c i a ' s thesis wa s n ot

pr e s e n t e d to the A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s u n t i l 16 N o v e m b e r
1840.
250
voice which has been known for onl y three years in
France, where it was imported from Italy by a celebrated
artist associated with our first lyric production.^ In
their thesis is recorded the physiological fact of the
low fixed larynx position for the diatonic production of
all pitches in chest voice, voix sombree. However,
these writers have not followed the phenomena which
this same timbre sombre presents in the falsetto. They
have even apparently considered the timbre sombre to
affect only the chest voice. Garcia may therefore claim
a part in the observation of the m e c h a n i s m w h i c h controls
the voix sombree. This mechanism has demonstrated that,
in the full or chest voice, as well as in the falsetto
or head voice, the human vocal organ may produce the same
scales using different lengths of the vocal tract, result
ing in a change of timbre. Consequently, the different
lengths of this tract do not necessarily determine all
the pitches formerly attributed to them, and these same
differences in vocal tract length always coincide with the
existence of either timbre clair or timbre sombre in the
This r e f e r e n c e is appar e n t l y to G i l b e r t Duprez,

(1806-1896), w h o a d o p t e d the voi x s ombree a nd used it in
Napl e s in 1835, and t h e n in Paris in R o s s i n i ' s Gu i l l a u m e
T e l l , 17 A pril 1837. See p. 50; G r o v e 's , 5th ed., s.v.
"D u p r e z , G i l bert," by G u stave Chouquet; a n d H e n r y Pleasants,
The G reat Singers; F r o m the Dawn of O p e r a to O u r Own Time
(New York: S imon and Schuster, 1966), 165-170.
In a d d ition to the two p r i n c i p l e ti m b r e s d e s i g n a t e d
as t imbre clair a nd timbre s o m b r e , there are seve r a l o t h e r
timb r e s , such as, for example, gutteral timbre, nasal
timbre, a nd so forth. G a rcia has e n d e a v o r e d to d e t e r m i n e
t h e m e c h a n i c a l condit i o n s of these timbres. We w i l l say
n o t h i n g in regard to these, since w e h ave n o t v e r i f i e d
Garcia's assertions.
In the h u man voice, there s o m e t i m e s exi s t s a lower
r egister, comp r i s i n g the l owest not e s w h i c h can b e p r o d u c e d
in ch e s t voice by the b a s s o p r o fondo. This register, cal l e d
t he c o n t rabass reg i s t e r b y Garcia, has still n o t been
o b s e r v e d in its full e s t extent, as found w i t h some singers
o f re l i g i o u s chant in Russia. D o c t o r Be n n a t i w as the first
to m a k e n ote of this to p h y s i o l o g i s t s . The p i t c h e s of
th i s register u n d o u b t e d l y b e l o n g to a v o c a l i n s t r u m e n t sui
g e n e r i s , very d i f f e r e n t from the one to w h i c h b e l o n g the
p i t c h e s of the c h est voice. In the l o w e s t not e s of this
l a t t e r v o ice or register, the l a r y n x is l o w e r e d b e l o w its
p o s i t i o n of rest. O n the contrary, for the p i t c h e s of the
c o n t r a b a s s register w h i c h lie e ven lower, the l a r y n x is
c a r r i e d to its g r e a t e s t e l e v a t i o n possi b l e . G a r c i a has
This mat e r i a l a p p a r e n t l y ref e r s to a m i d - n i n e t e e n t h

t h e o r y that the v o ice c h a nges pi t c h by f l u c t u a t i o n of
la r y n x position, th e r e b y l e n g t h e n i n g and s h o r t e n i n g the
v o c a l tract. Ba t t a i l l e re f e r r e d to this t h e o r y as well:
" M a i s , l^habile^p h y s i o l o g i s t e p r e t e n d que la l o n g e u r de
la t r a c h e e - - artere ou p o r t e — ve n t inf l u e sur 1 'elevation
o u 1 ' abaissement du son, ce qui est une erre u r . " See
B a ttaille, N o uvelles r e c h e r c h e s , 55.
252
dem o n s t r a t e d for us a v e r y low and ra u c o u s s ound in this
regis t e r w h i c h is m o r e like the growl of an anim a l t h a n
the sound of the h uman voice. H owever, one of us has
bee n able to s tudy the c o n t r a b a s s v o i c e of the R u s s i a n
singer Yvanoff, w ho can d e s c e n d as far as g o f the
o cta v e be l o w the o r d i n a r y b a s s o . ^ A l t h o u g h this note
was infini t e l y sup e r i o r in q u a l i t y of sound to the n o i s e
p r o d u c e d by Garcia, it w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t to int r o d u c e
it into chant.
A c c o r d i n g to this a c c o u n t it is e a s i l y seen t h a t
one m e c h a n i s m cann o t e x p l a i n the f o r m a t i o n of all the
mus i c a l sounds that can be p r o d u c e d b y the h u m a n v o c a l
organ. This o r g a n can t r u l y be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g a l o n e
ca pable of r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s s e m b l y of i nstruments, dif
f erent one from the other, a nd c a p a b l e of m y s t e r i o u s
m o d i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h o c c u r and are e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h an
admir a b l e s peed a c c o r d i n g to the w i l l of the e x p e r i e n c e d
singer. Further m o r e , if we ce a s e to c o n s i d e r the v o c a l
org a n as a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a nd c o n s i d e r all of the
non-mu s i c a l sounds w h i c h it can p r o d u c e th r o u g h v a r i e t i e s
of a r ticulation, thro u g h the i m i t a t i o n of c e r t a i n n o ises,
or the cries of ce r t a i n animals, etc., one ca n o n l y be
p r o f o u n d l y a s t o n i s h e d at the m u l t i p l i c i t y of m e c h a n i c a l
a l t e rations of w h i c h this organ, so simple in its stru c t u r e ,
is capable.
^The r e f e r e n c e h e r e is p r o b a b l y to Gy.
253
In summary, w e be l i e v e that Garcia, w i t h his w i s d o m
and w i t h the a c c u r a c y of his o b s e r v a t i o n s as p r o f e s s o r of
singing, has seen a n d d e s c r i b e d several i n t e r e s t i n g facts
in h is thesis. It w i l l be n e c e s s a r y for us to k e e p an
a c c o u n t of the s e facts as a p a r t of the p h y s i o l o g i c a l
t h e o r y of the h u m a n voice. We have the h o n o r of p r e s e n t
ing this thesis to the A c a d e m y w i t h our satisfaction,.
The c o n c l u s i o n s of this r e port w e r e adopt e d .
APPENDIX II
T R A N S L A T I O N OF A N E X T R A C T F R O M B A T T A I L L E ' S
NO U V E L L E S R E C H E R C H E S ^
PAPER PRESENTED
P H Y S I O L O G I E - New Res e a r c h in P h o n a t i o n ; by C h a r l e s Ba t t a i l l e
(Extract by the author.)
(C o m m i s s i o n e r s : F l o u r e n s , M i l n e Edwards, Bernard, Longet.)
If .he p h e n o m e n a of all sorts, r e v e a l e d in the
t hes i s w h i c h I h a v e the h o n o r of s u b m i t t i n g to the A c a d e m y ' s
j udgem e n t , are e x a m i n e d at a g l a n c e and in the i r entirety,
they will be seen to be g r o u p e d into three a reas w h i c h are
fundamentals, c o rrelatives, and d i r e c t e s s e n t i a l s for the
p r o d u c t i o n of the hum a n voice. These three phen o m e n a ,
w h i c h can be ca l l e d the voc a l t r i p o d , are: the t e n s i o n of
the v o c a l folds, the p o s t e r i o r o c c l u s i o n of the glottis,
a nd the c u r r e n t of p h o n a t o r y air. These p h e n o m e n a are
essentials and cor r e l a t i v e s to such an e x t e n t that, if one
is absent, p h o n a t i o n is imp o s s i b l e .
T r a n s l a t e d by the w r i t e r from the e x t r a c t w h i c h

a p p e a r e d in C o mptes rendus h e b d o m a d a i r e s des séa n c e s de
L ' A c a d é m i e des sciences 52 (1861), 716-722. C o m m e n t s and
c o m p a r i s o n s of this mat e r i a l w i t h c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h are
i n c l u d e d in the di s c u s s i o n of B a t t a i l l e 's w o r k in
C h a p t e r III, pp. 79-114.
255
I realize, and have so stated, that seme p itches
can be p r o d u c e d u s i n g t e n s i o n an d air curr e n t alone, w i t h
the g l o t t i s sli g h t l y open in its length. But, accor d i n g
to my re c o l l e c t i o n , the r e s u l t thus o b t a i n e d is al m o s t
a p h o n i a an d is re s t r i c t e d to a v e r y limi t e d series of
p i t c h e s w h i c h are so l a bored t h a t t hey m a y be c o n s i d e r e d to
be o u t s i d e of the act of p h o n a t i o n . H e n c eforth, I will
d i v i d e m y gene r a l conclu s i o n s into three sections, succes
si v e l y set a part accor d i n g to the te n s i o n of the vocal
f o l d s , the p o s t e r i o r o c c l u s i o n o f the g l o t t i s , a n d the
c u r r e n t of p h o n a t o r y a i r , and I w i l l summa r i z e e a c h of
these t hree p h e n o m e n a from two p e r s p e c t i v e s : the m e c h a n i s m
which produces t h e m and the r e s u l t s i s s u i n g f r o m this
m e chanism.
I. Tension of the V o c a l Folds
A. Generating m e c h a n i s m ; The ten s i o n of the vocal
f olds s i m u l t a n e o u s l y occurs in a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r and
lateral d i r ections.
The causes of a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r t e n s i o n lie in the
cricoid, thyroid, and a r y t e n o i d cartil a g e s , in the a r t i c u l a
tions b e t w e e n these cartilages, an d in the c r i c o t h y r o i d
a nd p o s t e r i o r aryt e n o i d m u s cles. In fact, the v o c a l folds
are s t r e t c h e d b e t w e e n the t h y r o i d a n d the a r y t enoids; but,
since the a r y t e n o i d s are fixed to the cricoid, which
c arries t h e m in its movements, it is a c t u a l l y w i t h the aid
of the thyr o i d and the c r i c o i d t h a t the a r y t e n o i d s r e ceive
256
nin e - t e n t h s of t h e i r l o n g i t u d i n a l tension. The
c r i c o t h y r o i d a r t i c u l a t i o n a l lows a r o c k i n g mot i o n by
wh i c h the thyroid, c a r r y i n g w i t h it, o n its p o s t e r i o r
part, the a r y t e n o i d s and the vocal folds w h i c h are
att a c h e d to them. F o r its part, the c r i c o a r y t e n o i d
art i c u l a t i o n p e r m i t s some ob l i q u e m o v e m e n t s of the a r y t e n o i d s ,
fro m front to b a c k a nd f rom inside to outside, which u n iform
ly cause an a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r tension. The c r i c o t h y r o i d
muscles, r u n n i n g f r o m b o t t o m to top a n d d i s p o s e d in
fasiculi of u n e q u a l length, b r i n g a b o u t the rock i n g moti o n ,
e i ther in one m o v e m e n t or gradually. F o r t h eir part, the
posterior arytenoid muscles slightly p u l l the a r ytenoids
in b a c k and fix the vo c a l folds posteri o r l y . Nev e r t h e l e s s ,
it mu s t be said that, in this c i r c u mstance, the p r i n c i p l e
goal of these m u s c l e s is to s t a bilize the arytenoids.
The causes of the d i f f e r e n t la t e r a l tensions in the
sub-glottal a nd the v e n t r i c u l a r regions of the vocal folds:
In reg a r d to the sub-g l o t t a l region, if it is r e c a l l
ed that the vo c a l m e m b r a n e is v ery s o l i d l y fixed to the
superior edge of the cricoid, and that lo n g i t u d i n a l tension
gives a c ertain fix i t y to the free b o r d e r of the vo c a l
folds, it w ill be u n d e r s t o o d h o w the i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n
b e t ween these two points, c a u s e d to b e c o m e con v e x by the
r i g idity of the f a s i c u l a r pl a n e or the h o r i z o n t a l p o r t i o n
of the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d m uscles, sustains a te n s i o n w h i c h is
v erified by l a r y n g o s c o p i c observation.
257
The v e n t r i c u l a r re g i o n is t e n s e d in the follo w i n g
manner: the int e r n a l o b lique or a r c i f o r m f i b e r s of the
th y r o a r y t e n o i d s b ecome mor e r e c t i l i n e a r tha n curved,
d e v e l o p in the m a n n e r of a fan, a nd d r a w the fixed
membrane inwardly from the sup e r i o r b o r d e r o f the f a s icular
plane, which is tensed longi t u d i n a l l y , to the free border
of the folds.
B. Res u l t s :
1. The vo c a l folds are s t r e t c h e d in l e n g t h and in
width.
2. The longi t u d i n a l tens i o n and the e x t e r n a l lateral
te n s i o n o r v e n t r i c u l a r t e n s i o n alwa y s take place. The
internal lat e r a l tension or s u b - g l o t t a l t e n s i o n m a y d i s a p
pea r and, as a m a t t e r of fact, does d i s a p p e a r in the fal
setto r e g ister,
3. Tot a l or par t i a l ten s i o n p l a c e s the lig a m e n t s in
a s tate of vibrat i o n .
4. Si n c e it may be i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d by p e r c e p
tible gradat i o n s , (this tension) permits the folds to
en g e n d e r all the pitc h e s of the h u m a n voice, f r o m low to
high, and recipro c a l l y .
5. While in c r e a s i n g a nd d e c r e a s i n g , (this tension)
may, for its p a r t , c o m p e n s a t e the e f f e c t s of i n t e n s i t y or
we a k n e s s of the air c u r r e n t a n d p e r m i t the i n c r e a s e or
d e c r e a s e o f the force of s o u n d on e a c h d e g r e e of the
vocal scale.
258
II. P o s t e r i o r O c c l u s i o n of the G l ottis
A. Generating Mechanism:
The g l o t t i s is closed in the r e a r in its inter c a r -
t i l a g i n o u s p o r t i o n and in a c e r t a i n a r e a of its i n t e r l i g a -
m e n t o u s por t i o n .
The o c c l u s i o n of the i n t e r c a r t i l a g i n o u s glottis
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e sults f r o m the a r t i c u l a t i o n of the ar y
te noids w i t h the cricoid, from the c o n f o r m a t i o n of the i n
ternal s u r f a c e s o f the ary t e n o i d s , and f r o m the action of
the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d , lateral c r i c o a r y t e n o i d , and p o s t e r i o r
ar y t e n o i d mus c l e s .
The c r i c o a r y t e n o i d a r t i c u l a t i o n p e r m i t s the ar y
te noids an o b l i q u e m o v e m e n t f r o m o u t s i d e to insi d e and
fro m f ront to back, w h i c h br i n g s th e i r b a s e s together,
allowing them a rotational movement about themselves
w h i c h g r a d u a l l y a f f r o n t s t heir v o c a l p r o c e s s e s . The in
ternal s u r f a c e s of the a rytenoids, s l i g h t l y c o n v e x from
top to bott o m , p e r m i t these c a r t i l a g e s to be a f f r o n t e d
ve r y c l o s e l y and gradually, e i t h e r by the i n f e r i o r third,
or by the s u p e r i o r two-thirds, o f th e s e int e r n a l surfaces.
The t h y r o a r y t e n o i d and lateral c r i c o a r y t e n o i d m u s c l e s
cau s e p r o g r e s s i v e a f f r o ntement. The t r a n s v e r s e and
oblique arytenoid muscles determine the e n t i r e l y p o s t e r i o r
a f f r o n t e m e n t of the arytenoids. If this a f f r o n t e m e n t takes
p l a c e by the i n f e r i o r t h i r d of the internal s u r f a c e s of the
a rytenoids, it is due to the i n f e r i o r h o r i z o n t a l fibers of
259
the thyroarytenoids, to the internal and m i d d l e fibers of
the lateral c r i c o a r y t e n o i d s , and to the infer i o r fibers of
the transverse arytenoids. If it takes pla c e by the
s uperior t w o-thirds of the a b o v e - n a m e d surfaces, it is p r o
duced by the i n t ernal and exter n a l obli q u e fibers of the
t h yr oarytenoids, by the m i d d l e and e x t ernal fibers of the
l ateral c r i c o a r y t e n o i d s , by the m i d d l e and sup e r i o r fibers
of the t r a n sverse a ryt enoids, by the obl i q u e arytenoids,
a nd by the small thyro ar y t e n o i d s . The p a r t i a l o c c l u s i o n
of the i n t e r l i g a m e n t o u s g l o t t i s is due to the super i o r
h ori z o n t a l fibers of the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d mu s c l e s i n s e r t e d on
t he free b o r d e r of the v o c a l ligaments.
B. Results ;
1. The glottis m a y be c l o s e d in the rea r in all its
i nte r c a r t i l a g i n o u s p o r t i o n and in a c e r t a i n are a of its
inter l i g a m e n t o u s portion.
2. This o c c l u s i o n m a y g r a d u a l l y inc r e a s e or decrease.
3. It expands or less e n s the are a of the v i b r a t i n g
surface and t h ereby c o i n c i d e s w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n of low
or high pitches.
4. By increa s i n g and decreasing, it may, for its part,
compensate the e f fects of s t r e n g t h or w e a k n e s s of air
current and a l l o w the i n c r e a s e or dec r e a s e of in t e n s i t y of
sound on each degr e e of the v ocal scale.
5. The p r o g r e s s i v e a f f r o n t i n g of the a r y t e n o i d s ma y
sometimes oc c u r to the e x t e n t of the inf e r i o r third of the
internal ary t e n o i d surfaces, which happens in the c h e s t
register, and s o m e t i m e s to the exte n t of the superior two-
thirds of these surfaces, as h a p p e n s in falsetto register.
III. C u r r e n t of P h o n a t o r y Ai r
Air, d rawn by i n h a l a t i o n into the chest and b r o u g h t
w i t h a certain force a g a i n s t the v ocal ligaments, w h i c h
are pr e v i o u s l y stretched, brings a bout vocal production.
I wil l not d e s c r i b e here the r e s p i r a t o r y mec h a n i s m used
for phonation, se e i n g tha t it r e q u i r e s a study w hich is
a c t u a l l y outside the p u r p o s e of this paper. I will c o n
tent my s e l f w i t h sett i n g forth the results:
1. The p a s s a g e of an air c u r r e n t w h i c h p o s sesses a
d e s i r e d intensity and w h i c h e n c o u n t e r s the vocal folds,
w h i c h are a p p r o x i m a t e d and tensed, caus e s them to ent e r
into vibration.
2. The i ncrease in i n t e n s i t y of the air current m a y
coi n c i d e with the e l e v a t i o n of pitch, w h i c h is due to the
te nsion of the folds.
3. For the same pitch, the inc r e a s e in intensity of
the air current caus e s a w e a k e r t e n s i o n of the folds a n d a
grea t e r opening o f the g l o t t i s in the rear.
4. Stretched in all d i r e c t i o n s , the folds vibrate
in the mann e r of m e m b r a n e s s t r e t c h e d in all directions.
5. The inten s i t y of the s o u n d and the amplitude of
the vibrations are in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n to the i ntensity
of the air current.
261
Di v e r s e Con s i d e r a t i o n s
F a s c i c u l a t i o n of mu s c l e s ; I cannot e m p h a s i z e enough
the d i s p o s i t i o n in fas c i c l e s common to all i n t r i n s i c m u scles
of the larynx. I believe that a co m p l e t e e n o u g h knowl e d g e
(of this factor) can n o t be had. (This fasiculation) is the
c e r t a i n c a use of the m a r v e l o u s fa c u l t y w h i c h the h u man
voice p o s s e s s e s to r a p i d l y sing th r o u g h the s m a l l e s t i n ter
vals of the v o c a l scale and to ch a r m the e ar by the rapid
c o n n e c t i o n o f the m o s t se p a r a t e d pitches. Moreo v e r , it
plays an i m p o r t a n t role in the p r o d u c t i o n of the c h e s t and
falsetto r e gisters.
Dou b l e e m p l o y m e n t of m uscles : The i n t r i n s i c m uscles
all ha v e the c o m m o n p u r p o s e of m o v i n g the c a r t i l a g e s of the
larynx. Therefore, on the one hand, the p o s t e r i o r c r i c o
a ryt e n o i d s sep a r a t e the ar y t e n o i d s w h i c h are b r o u g h t together
b y the p o s t e r i o r aryten o i d s , the la t e r a l cricoaryt e n o i d s ,
and the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d s ; moreover, these t h ree mu s c l e s
c ause the a r y t e n o i d s to p i v o t on themselves. The c r i c o
thyroids c a use the c r i c o i d to rock. On the o t h e r hand, the
t h y r o a r y t e n o i d s are us e d to s tretch the v o c a l folds in
width, u s i n g t h e i r s u b - g l o t t a l and v e n t r i c u l a r fibers, and
the c r i c o t h y r o i d s u n i t e w i t h the p o s t e r i o r a r y t e n o i d s to
deter m i n e a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r t ension of the folds.
A p p l i c a t i o n of o b s e r v e d facts to the p r i n c i p l e
p h e n o m e n a of s i n g i n g ; L et us first r ecall the d i s t i n c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of eac h o f the registers:
262
In the c h e s t r e g i s t e r the g l o t t i s is linear; the
gradual j o ining o f the aryte n o i d s t akes p l a c e by the in
f e r i o r third of t heir i n t ernal s urfaces; the folds vibr a t e
in their three regionsr and the t e n s i o n is s t r onger than
in the f a l setto r e g i s t e r for the same pitch.
In the fal s e t t o r e g i s t e r the gl o t t i s is more or less
of elliptical form, more loos e l y c l o s e d in the p o s t e r i o r
portion than in the ch e s t r e g i s t e r for the same pitch; the
sub-glottal t e nsion is not p resent; the a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r
a n d v e n t r i c u l a r t e n s i o n s are w e a k e r for the same p i t c h than
in the c hest register; finally, the p r o g r e s s i v e j o ining of
the arytenoids takes p lace by the s u p e r i o r two-th i r d s of
t h e i r internal surfaces.
N o w l et us e x a m i n e some of the p r i n c i p l e phenomena
of singing, the range of the c h e s t voice, for example.
T hi s range va r i e s to a g reat e x t e n t a nd I w a n t to e x p l a i n
why:
The p r o g r e s s i v e o c c l u s i o n o f the glot t i s in the
r e a r coincides w i t h lon g i t u d i n a l tension for the e l e v a t i o n
of pitch. Now, this o c c l u s i o n is for the m o s t p a r t due
to the a f f r o n t e m e n t of the aryten o i d s , b u t also to the
sup e r i o r h o r i z o n t a l f ibers of the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d s inserted
in the vocal folds. It follows that, d u r i n g all the p r o
g ress i v e phases of a r y t e n o i d a f f r o n t e m e n t , the e l e v a t i o n
of p itch w i l l be e a s i l y ac c o m p l i s h e d . B e y o n d this point,
however, especially if the f ibers i n s e r t e d in the l i g a m e n t s
are wea k or absent, the e l e v a t i o n o f p i t c h can no lo n g e r
263
take p l a c e e x c e p t by l o n g i t u d i n a l tension. As a matt e r
of fact, all singers w h o s e chest voices are ext e n s i v e
p o ssess voc a l p r o c e s s e s (aryte n o i d apophyses) w h i c h are
especially well-developed in length, as part of a very
large larynx, indi c a t i v e of g r e a t d e v e l o p m e n t of the vocal
folds, and, therefore, n e e d less longitudinal tension for
the e l e v a t i o n of pitch. On the o t h e r hand, w i t h wom e n and
children, w h o s e v ocal p r o c e s s e s are s h orter an d w hose
l arynxes are smaller, the c h e s t v o i c e is less extensive,
n e c e s s i t a t i n g grea t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l tension. This returns
us to the p r i n c i p l e that the e x t e n t of the c h e s t voice
mus t de p e n d on the leng t h of the vo c a l processes, on the
p r e s e n c e or the abs e n c e of the h o r i z o n t a l fibers ins e r t e d
in the v o c a l folds, on the n u m b e r and str e n g t h of these
fibers, on the ex t e n t of c o n t r a c t i o n p e r m i t t e d the c r i c o t h y
roid muscles, and f i n a l l y on the d e g r e e of r e s i s t a n c e of
the voc a l folds. It is a k n o w n fac t t h a t vo i c e s of men and
wom e n fall into d i f f e r e n t ty p e s of q u a l i t i e s w h i c h have
been d e s i g n a t e d und e r the v o i c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of b a s s ,
b a r i t o n e , t e n o r , s o p r a n o , and c o n t r a l t o . For a skilled
ear, there is no p o s s i b l e confusion between these different
types. One m i g h t as w e l l c o n f u s e the sound o f a c o n t r a b a s s
w it h that of a vio l o n c e l l o , an d the s o u n d of a cla r i n e t
w it h that of an oboe. These different sono r i t i e s result
from d i f f e r e n c e s in size, in den s i t y , and in the p a r t i c u l a r
structure w h i c h occu r s in the v o c a l folds of d i f f e r e n t
subjects. It is for this r e a s o n tha t it is n e c e s s a r y to
264
class i f y voices, n o t accor d i n g to their range, but
accor d i n g to the c h a r a c t e r of so u n d w h i c h belongs to them.
W i t h o u t a doubt, one of the m o s t curious p h o n o m e n a
of the h uman v o i c e is the c o e x i s t a n c e of two d i s tinct
registers, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s u p e r i m p o s e d an d o v e r l a p p i n g
in such a w a y t h a t one e x ceeds the o t h e r at the top of the
range, and is, in turn, sur p a s s e d at the bottom. Now,
the p h y s i o l o g i c a l laws w h i c h I h a v e e n d e a v o r e d to e s t a b l i s h
are in com p l e t e h a r m o n y w i t h the a bove phonomena. First,
I hav e said t h a t the p o s t e r i o r o c c l u s i o n of the glottis
raises the p i t c h of the che s t v o i c e c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h the
ligamentous tension. Let us s u p p o s e that I emit the p i t c h
f in chest register. The i n t e r c a r t i l a g i n o u s glottis is
c los e d in all its length and the v o c a l folds are tensed
in their three regions. I s u d d e n l y pass to f^ in falsetto.
The sub-glottal regi o n b e comes relaxed; that is, the are a
of the v i b r a t i n g surface d i m i n i s h e s a g o o d third in its
t hickest region. To p r o d u c e the p i t c h f^, therefore, I
will no longer n e e d as gr e a t a tension, since, h e n c eforth,
I w i l l p o ssess the factor of a s m a l l e r and more n a r r o w
membrane. In addition, we have see n that, in this
circumstance, the l o n g i tudinal t e n s i o n diminishes. Simul
taneously, the p o s t e r i o r o p e n i n g of the g l ottis is i n c r e a s
ed. Now, if the field of l o n g i t u d i n a l tens i o n has increas
ed, and if, on the oth e r hand, due to the increase of the
poste r i o r glo t t a l opening, I m a y onc e ag a i n a f front the
arytenoids, I w i l l be p e r m i t t e d to pass into falsetto
265
v o i c e O'- ^ it. i f^, using all the t e n s i o n and o cclusion
r e m a i n i n g to me; and if is the limit of m y chest voice,
I w i l l be able to surpass this limit w i t h the falsetto
r egister.
Now, w h y does the falsetto r e g i s t e r d i s a p p e a r in
the low range be f o r e the lower notes of the c hest register?
I w i l l explain:
As the lo w e s t p i t c h e s of the fal s e t t o are reached,
the l i g a m e n t o u s t e nsion becomes w e a k e r an d the glottis is
o p e n e d m o r e and mor e in the rear. The s o u n d ceases at the
p o i n t w h e r e the se p a r a t i o n of the folds is too great and
the t e n s i o n t oo w e a k for vi b r a t i o n to take place. Now, at
thi s p o i n t the p i t c h in f alsetto is the same as the very
p i t c h where, in chest register, a s u f f i c i e n t t e nsion
and a f f r o n t e m e n t can be e s t a b l i s h e d to p r o d u c e the v i b r a
tio n s anew.
Now, by e x p l a i n i n g h o w the c h e s t r e g i s t e r is e x
c e e d e d above b y the f a lsetto register, and in turn exceeds
the f a l setto below, I have s u f f i c i e n t l y c l a r i f i e d the
p h e n o m e n o n of the c o e x i s t a n c e of two r e g i s t e r s in the
m i d d l e p a r t of the voc a l scale.
VITA
James R i c h a r d J o i n e r was b orn 15 D e c e m b e r 1942
Brookhaven, Mississippi. He a t t e n d e d the p u b l i c sc h o o l s
in Natchez, Mississippi, and w as g r a d u a t e d fr o m N a t c h e z
High School in 1960. Tn the same ye a r he e n r o l l e d in
Mississippi College and c o m p l e t e d a B a c h e l o r of M u s i c
Degree in C h u r c h M u s i c in M a y 19 64 with an a p p l i e d are a
in Voice. F r o m 1964-19 66 he a t t e n d e d S o u t h w e s t e r n
Ba p t i s t T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y in Fo r t Worth, Texas. He
r e c e i v e d the M a s t e r o f Chu r c h M u s i c Degree fro m th a t
insti t u t i o n in D e c e m b e r 1968. The title of his M a s t e r ' s
thesis was "A S t u d y of the Relatio n s h i p s B e t w e e n the T u n e s
of A m e r i c a n F o l k - H y m n o d y and the Tunes of the G e n eral
British-American R e p e r t o r y of Fol k Song." A f t e r s e ven
years of work in c h u r c h m u s i c and p rivate vocal teaching
in N e w p o r t News, Virginia, and S i l v e r Spring, M a ryland,
he e n t e r e d the g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m in voice at L o u i s i a n a
State U n i v ersity. F r o m this inst i t u t i o n he r e c e i v e d the
M a s t e r of M u s i c D e g r e e in Vocal P e r f o r m a n c e in D e c e m b e r
1974. He was e n r o l l e d in the Ph.D. p r o g r a m in C o l l e g e -
Level T e a c h i n g (Vocal Pedagogy) fr o m 1974-1979. In
August, 1975, he a s s u m e d the p o s i t i o n of A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r
of M u s i c at C a m p b e l l s v i l l e College, C a m p b e l l s v i l l e , K e n tucky,
a p o s i t i o n still h e l d in D e c e m b e r 1979.
266
EXAMINATION AND THESIS R E PO R T
Candidate: James Richard Joiner
Major Field: Music
Title of Thesis: Th e Vocal Principles of G a r c i a A s R e p r e s e n t e d b y H i s P u p i l s :

Battaille, Marchesi, and S t o c k h a u s e n
Approved:
M ajor Professor and Chairman
Dean of the Graduate Sch
EXAMINING COMMITTEE:
Date of Examination:
October 24, 1979

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The Vocal Principles of Garcia as Represented by

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2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an

4. For any illustrations that cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by

JOINER, JAMES RICHARD

THE VOCAL PRINCIPLES OF GARCIA AS REPRESENTED BY HIS PUPILS :

The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col.

JOINER, JAMES RICHARD

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B A TTAILLE, MARCHESI, AND STOCKHAUSEN

The Scho o l o f M usic

II. THE R E S E A R C H A N D TEACHING PRINCIPLES

III. THE R E S E A R C H A N D TEACHING PRINCIPLES

Biographical Material ........................ 69

IV. THE T E A C H I N G P R I N C I P L E S OF M A R C H E S I .......... 115

Biographical Material ....................... 115

Biographical Material ....................... 173

3. BATTAILLE'S AUTOLARYNGOSCOPE ...................... 75

6. MARCHESI: PORTAMENTO EXERCISES .................... 121

7. MARCHESI: PORTAMENTO VOCALISE .................... 122

11. M A R C H E S I : VOICE CLASSIFICATIONS AND RANGES . . . 151

12. MAR C H E S I : D E S I G N A T I O N S OF R E G I S T E R L I M I T S . . . 154

13. MARCH E S I : P O R T A M E N T O E X E R C I S E S .................... 159

14. MARC H E S I : F U N D A M E N T A L SCA L E E X E R C I S E S .......... 160

15. M A R CHESI: A D V A N C E D SCA L E E X E R C I S E S ............... 161

16. M ARCHESI: S CALE E X E R C I S E S F O R L I G H T SOPRANO. . . 162

17. M A R CHESI; E X E R C I S E S OF M U L T I P L E F I G U R E S . . . . 163

18. MARC H E S I : SCAL E S WITH O R N A M E N T A T I O N ........... 164

20. IMITATIVE EXERCISE F OR HIGH AND LOW VOICE . . . 190

21. S T O C K H A U S E N ' S T A B L E O F THE F O U R V O I C E

22. STOCKHAUSEN'S TABLE OF REGISTERS .............. 201

23. STOCKHAUSEN : PORTAMENTO EXERCISES

25. E X A M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N ' S SCALE EXERCISES . . . 206

26. STOCKHAUSEN: SCA L E S T U D I E S E X C E R P T E D

27. STO C K H A U S E N ' S "SING E R ' S A L P H A B E T " .............. 212

28. FANT ' S V O W E L D I A G R A M W I T H X - R A Y T R A C I N G . . . . 213

29. EXA M P L E S OF S T O C K H A U S E N ' S U S E OF V O W E L S

30. C O M P A R A T I V E R E G I S T E R RA N G E S ..................... 221

Ma n u e l P a t r i c i o R o d riguez Garcia (1805-1906) was

in a uniq u e p o s i t i o n in the his t o r y of vocal p e d a g o g y .

Wh i l e his t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s conti n u e d the bel ca n t o

tra d i t i o n p a s s e d to h i m by his father, he was v e r y m u c h

i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v o c a l production. Highly successful

as a teacher, his stu d e n t s g r aced the o p e r a a nd c o n c e r t

halls of Eu r o p e a n d the United States for m a n y decades.

This i n v e s t i g a t i o n is conce r n e d w i t h the G a r c i a

teach i n g m e t h o d o l o g y , the influences w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d

to it, and its a p p l i c a t i o n and a d a p t a t i o n b y h is p u p i l s

who b e c a m e t e a chers. The Ga r c i a p u p i l s c h o s e n for this

study wer e s e l e c t e d on the ba s i s of the i r h i s t o r i c a l

import a n c e as b o t h s i ngers and teachers, and a c c o r d i n g

to the s i g n i f i c a n c e a nd ava i l a b i l i t y of t heir p u b l i s h e d

m a t e r i a l s on v o cal pedagogy. Three p e o p l e c l e a r l y

fu l f i l l e d the a bove criteria: M a t h i l d e M a r c h e s ! (1821-

1914), a h i g h l y r e g a r d e d performer, w h o s e m e t h o d and

v o c a l i s e s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y published; Charles Battaille

(1822-1872), a medical d o ctor w h o sang w i t h the O p e r a

Com i q u e and Thé'âcre L y r i q u e and who p u b l i s h e d h i s r e s e a r c h

on the s i n g i n g v o i c e in two volumes; and J u l i u s S t o c k h a u s e n

Schub e r t , S c humann, an d Brahms, and s i n g i n g t e a c h e r in

science was f o u n d to have m a d e its g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u

T e a c h i n g m e t h o d o l o g y in o t h e r areas, particularly re

above Garcia t e a c h e r s ha v e b e e n e x a m i n e d a n d their peda

with this subject, it w a s felt that n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p e r

a teacher's principles in the w o r k s o f h is students contri