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The History of Perpetual War
Indo-Pak Relations
The History of Perpetual War
Indo-Pak Relations
Soumi Banerjee
PARAMPARA
To My Parents
THE HISTORY OF PERPETUAL WAR : INDO-PAK RELATIONS
By SOUMI BANERJEE
© Soumi Banerjee
First Published : January 2016
ISBN 978-93-80869-93-3
Cover Design : Soumya Dutta
Typeset : Perfect Lasergraphics

2 Champatala First Bye Lane, Kolkata 12
Publisher : Parampara Prakashan

20A Beniatola Lane, Kolkata 700 009, India
Printed by : SP Communications Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata-9
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Price : ﬁ 200.00 (South Asia), £12 (UK),

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Peer Reviewed
PREFACE
The main objective of this book is to study the
complex relationship between the two
neighbouring countries, India and Pakistan, who
once shared the same motherland, India, for
centuries. This book aims to enhance the
understanding of the changing dynamics of
relationship between the two over the years
since their inception as independent nations and
how over time situations grew so intense that
many on both sides of the border still believe
that it was next to impossible for the devotees
of both the religion to live together
harmoniously.
The book begins with the episode of
Partition and related holocaust that divided
British India into Hindu-majority India and
Muslim-majority Pakistan. It has also jotted the
stories of mutual genocide that broke out
between the two rival communities i.e., the
Hindus and the Sikhs on one hand and Muslims
th
on the other. Here the book dates back to 11
(i)
century, discussing the rise of Islam in India between the two and how contemporary
that resulted in an amalgam of Indo-Islamic relations between the two are largely getting
civilisation, and the rise of two big movements, affected by Cross-border terrorism. Kashmir
namely, Bhakti and Sufi. The book also focuses which has been described as the heaven with its
on the British policy of Divide-and-Rule, which picturesque landscapes, mountains, gardens and
is popularly believed to be the major reasons above all its real asset, the cultured, intellectual
behind the Hindu-Muslim split, along with the and beautiful locals, has now been turned into a
revivalist attitude among the orthodox Hindus valley that bleed blood by planting the seeds of
who believe that the long history of Muslim
Islamic fundamentalism. The book has also
invasions and rule is actually responsible for
covered several other areas of territorial
destruction of past glories of Hindu India. On
disputes and matter of grievances between
the other hand, the growing insecurities among
the Muslims too acted as a major hindrance Hindus and Muslims in India, namely, the Ram
towards uniting the Hindus and the Muslims in Janmobhumi or Babri Masjid controversy, 1998
one fold. Mere issues like fighting over cow nuclear test in Pokhran, killing of Karsevaks
protection, Hindi-Urdu language controversy, and resultant Gujarat Riot in 2002, 26/11
and many more drew bloody border between Mumbai attack and many others, largely
the duo and hence Riots were witnessed all affecting the Indo-Pak relations.
over the country, notable amongest them was The journey of writing this book has been
the Calcutta Killings of 1946 on 16th August,
wonderful and in the process it has helped me
which is popularly called as the ‘Direct Action
recognize the necessity to root out differences
Day’ where approximately 6,000 people lost
in society to prevent conflict and restore peace
lives in just 3 days and similar bloodsheds were
and harmony. In this world ruled by soft power,
repeatedly noticed in the borders of Bengal and
Punjab, slaughtering thousands of innocent. India and Pakistan should both understand that
the possession of nuclear weapons is not at all
The chapter following this discusses necessary to peace, to security, or to prosper is
extensively the numerous territorial disputes, any field as such, and only cooperation can
mostly centring around Kashmir as ‘the bone of bring about positive changes for enhancing
contention’ between India and Pakistan which
quality of life of people living in the region.
resulted in four full-fledged wars till date
(ii) (iii)
I take this occasion to express my thanks
and gratitude to all those who have made the
publication of this book possible. The book
wouldn’t have seen the light without Orance
Mahaldar, Prof Dr. Tridib Chakraborty, Prof.
Dr. Mridul Bose, Sweta Basak, Ambar Ghosh FOREWORD
and few more who chose to remain nameless
here but whose critical appreciation of my work It is a pleasure to forward this book of Soumi
and faith in me have enriched my vision during Banerjee, who is highly interested in exploring
this entire journey, providing me with an the burgeoning global problems and addressing
inspiring platform towards development and issues of Conflict Resolution. Her most recent
expression of my viewpoint.
work pertaining to Conflict Zones in South Asia,
This volume is dedicated to my parents, Mrs. vis-à-vis India-Pakistan relations reflects her
Dulu Banerjee and Mr. Achintya Kr. Banerjee
zeal in the proposed area. In this book entitled,
for their love, understanding, endless patience
The History of Perpetual War: Indo-Pak
and support. I finally invoke the blessings of
goddess Maa Kali, and release my book to be Relations, she has offered a vibrant portrayal of
a part of the academic family for consideration. the India-Pakistan conflict and the changing
dynamics of relations between them over the
years. The book has not only discussed the
Soumi Banerjee
complex relational equation between India and
January 2016, Kolkata Pakistan, but has also highlighted the trajectory
of determining an effective solution to this
historical animosity, which exists between these
two, geographically-prominent South Asian
neighbours.
The book is informative, insightful and will
be useful for scholars and researchers of
(iv) (v)
Political Science, International Relations,
History and other related disciplines, more
particularly those interested in the intricacies of
India-Pakistan relations and related issues.
Soumi’s book is an important contribution to
Introduction.........................................................1
the literature of India-Pakistan bilateral
discourse. Strikingly enough, historical images Partition of British India.......................................5
constitute an important part of this book,
The Rise of Islam In India................................10
making it unique and more interesting for the
readers. British Policy of “Divide And Rule” .................14
Hindu-Muslim Split & Hindu Revivalism........16
Formation of Muslim League............................21

Prof. Dr. Tridib Chakraborti
Professor & Ex-Head Direct Action Day.............................................28
Department of International Relations
Jadavpur University Indus Water Treaty...........................................30
Kolkata-700032, India &
Former ICCR Chair Professor,
Construction of Wullar Barrage.......................32
Dublin City University, Ireland.
Territorial Disutes In The Rann of Kutch.........33
Kashmir.............................................................34
Indo-Pak War (1965)........................................44
The 1971 War...................................................45
Terrorism...........................................................48
(vi) (vii)
Killings of Kashmiri Pundits 1986.....................56
Dispute Over Line of Control..........................60
Hindutva Ideology and the Ayodhya Dispute..61
Nuclear Test (1998)..........................................65
Pakistan’s Respond..........................................66
Kargil War (1999)..............................................68
Terrorist Attacks (2001)...................................73
Gujarat Riot (2002)...........................................74
Samjhauta Express Bombing (2007)...............76
Attack on Mumbai (2008).................................78
Balancing with the Great Power.......................80
Conclusion........................................................98
Reference..............................................115
Suggested Readings...............................124
(viii)
INTRODUCTION
Indo-Pak relationship has always remained

complex due to a number of historical and
political events harvesting the seeds of
conflict between the duos. India is concerned
about Pakistan’s falling in the hand of
extremist elements and Pakistan has kept a
sharp eye on India’s foreign policy matters,
internal developments, discussions and other
homely affairs. India-Pakistan conflict has
become one of the lasting and unending
rivalries of the era, which has affected
bilateral relationship between the two
countries (Paul, 2005). No doubt, even after
six and a half decades of independence, the
1
2 The History of Perpetual War: Indo-Pak Relations Soumi Banerjee 3
antagonistic relationship between India and military regime till date. Independence in
Pakistan still continues and Pakistan remains 1947 made both India and Pakistan a
India’s biggest foreign policy challenge. sovereign nation, however since then India
“India’s national security concerns have originated as a democratic nation, but in
mainly emanated from its neighbourhood” Pakistan autocratic military regime is all the
(Mellor 1979; HM, 2011). more powerful (Tudor, 2013). Military and
Pakistan intelligence agency have a louder
Since the inception of the two as
say in the society and politics of the nation,
independent nations, their relationship is
which runs on their whims creating a
marked by simmering hostility with
constant war like atmosphere not only within
interludes of tranquillity but with no
Pakistan, but also in the entire South Asia due
consequential outcomes. Pakistan is now seen
to persistent and unending hostility between
as a key factor in figuring India’s national
two South Asian giants, India and Pakistan.
security policy, where Budania sees Pakistan
not only as a strong security obligation what South Asia is the poorest, but the most
has preoccupied the imagination of the policy militarized region in the world, and all credit
goes to India and Pakistan for this
makers in India, but has grown up as the
development. While global expenditure on
biggest threat to India’s internal as well
military is declining and reduced by 37%
external security (HM, 2010). Though both
during the period 1987 to 1994, but in South
India and Pakistan were colonies under the
Asia military spending has increased by 12%
British Rule, however, India adopted
(Thomas, 1997; Hilali, 2005).
democracy soon after its birth as an
independent nation, and Pakistan still Thus, when the whole world is promoting
struggles between democratic rule and policies to harvest peace and bring harmony
among nation states, South Asia is advancing PARTITION OF BRITISH INDIA

towards a more uncertain future caused by
hostile neighbours placed in the region.
Scholars have often compared the
relationship of south Asian giant, India, with
its smaller neighbours, like, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (Mahbuba &
Rousseau, 2010). Thus, confidence building
measures are real necessary to maintain
trust and cooperation in the region. Unending
tensions and hostility in the region is
responsible for increasing poverty and Image 1: Crossing border during Partition 1947
backwardness among the masses. Scholars Partition of British India into two separate
believe that post-conflict peace building province of India and Pakistan was a decision
measures by India and Pakistan can surely made by lawmakers far from the borders
bring big changes in the region bettering life that unleashed the chapter of brutal
of over one billion people living in South Asia immorality witnessed by human history.
(Hilali, 2005). There has also been a widespread attempt to
Looking back at the trajectory of Indo-Pak record oral memories of Partition before the
relations, our memories are permeated with dwindling generation that survived the
the episode of Partition. period takes its memories to the grave.
Partition divided British India into Hindu-
majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan,

followed by the greatest migrations in human
history, with millions of Muslims trekking
towards West and East Pakistan (now
Bangladesh), while millions of Hindus and
Sikhs heading in the opposite direction
Where many hundreds of thousands could
never make it happen till their destination.
Across the Indian subcontinent, communities
who had coexisted for almost a millennium all
of a sudden started killing each other with
just an order from the government in hand ,
Image 2 : Train carrying refugees from Pakistan
an order to create new borders separating
occupied Punjab to India
Hindus and Muslims. Unexpectedly, a
terrifying war, a mutual genocide broke out Punjab and Bengal were the worst
between Hindus and Sikhs on one side and sufferers dividing borders with West and
Muslims on the other. The land where they East Pakistan respectively with severe
grew up suddenly became so much massacres, arson, forced conversions, mass
unfamiliar as people got killed across borders abductions, and savage sexual violence
even before realizing which way they need to against women folk, gang-rape and murders
proceed or what path to follow. became common. These killings largely
occurred in Punjab and Bengal and involved
venal criminality on the part of all parties
concerned: Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs.
Villages were set on fire and women of all

ages, ethnic groups and social classes were
persecuted, agonized and raped. A girl once
raped, loses her value and place in society —
she becomes unwanted even by her own
family. Reporters have witnessed that some
of them were even stripped naked and
paraded down streets deepening their
trauma and humiliation. There were also
even more tragic episodes, where women
voluntarily killed themselves, as well as their
female children, often by self-immolation, or
by having poison, or by throwing themselves Image 3 : Killing during Riot (Calcutta)
into wells. Where fathers fearing that their
Apart from the sheer terror of sexual
daughters would soon be raped (and
violation, women who survived these
converted to another faith), preferred to atrocities had to literally carry with them
compel their daughters to commit suicide lest physical signs of their shame, where rapists
such an event spoil their family’s honour. frequently mutilated and marked the girls’
skins with scratch and graffiti that reflected
the violators’ political or religious affinities,
including tattooed phrases like “Pakistan
Zindabad” (Long Live Pakistan) or “Jai
Hind” (Long Live India) or symbols of Hindu Iran. In India, the same happened in the
trident or Islamic crescent moon. Many eleventh century, with its expansion till
women had their breasts chopped off, babies Lahore, in 1021. Delhi was seized in 1192
were hacked out of the bellies of pregnant from its Hindu emperors by the Turks who
women and others suffered severe abuse and came down from a place now called central
torture of their genitals — in most cases Afghanistan. By 1206, the time of death of
leading to death. The Indian government Sultan Muizzuddin Muhammad, the Turks
reports estimates that 83,000 women and had extended their kingdom from Lakhnauti
girls were abducted and raped during in Bengal, Ajmer and Ranthambor in
Partition, but other sources believe that the Rajasthan, up to the boundaries of Ujjain in
numbers were even more. the south and Uchch and Multan in Sindh
(Chandra, 2004).
THE RISE OF ISLAM IN INDIA
Now, the question is how Hindus and Today, these invasions are usually
Muslims who had lived together for recognised as having been done by
centuries, who left imprints of their own “Muslims,” but such religious terms weren’t
culture on the other, who fought together popular during the medieval times proven
holding hands to achieve freedom from the from the Sanskrit inscriptions which don’t
British actually ended up slaughtering each identify the Central Asian aggressors by that
other in the name of religion? Islam was term. Instead, they were identified by their
certainly not a new name or something very linguistic and ethnic affiliation, most typically
much alien to the land and the rise of Islam as ‘Turushka’. Moreover, although the
started with its conquests of West Asia and conquests were marked by bloodbath, loot
th th
and destruction of Hindu and Buddhist sites, The 9 and 10 century saw the rise of
India had the huge heart to embrace people two big movements- one Sufi and the other
of alien origin, making them a part of the holy Bhakti. Both the movements were concerned
land. Within a few centuries, a hybrid Indo- with the nature of God, relationship between
Islamic civilization appeared, evident in art the man and the God, stressing on realization
forms, architecture, crafts, along with hybrid
of God within oneself and hence acted as a
languages, notably Urdu—which is an
bridge towards Hindu-Muslim unity. Thus
amalgam of the Sanskrit with Turkish,
cultural inter-mixing started taking place
Persian, and Arabic words.
throughout the subcontinent. In South
Indian medieval Hindu texts, the Sultan of
Delhi is sometimes referred to as the
incarnation of the God Vishnu. Great Mughal
emperor, Jallaluddin Muhammad Akbar had
a Hindu wife, named Jodha and was very
much tolerant towards other faiths. He
withdrew the illegitimate taxes imposed
upon the Hindus and also voluntarily
participated in Hindu festivals. In the
seventeenth century, the Mughal crown
prince Dara Shikoh had the Bhagavad Gita
(the most holy text of Hindus) translated into
Image 4 : Taj Mahal, a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic
architecture Persian, and he also did an extensive study
of Hinduism and Islam, and wrote “The had no resource to effectively control the
Mingling of Two Oceans,” which stressed on lands it had earlier colonized and hence it had
the affinities of the two faiths. However, not to let go its greatest imperial asset, and its
all Mughal rulers were so much kind and exit from India was chaotic, hasty, and
open-hearted. During the reign of Mughal awkwardly improvised. However from the
ruler, Aurangzeb, there was large-scale point of view of the colonizers, who were
conversion of people of different faiths losing ground in their colonies, it was the one
(especially Hindus and Sikhs) into Islam. and only fair way of handing over the
Despite of such atrocities India was a land colonies to the natives. But surprisingly the
which cuts across religious groupings and British, who had ruled over India for
identify itself as a land where there is unity centuries, oppressed and tortured people of
without uniformity and diversity without this land irrespective of any community
fragmentation. divide, could actually march out of this
country without much ferocity or bloodshed.
BRITISH POLICY OF “DIVIDE AND The Colonial rulers perceived India as the
RULE” land of Hindus. It is also through the Colonial
census that the ethnographic details and
Today many scholars argue and blame the
theories on religion evolved. Recent
British rule for harvesting differences
researches have pointed out the role of
between the Hindus and Muslims while
colonial rule in the split up of religions. Not
others assess the British Policy of ‘Divide-
only did the colonial rule through a process of
and-Rule’ as responsible for the Partition of
enumeration and ethnographic surveys
India. After the Second World War, Britain
raised consciousness about religion, but they It all started roughly during the rule of the
also produced the conditions where religion moderates in the Indian National Congress,
became a single entity capable of expressing, which was represented by approximately 90
organising, and above all synthesizing India’s percent Hindus and about 7 percent Muslims.
diverse forms of social identity, community, Thus, prominent Muslim leaders like Sir
and organisation. To the colonial Sayyid Ahmed Khan strongly argued that
administrators, India was a land of Hinduism, Muslims in India were not properly
and scholars identify certain Brahmanical represented and the Congress too didn’t
scriptures as colonial texts for understanding show great endeavour to bring the Muslims
Indian tradition. This Indological book view back in the sphere. This period was also the
thus continued to be a reference point for era of Hindu revivalism, where India was
acquiring knowledge about the native. largely seen as a Hindu nation with people
talking much about the history of glorious
HINDU-MUSLIM SPLIT & HINDU Hindu civilisation in the past and with deep
REVIVALISM belief that the Muslim aggression was what
actually caused for destruction of the glories
Scholars argue that the split between
of Hindu India. Gradually the revivalist
Hindus and Muslims occurred mostly
th forces became stronger reaching out to more
during the first half of the 20 Century, but
number of common mass, spreading the
by the middle of the century it became so
ideas and ideology of Hindutva.
intense that many on both sides still believe
that it was next to impossible for followers of
the two religions to live together peacefully.
various other sabhas, prominent among them

was Bharatvarshiya Arya Dharma Procharini
Sabha, cropped up aiming at reviving the
Aryan Religion, its identity, and in the
process creating a bridge between Hindus
and Muslims, making the Hindus realise
every moment that they had been oppressed
by the Muslims in past and it is the time now
to get back their lost prestige, identity and
glory. They strongly believed that nothing
good can happen to India until the revivalism
of Hindu religion and hence started to preach
the supremacy of Aryan race, their blood,
Image 5 : Swami Vivekananda their dharma (religion), bhasa (language),
and sanskriti (culture). Next the Hindus
The Ramkrishna-Vivekananda movement started protesting against Muslim festival of
was an effort towards revivalism per se, Bakr-id, which involves slaughter of cow.
however, it was seen as projecting the basic Soon cow was given the status of God (gau
essence of Hinduism. Vivekananda and his
mata) and Gaurakshini Sabhas (cow
disciple claimed superiority of Hinduism over
protection societies) were formed in Hindu
all other religions, calling Hinduism as the
dominated provinces. However, the cow
‘mother of religions’. Moreover, popular
protection movement later lost its impetus
theories on ‘Hindutva’ by Sir Savarkar, and
and in the year 1893 there started the well FORMATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE
known cow killing riots as by then for the
The individual authority of the Indian
Muslims cow slaughter was not only a part of
National Congress was first challenged in
their ritual but it became more popular as an
December, 1906 with the formation of
act that denotes going against the popular
Muslim League under the leadership of Aga
Hindu sentiments. Thus this showed how thin
Khan, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk to fight
the layer of trust and respect was left for the interests of the Muslims. There is a
between the devotees of the two religious substantial background behind the formation
communities that a mere issue of cow of the League which was mainly to establish
protection could draw a blooded border a counter political platform against the
between the duos. Gradually, language National Congress, to bring educational and
controversy also became prominent that led economic reform within the Muslim
to a fight between Hindi, which came to be community, as an impact of Hindi- Urdu
identified as the language of the Hindus and language controversy and so on. However,
Urdu was identified as the tongue of the the coming of Morley-Minto Reform of 1909,
Muslims. Religion was no longer seen as a set which talked of constitutional reforms, can be
of ideas or values, instead individuals had called as an immediate cause that triggered
been virtually turned into the epitomes of the formation of the League. At that time the
the religion of their birth-denying the Muslims did not have any separate political
association and they feared on missing out on
multiple identities that every individual
their political share and hence the All India
perforce carries.
Muslim League was created which no doubt
strengthened the views of Sir Syed Ahmed
who once said that the Hindus and the and hence believed that Muslims should gain
Muslims are two different nations with as much as possible from the West by
varied ideologies. Scholars from Pakistan see cooperating with the imperial powers, rather
him as a very significant person providing the than getting into conflict with the Raj like the
concept of the ‘two nation theory’. He is also Hindus and this was the reason why he
known for his disagreements with the Indian supported the British government during the
National Congress. In most of his writings, first so-called war of independence, the
Syed Ahmed stands out as a very principled revolt of 1857. He condemned the revolt and
individual who characterizes both the preached unity of the Crescent and the Cross
promise and hazards of the colonial to strengthen mutual understanding,
modernity. His goal was to make the Muslims cooperation and over all development of the
realise their role in radical social two communities, namely, the Muslims and
transformation in the foreseeable future. The the Christians.
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College Fund
Committee was founded by him in 1872 to
spread education among the Muslims as he
believed that the masses should first acquire
education first in order to become civilised
and honoured. He saw education as the
prerequisite for attaining self realisation and
hence he emphasized on good upbringing of
children so that they become humane, just,
honest, and dutiful. He had great faith on
Image 6 : Muslim League Formation
western education, modern scientific values
Much like Iqbal and Jinnah, Sir Syed Naidu. However, the Lucknow pact of 1916
initially considered Hindus and Muslims as first carried the Muslim demand for a
one Nation. He believed that it actually separate electorate, but Jinnah’s nationalism
doesn’t matter what are the religious views didn’t yet show signs of ugly communism by
of some community, but, if they had lived then and soon such demands lost momentum
together, sharing same land, same history, with the coming of Gandhi, popularly known
whether a Muslim, or a Hindu, or even as ‘Mahatma’, the leader of the leaders who
Christians constitute one nation. He once played a great role in mobilizing the masses
compared India with a beautiful bride, who is both Hindus and Muslims and took active
gifted with two very attractive eyes, one the part in Khilafat Movement of 1919. However
Hindus, other the Muslims. However, a by mid 1920s, Jinnah’s Muslim League was
feeling of enmity or hatred between the two build up fully upon safeguarding the interests
could make the bride look one eyed and and rights of the Muslims, but he never
hence they should harvest peace and let go stressed on building individual identity on
all ill feelings. However, earlier in 1867, when the basis of religion. In March 1936 at
the demand was made in favour of replacing Lahore, Jinnah said “Whatever I have done,
Urdu by Hindi at the lower administrative let me assure you there has been no change
levels in North Western Provinces, Sir Syed in me, not the slightest, since the day I
in an interview for the first time called joined the Indian National Congress. It may
Hindus and Muslims as ‘two nation’. Jinnah be I have been wrong on some occasions.
since the formation of the league had But it has never been done in a partisan
propagated the idea of Hindu Muslim Unity, spirit. My soul and only object has been the
earning the famous title of ‘Ambassador of welfare of my country. I assure you that
Hindu-Muslim Unity’ from Miss Sarojini India’s interest is and will be sacred to me
and nothing will make me budge an inch Aligarh, Jinnah said, “Pakistan is not only a
from that position”. He asked the Muslims to practicable goal but the only goal if you want
arrange themselves separately and at the to save Islam from complete annihilation in
same time asked them to “prove that their this country” (Chandra, 1989). Further in
patriotism is unsullied and that their love of 1946 elections, he asked the Muslims to vote
India and her progress is no less than that of for the league and realize this as their duty
any other community in the country” and failing of which would mean annihilation
(Chandra, 1989). Thus, the only demand of of Islam forever from India. Hindu extremist
the league is to improve the overall condition groups like RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak
of the Muslim and protection and promotion Sangh) were also not lagging behind but
of the language of their communication, propagating ideas of Hindu superiority. They
Urdu. However, the year 1937 brought about asked Indians (by the term ‘Indian’ they
drastic change not only in the policy actions meant everything which is Hindu) not to
of the league, but also in the Jinnah’s believe Muslims as old friends, but they are
personality. The failure of the league against in reality ‘bitter enemies’ who have since
congress in 1937 election made Jinnah opt a ages tried to dominate Hindus and now it is
new political theme based on horror and the time to give them back the answer to all
hatred. He started to inject in the mind of the torture that they had once executed upon
Muslims that the Congress did not want the Hindus. Furthermore the coming of the
Independence from the Raj, but on the Cabinet Mission to India in 1946 and its
contrary they want to make India a Hindu decision to transfer power in the hands of
dominated society, where Muslims would find Indian leaders feared the Muslim League
no air to breathe. He also criticized Gandhi that the power transfer might lead to Hindu
and alleged him to try to subdue Muslims dominance over the Muslims in India.
under Hindu dominance. In March 1941 at
DIRECT ACTION DAY bloodbaths in the borders of Bengal and

Punjab were particularly worse, slaughtering
thousands of innocents and sowing the seeds
of partition which divided the Bengal
province of British India into two separate
lands, creating East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
and West Bengal (India), and a similar
partition took place in the Punjab province
breaking it into West Pakistan (with parts of
Punjab) and Punjab (India), creating two
independent nations: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan during its independence had a
Image 7 : Calcutta Killings: The Direct Action Day (1946) unique historical and multilingual backdrop.
Researchers after doing an extensive case
All these feelings of hatred, fear and mistrust study on languages practiced in Pakistan
that had been harvested by leaders and discovered that most of its population can
influential groups from both the communities neither read nor can they write. Literacy
th
showed its real face on 16 August 1946 in rates were extremely low, about 38% in 1995
Calcutta where approximately 6,000 people (Amara, 2004).
lost lives in just 3 days in a riot popularly
known as ‘Calcutta Killing’ or the ‘Direct
Action Day’ and similar such riots were
witnessed all over the country , however the
INDUS WATER TREATY pictured the inner differences between the

Separation from India was the biggest two. The modified Indian plan called for all
priority to Pakistan, where partition not only of the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej)
separated people, lands, but also demarcated and 7% of the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum
the flow of river in the territory. The and Chenab) to be allocated to India, while
problem regarding sharing the Indus water Pakistan would be allocated the rest, i.e.,
intensified just after the partition of British about 93% of the western rivers. The
India, as since that day both India and modified Pakistani plan called for 30% of the
Pakistan started recognizing themselves as eastern rivers to be allocated to India, while
two separate nations, and hence demand was 70% of the eastern rivers and all of the
raised to separate the Indus: life-line of the western rivers would go to Pakistan.
region. People residing in Pakistan who had The international community feared that
survived beside the Indus for centuries, if such situation continues then the stalemate
suddenly found the water sources originating is likely to persist even further and hence it
in an alien country, named India, with whom decided to interfere in the problem and made
their geopolitical relations were getting worse World Bank funds available. The Bank
day-by-day. Soon it became a matter of great proposed for the entire flow of the eastern
concern for both India and Pakistan when rivers to be allocated to India, and all of the
their respective governments decided to western rivers, with the exception of a small
arrive at an agreement to solve the issue amount from the Jhelum, to be allocated to
avoiding much hostility. The two sides came Pakistan. Finally, the Indus Water Treaty
up with their plans to share the Indus, was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960
however again their respective versions and the two countries were asked to set up a
joint body to carry out the treaty and to to be made for hydroelectric power
handle disagreements. Since then the Indus generation and hence the flow of water to
Water Treaty has been working quite well, Pakistan will not be hampered. After rounds
and is a winning instance of conflict- of talks, the two countries reached an
resolution which enabled both the countries agreement with certain conditions, following
to peacefully share water from the Indus and of what would allow India to build the
its tributaries, though differences do arise barrage on Jhelum.
from time to time, but they usually get
resolved within the framework of the Treaty TERRITORIAL DISPUTES IN THE
and in the face of the strained political RANN OF KUTCH
relationship between India and Pakistan, the
treaty continued to be honoured even during The Rann of Kutch , that separates the
wars between the two countries. Gujarat state of India from Pakistan, was
first known to the world when a boundary
CONSTRUCTION OF WULLAR dispute arose over the region between
BARRAGE Pakistan and India which led to serious
turmoil, however unlike the Kashmir
Dispute also aroused between the two over problem, it didn’t persist for long and soon
the construction of Wullar Barrage by India the British intervention led to signing of an
on the River Jhelum in 1985. Pakistan agreement between the two nations on June
opined that, storing of Jhelum water by 30, 1965.
India, that had been assigned to Pakistan is a Salt-marsh area in Rann forms two
violation of the Indus Water Treaty (1960). shallow lakes namely, the Great Rann and
However, India argued that the barrage was the Little Rann in the wet season, and in the
dry season it is a bare salt-covered desert. Kashmir can be referred to as the most
The international tribunal appointed by the beautiful yet treacherous place on earth. It
International Court of Justice (IJC) shares its border with both India and
pronounced its verdict in 1968 demarcating Pakistan and takes a good amount of space in
the marshes. The tribunal awarded 90 per any discourse on Indo-Pak relations. During
cent of the Rann of Kutch to India and about the time of partition of India and Pakistan as
10 per cent (approximately 800sq km) of independent nations, Pakistan used to view
superior area which stays above water all the Kashmir from an ideological perception,
year was allocated to Pakistan. Both the claiming Kashmir on the basis of majority
governments accepted this decision and thus Muslim population living in J&K. But, now
the territorial dispute was finally settled. the interests of Pakistan have turned more
economic, rather than ideological, however to
Kashmir :
India, Kashmir has always been ‘the symbol
of secularism and unity’ (Rashdi, 1988).
Kashmir valley is known for its beauty
recorded in the Rajatarangini (Chronicle of
th
Kings), written in 12 century by the poet
Kalhana. It describes how the valley formed
a significant part of the ancient Indian empire
and its first imperial history probably began
rd
in 3 century BC during the rule of Ashoka.
Kashmir was also a part of Kushan Empire,
they who invaded northern India from
Image 8 : Kashmir valley north-west China and King Kanishka, an
aficionado of art, architecture and learning and another one is Ladakh. People residing
had his court in the valley. Kashmir had also are mostly Kashmiri speaking with a majority
been a favourite destination to the later of Muslims and minority of Hindu population.
Muslim rulers of Delhi Sultanate and the Jammu region is comparatively more diverse
Mughals, who had built beautiful gardens, than Kashmir, in terms of religion with
palaces, aimed at beautification of Kashmir Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs all residing
and all these era can be termed as a ‘golden together. Ladakh region is mountainous
age’ in the civilisation of Kashmir. Kashmiris where lives a majority of Buddhist
became famous throughout Asia as scholarly, population.
cultured, sophisticated and humane and the The course of politics in Jammu and
contribution of writers, poets, musicians, Kashmir has been shaped by its accession to
scientists in their own unique ways to the India and consequential violent warfare by
rest of India was often compared by many to Pakistan claiming Kashmir (Swami, 2006).
that of ancient Greece to European Kashmir is now the most disturbed province
civilisation. in India, making lives of the residents worse
Since ages however in spite of being ruled since its inception in 1947, which all started
by various rulers of diverse communities, after the partition of British India into India
Kashmiris have always retained their and Pakistan. At that time there were
identity as Kashmiriyats, nourishing pride in approximately 565 princely states under
their own culture and their part of British India and Kashmir was one of them.
civilisation. Jammu and Kashmir comprises of All the states were at liberty to join either the
three regions with diverse socio political Indian union or Pakistan or stay
background, one is Jammu, other Kashmir, independent, and hence the Kashmir issue is
not just a zone of dispute between India and since. Indian army could successfully drive
Pakistan, but it also involves the question of the infiltrators back from the valley of
Kashmiri identity and regional aspirations of Kashmir, and since then the Kashmir dispute
the people of Kashmir. It is popularly has stared into the faces of the two nuclear
believed that the delay in deciding future of neighbours for more than six decades now.
Kashmir by its maharaja Hari Singh is one of The continued rivalry between India and
the major causes of Kashmir problem. He had Pakistan over Kashmir have been
always wanted to negotiate with both India extraordinarily expensive, due to high
and Pakistan to get Kashmir an independent spending on military, affecting economy of
status. Soon there took place a popular revolt both the countries, along with huge loss of life
by Sheikh Abdullah of the National and property during wars (Saideman, 2005).
Conference, who wanted to get rid of the
Maharaja, but wasn’t in favour of joining
Pakistan. Pakistan on the other hand, has
always demanded Kashmir as it has a Muslim
majority population. In October 1947, tribal
infiltrators were sent backed by Pakistan
making the Maharaja feel insecure and hence
seeking military help from India. India’s
viceroy Mountbatten promised extension of
military support only after the Maharaja had
signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the
Govt. of India, which stays controversial ever Image 9 : Terrorists in Kashmir
India’s first Prime Minister Pandit Indian government claims that the image of
nd
Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 November, 1947 people’s participation in elections clearly
announced in All India Radio that only shows that people are happy being a part of
Kashmir will be given the right to decide its India and that there hasn’t been any demand
future by the means of plebiscite, however for plebiscite. Pakistan and other groups
such promise of a plebiscite is still pending. opposing this point of view on the other hand
say that the elections have never been free
and fair in Kashmir.
A reference was soon made by India under
United Nation in January 1948 to seek
attention of the Security Council regarding
Kashmir issue between two neighbours
equally equipped with nuclear power, having
the capacity to endanger world peace and
security. On August 13, 1948, United Nations
Commission in India and Pakistan (UNCIP)
passed a resolution asking Pakistan to
withdraw its troops and tribes from Jammu
and Kashmir. India also declared that once
Pakistan withdraws them, India will also
reduce its troops to a minimum number and
then a plebiscite will be held as per the
wishes of the people of the state. The cease-
Image 10 : Nehru with Mahatma
fire went into effect on January 1, 1949, and
the cease-fire line became the Line of Control only internationalized the issue by taking the
(LOC). However, India claims Pakistan to matter to U.N. and made Pakistan a party in
have never been able to fulfil the the issue. The Indian Independence Act of
preconditions required for a peaceful 1947 assigned sovereignty to the state of
plebiscite. India further believed that a Kashmir after the fall of British
plebiscite today can harm the integrity of Paramountcy. Moreover the act never
Indian Union and encourage more contained a provision that talks about a
secessionist movements demanding compulsory plebiscite to ascertain the wish of
secession from the union. Kashmir conflict the people of any princely state. Warren
constitutes multiple warfare, and crisis Austin, representative of U.S. once said in
generating between India and Pakistan over the Security Council that with signing of the
years now, and only the end to jihad and treaty of accession by Jammu and Kashmir
cross-border terrorism can actually welcome to India, its ‘foreign sovereignty’ is now
a day when there will be an end to the under the control of India. Thus Kashmir is
conflict related to Kashmir (Swami, 2006). nothing but an integral part of India and
India waited long for Pakistan to abide by taking care of the aspirations and identity of
the resolutions made by UNCIP, failing of the local people falls under the responsibility
what compelled India to finalise a of Indian government and hence, Pakistan
constitution for the state of Jammu and had violated the international law by
Kashmir, which confirms that Jammu and intruding into J&K territory. Many scholars
Kashmir is a part of the Indian Union. criticize Nehru for agreeing to a plebiscite in
By signing the Instrument of Accession, a territory which is a legal part of India, and
Maharaja Hari Singh had made J&K an thus, no other country having any right to
integral part of India; however Pandit Nehru interfere in the home affairs of India,
infiltrate inside one’s territory or to claim control of Pakistan and hence attacked
plebiscite. Nevertheless, the plebiscite was Indian Kashmir in 1965, trying to capture it
conditional upon Pakistan withdrawing its by force. In this war even the Kashmiri
troops and tribesmen from the state of J&K population supported the Indian army and
and restoration of administration to the local helped repel the Pakistani attack and soon
authorities, however still many hold Pakistan was heavily defeated in the war
Pakistan’s failure to fulfil none of the against India. In the 1965 war, the military
conditions is responsible for the stalemate. expenditures of Pakistan increased from Rs.
India and Pakistan have fought three full- 1262 million to Rs. 2855 million in just one
scale wars till date— one in 1947-48, another year, which consequently affected its GDP,
in 1965, then in 1971 and finally in 1999 and and almost similar situation occurred during
three out of four wars were over Kashmir. the other two wars with India in 1971 and
1999 (Jalil, Abbasi, & Bibi, 2015).
INDO-PAK WAR 1965

THE 1971 WAR
Under the Bakshi regime Pakistan advanced
politically, and hospitals, roads, and schools The war erupted due to large scale refugee
were made in good numbers what apparently crisis that hovered over India due to
seemed to take Pakistan high in the path of enormous influx of East Pakistani population
progress. However, soon the democratic in India due to Pakistan government’s
government was toppled down by a military repressive and brutal torture and genocide
regime under General Ayub Khan, who in inflicted upon the Muslim Bengali speaking
order to gain mass support in Pakistan, population of East Pakistan. Indian force
promised them to bring Kashmir under the under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi,
fought in the war against Pakistan to save through interference of other third parties
the east Pakistani population and the (even the United Nations). In 1972, Chief
Pakistani forces were easily routed out by Minister of Kashmir, Mr. Sheikh Abdullah
India, splitting Pakistan into halves. East
announced “our dispute with Government of
Pakistan achieved independence and was
India is not about accession but is about the
named as ‘Bangladesh’ and was freed from
the control of Pakistan. quantum of autonomy” (Dasgupta, 2002).
The signing of Kashmir accord in 1975,
between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and
Abdullah further strengthened India’s
control over Kashmir, however Article 370
still stay in force.
Pakistan after being left red faced in the

battlefields, decided to bleed India by ‘other
means’. So, from 1980s onward the Pakistani
regime started to support finance and train
Islamic Militants to conduct terrorist
Image 11 : Instrument of Surrender (Indo-Pak war, 1971) operations within India and inflicted upon
India death ‘by a thousand cuts’. Pakistan
After this war in 1972, the Simla
however finally succeeded in its intensions of
Agreement was signed between the duo
defeating India as no doubt India is a
which stated that India and Pakistan would
resolve their differences bilaterally, and not materially stronger power as compared to
Pakistan, however the former often seems recent century. India has long been a victim
helpless to jihadist challenges by a of ‘cross-border terrorism’, which is believed
comparatively weaker state of Pakistan to be sponsored by the Pakistani militants
(Paul, T. V. 2005). and intelligence agents (Mukherjee &
Malone, 2011). Kashmir had always been a
TERRORISM place noted for its devotion to the gentle Sufi
form of Islam which was secular, democratic
and very liberal in thought. Some scholars
see the peace loving nature of the Kashmiris
stemming from the fact that most of the
Kashmiri Muslims were once Hindu, who
have been converted into Islam during the
reign of Slave dynasty and later during
Mughal Rule. All other places in India
witnessed mass killing and riots during
Partition of India except Kashmir, which was
the only place where no communal riots and
Image 12 : Islamic-State militants killing took place during the partition.
However constant defeat in all the wars
Military-Jihad nexus is alleged to be
against India and failure to take control over
highly responsible for countless terrorist
Kashmir soon made it clear in their mind
attacks in India (Routray, 2014). The
mainstream Radical Islam has now taken that Pakistan would never be able to defeat
control over the rest of the Islamic world in India in direct war and hence they resorted
to use Pakistan-sponsored terrorism not only attacks not only take away innocent lives,
in Kashmir but the whole of India to bleed. but it also causes serious post-traumatic
The terrorist organisations, their leaders stress, fear of death, anxiety, insecurity
started manipulating the Kashmir youths, among the masses (Peus, 2011; Bader &
making them realise that they have always Schuster, 2015). More than 10,000 terrorist
been suppressed by India and now that they attacks took place all over the world,
are being victimised, they should revolt affecting nearly 45,000 victims in 70
against Indians in order to achieve their own countries in the year 2011 resulting in about
sovereignty. Soon in 1989, The publication 12,500 deaths (Nakata & Sivakumar, 1997;
of The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie London & Hart, 2004; National
who was a Kashmiri Muslim, residing in Counterterrorism Center, 2012; Bader &
Britain was heavily protested in Kashmir by Schuster, 2015). Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the
Imam Khomeini, the supreme leader of Iran, most influential Islamist organisations,
who banned the book claiming it as offensive started taking about the ancestors of
and against Islam. Kashmiri people felt it was Ayatollah who are believed to have come
their moral duty to protest against the book from Kashmir, thus making him relate to the
and most of them were protesters who Kashmiri Muslims, as one of them, who could
haven’t even read the book. Ayatollah during feel their plight, in spite of the fact that he
the Iran Revolution of 1979, had talked of the was a Shia and most of them were Sunni. The
necessity to organize Islamic Revolutions in jamaaties believe in the modern
all the countries of the world in order to free revolutionary concept of Islam and directed
the Muslim population from the clutches of the masses of Kashmir to abandon all
slavery. Researches reveal that Terrorist materialistic pleasures of life for the sake of
Islam and supplied them weapons to start

jihad against India. Terror architecture in
South Asia has undergone a shift in tactics
from ‘suicide bombs’ to a ‘commando-style
military assault’ with highly trained and
largely armed small team of militants
launching attack against some establishment
(Rath, 2010). Women were reported to have
sold their ornaments in order to help their
Image 13 : ISIS militants on march
male counterparts to afford weapons.
The Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front
(JKLF), a local outfit, was founded which
Kashmir which has been described as receives support from Pakistan. It is still
heaven on Earth with its picturesque very unclear about how the rumour was
landscapes, mountains, gardens and above all spread about the non-Muslim locals in
its real asset, the cultured, intellectual and Kashmir as being involved as agents or spies
beautiful locals, soon became a valley that of the Indian Government and soon in mid
bleed blood of death, and terror. Since, early 1980s till mid 1990s there was wide spread
1980s, large number of Madrassahs cropped killing of minority Kashmiri Pundits by the
up throughout the Kashmir valley with the Muslim fundamentalists, compelling the
help of Saudi money flowing over Pakistan, former to flee from their homeland. The
planting the seeds of Islamic fundamentalism history of conflict in Kashmir has undergone
by training youth to battle for Islam from the several stages since 1989 and the prominent
very early age. development during this phase was a violent
insurgency movement, which not only fellow human beings in the name of ‘jihad’.
resulted in loss of life and livelihood, but also The Pakistani military bears a negative
led to loss of trust and understanding that image of India and its intelligence wing, ISI,
are most essential for the very survival of has always carried out terrorist activities
any community (Khan, 2009). Report says against India (Routray, 2014).
that Kashmir became a ground for religious It is popularly believed that this all started
sermons fused together with flaming political after the defeat of a superpower, the
speeches taking place in Mosques, often on U.S.S.R., by Afghan Mujahideens. Pakistani
Friday (holy) nights and delivered by trained after being rooted out by Indian force in all
mullahs who had been brought to Kashmir the full scale wars now decided to play the
from Pakistan. These speeches were highly same kind of low-cost war by sending trained
motivating and could fairly mould the Islamic militants into Kashmir in the late
innocent minds of the locals, and the virus of 1980s to bleed India. Furthermore,
Islamic fundamentalism turned the innocent introduction of Kashmir with a new gadget
Kashmiris into violent man eating zombies. called television in the late 1980s gave the
India has successfully initiated measures Kashmiris the needed exposure to watch the
to counter terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir, indigenous Afghans rise and the defeat the
however, Pakistan funded jihad, still acts as Soviet superpower. The impact of this
an instrument in its foreign policy in order to television coverage later proved to be real
forcefully bring India on table to discuss serious, motivating them towards jihad and
Kashmir (Misra, 2010). There seems to be as a consequence, government sources say
no end to this process of bloodbath where that orders were issued to Indian T.V. not to
people are getting indoctrinated to kill other show these scenes in Kashmir. Islamic
fundamentalists trained in Afghanistan’s solution for Kashmir to join Pakistan.

terrorist universities started infiltrating the However this solution is not as simple as it
valley with the help of Pakistan’s Inter- seems and it has its own serious implications.
Services Intelligence (ISI) and they started My only question here is, if Pakistan being an
killing local Kashmiris. Pakistan’s strong Islamic country has so much affection for
position on Kashmir is evident from its their fellow Muslims living in Kashmir, then
powerful military dictatorship, where even why approximately more than one lakh
the nation’s nuclear program are under firm people have been killed in Indian
hold of its military and intelligence agencies administered Kashmir till date by infiltrators
(ISI) (Misra, 2010). According to American from Pakistan? ISI chief General Hamid
officials, the ISI even used al-Qaeda camps Gul’s once commented that US wants
in Afghanistan to train covert operatives for Kashmir to be separated among India and
use in a war of terror against India. Pakistan, so that US could use one of the side
Kashmiris who weren’t ready to submit as a military base against China. However,
themselves in the name of religion were being Prof. Kumar argued that the state of Kashmir
killed ruthlessly. would never accept such divide as it has
always wanted a sovereign Kashmir, that
KILLING OF KASHMIRI again seems to be unacceptable to both India
PUNDITS 1986 and Pakistan (Anonymous, 2001). Moreover,
Kashmir has been a place of cultural
One may say that because a majority of diversity where Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and
Kashmiris are Muslims and Pakistan is also Buddhist had lived since ages with full
an Islamic country so it can be the best harmony, love and brotherhood. It had never
before witnessed any riot, not even during themselves to be free as an independent
the partition of British India, except for the country rather than joining any union or
first time probably in 1986 when the power block. They were forced to sign the
Muslims residing there had been mind- instrument of accession with India because of
washed by Islamic Fundamentalists. the attack meted out on them by tribes from
Therefore is it feasible on the part of Pakistan who wanted to acquire Kashmir by
Kashmir to trust Pakistan anymore? No! force. Kashmiri people are peace loving
Because nobody paid heed to what the people and there has been no single riot
Kashmiris want, they have always wanted between Hindus and Muslims in the recent
history of Kashmir, except in 1980s, in which
many Hindu pundits fled away from the
valley, because they were forced to accept
Islam and the refusal would result in torture
and killing.
This inhumane, barbaric incident got them
in fear of extinction by Pakistan-sponsored
militants and hence there was massive
immigration of Hindu from Kashmir to other
parts of India.
Image 14 : Kashmir Pandits

DISPUTE OVER LINE OF drop soldiers via helicopter onto the snowy
CONTROL (LOC) Siachen glacier to prevent its occupation by
Pakistan (Baghel & Nüsser, 2015). Till now it
Another dispute with Pakistan arouse when is said that the forces in the area have died
the Indian army discovered the Siachen more from ice bite than firing of guns. All
glacier and established a stable military base sorts of peace talks between the rival duos
at the terminal point of the Line of Control have come to zilch.
(LoC) in 1984. The Siachen conflict between
India and Pakistan is referred to as the HINDUTVA IDEOLOGY AND
‘coldest war’ atop the roof of the world. The THE AYODHYA DISPUTE
positions occupied by the soldiers in the
Siachen glacier were at heights up to 6700m, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the present
where temperature drops down even below ruling party in power in India, has always
minus 50 degree Celsius (Baghel & Nüsser, stressed on the idea of ‘Hinduness’ or
2015). ‘Hindutva’. The term ‘Hindutva’ as defined
by its originator V.D. Savarkar, the leader of
India and Pakistan are since then fighting
Hindu Mahasabha, as the basis of Indian
over the demarcation of the line of control on Nationhood. Hindutva is a neo-Sanskrit term
the icy Siachen Glacier. The Siachen conflict which has been popularised in Bengal in
between India and Pakistan can be rightly 1890s by Chandranath Basu, and later by a
termed as endless or unending conflict big national figure, Tilak, however, Savarkar
between the two which happens to be more could successfully politicize the term
than thirty years old now. The ‘Operation ‘Hindutva’, differentiating it from the term
Meghdoot’ was launched by India in 1984 to ‘Hinduism’ which is purely a religious and
philosophical idea. He through his concept of decision in her favour which became
Hinduness not only aimed at defining his idea unacceptable to some orthodox Muslims as
of Hindu identity, but also preached the they saw the act as a violation of their
gospel of Two-Nation Theory, much before personal law. The very next year, the
Iqbal and Jinnah. Savarkar believed that Faizabad district court in Uttar Pradesh
there are three core values of Hinduism: ordered to open the Babri Masjid (built by
first, citizenship by paternal descent within emperor Babur’s general, Mir Baqi) premises
to the Hindus to offer prayer as they believe
the boundaries of Indian territory; second,
the mosque is located in the area which
‘the bond of a common blood’. He believes
happens to be the birth place of Lord Rama.
that the Hindus are not only a nation, but
In the month of December 1992, members of
also a race, with the common blood of their
RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh), and
Vedic fathers flowing through their veins;
the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), along with
third, common culture and civilisation, BJP, organised supporters called Karsevaks
irrespective of caste, class and sectarian (devotees hired for voluntary service) for
religious beliefs bound all the Hindus building the Ram temple.
together.
This intensified the situation all over the
BJP’s love for Hinduness became a matter country and especially at Ayodhya. Though
of discomfort for the Muslims and it became the Supreme Court ordered the state
more intensified with Supreme Courts government to prevent the Karsevaks from
interference in Muslim Personal Law in the entering the Masjid premises, but the
Shah Bano Case (1985). Shan Bano was 60 government failed to manage the situation
th
years old divorced Muslim women who filed when on 6 December, the same year,
a case of her maintenance from her former thousands of people from all over the
husband. The Supreme Court passed the country gathered at Ayodhya and
as a Hindu nation, thus, rotting the relationship

between the two communities even further.
NUCLEAR TESTS 1998
Soon in the month of May, 1998, the locals

residing in Pokhran, a desert spot located in
the state of Rajasthan, heard a huge noise
like a blast, followed by a gigantic cloud of
dust floating in the sky. However, what the
local villagers mistook as just a blast left the
whole world in shock as they realised that
India had just joined the former five nuclear
countries (USA, UK, FRANCE, RUSSIA,
CHINA) by successfully exploding three
atomic devices.
However, though it might be a good news
for India who in large numbers praised the
Image 15 : Karsevaks demolishing Babri Masjid act of the government to go nuclear and
hence benefited the Vajpayee government to
demolished the mosque. Riots broke out all
held his chair safe, but, India faced huge
over India between Hindus and Muslims
criticism from everywhere in the world with
which continued for weeks, often with harsh
U.S. President Clinton ordering the IMF
communal intentions of showing India solely
(International Monetary Fund) and the resist the harsh talks from the big powers,
World Bank to cancel all new loans sanctioned one old friend came and stood by its side, and
to India. Most of the industrial nations who that was Pakistan. Yes! You read that right.
were in trade relations with India soon It was Pakistan who directly or indirectly is
followed U.S. and froze all on-going projects still a matter of controversy, but surely
in India. India felt the pressure from various helped divert the focus of the world from
corners of the globe to sign the Nuclear non- India by drawing attention to herself,
Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the former th
exploding five nuclear weapons on 28 May,
five nuclear powers who are also five under the Prime Ministership of Nawaz
permanent members of United Nations Sharif, the same year. Soon the act of
started discussing upon further ways to Pakistan was condemned all over the world,
punish India for the explosion. Richard with U.S., Japan, Britain, and Germany
Weixing argues, that the real reason for freezing their aid to Pakistan.
India’s nuclear test in 1998 can be its
growing insecurity regarding the position of A week after India conducted nuclear test,
China as a world power and hence by the foreign minister of Pakistan had travelled
bombing the test, India actually wanted to sit to China, the closest ally of Pakistan not only
in the same chair with China, by declaring in South Asia, but also in this entire world.
itself to be a new member in the Nuclear Within ten days after his visit Pakistan
family (Hu, 1999). conducted the nuclear test which though
faced huge criticism from big powers and
PAKISTAN’S RESPONSE :
other industrial countries, but wasn’t much
At this juncture when the whole world went condemned by China. However, Pakistan
against India, when it was just too alone to suffered in deterioration of currency value,
increase in debt and resultant poverty, far

more than India due to cancellation of all
economic sanctions by the world community.
KARGIL WAR IN KASHMIR 1999
After 16 years from the Kargil war,

Pakistan’s former military chief, General
Pervez Musharraf while recalling the conflict
commented that the Indians cannot forget
the days of Kargil war, because he feels that
in Kargil, Pakistani soldiers “grabbed India
by the throat”. Prof. Parthasarthy, while
commenting on Pakistan’s attitude towards
India, said, “Pakistan was a victim of its own
rhetoric”. He further added, that, the
Pakistani people had been brain washed by
their government, that Indian army has Image 16 : Soldiers celebrating victory at Kargil
th
miserably lost the battle of Kargil against Indians celebrated the 16 anniversary of
th
Pakistan and hence they still see the hope or the Kargil War on 26 July, 2015, which
courage to claim Kashmir (Anonymous, was both a moment of pride to them as they
2001). witnessed victory in the conflict, and at the
same time the day carried with it the air of
pain and helplessness that was felt by Pervez Musharraf, the Army General of
millions of Indians for the loss of soldiers who Pakistan, is believed to be the mastermind
died fighting for their nation. behind the attack, who had made all the
The Kargil war and the ‘Operation Vijay’ plans of intrusion, and cleverly executed his
started by India on May 1999, after the arrangements while Indian Prime Minister,
infiltrators from Pakistan and few Kashmiri Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Nawaz Sharif were
militants entered into the Kargil district of busy signing the Lahore declaration,
Jammu and Kashmir along the Line of without even letting Mr. Nawaz Sharif, the
Control (LoC), leaving India in absolute Prime minister of Pakistan know anything
shock. about his preparations.
However, one of the notable aspects of this
war was that despite the fact that both the
nations are possessing nuclear weapons, they
fought the war in a conventional manner, and
this shows that they understand the
destructions that the world would face when
exposed to a harsh nuclear battle.
After the Kargil war, India looks down
upon Pakistan’s behaviour as the most
irrational, untrustworthy and strategic, and
hence the former is now all the more
Image 17 : Kargil War
determined to resolve Kashmir issue (Tellis,
Fair, & Medby, 2002).
Soon the operation was joined by the Pakistan finally agreed that the incident was
Indian Air Force (IAF) which launched bomb shameful and it was made clear by Nawaz
attacks on the infiltrators within the Sharif, the Prime Minister of Pakistan who
boundary of India. The focal point during the confessed about eight years after the Kargil
war was the Tiger hill, one of the highest conflict that he is ashamed for the reason
peaks in the Drass-Kargil area. The war that he wasn’t aware that Musharraf, the
lasted for about two months and finally with army general had planned an attack against
the support of the International Community, India. With the end of Kargil war, Indians
India could successfully route the Pakistani understood that they can no further trust
forces out of its border by recapturing the Pakistan and that India has to be very alert
Tiger Hills. Pakistan faced criticism by many every moment it deals with Pakistan (Dixit,
countries for its habit of illegal infiltration 2003).
across the borders, and for disturbing the
peace process of another country. The Kargil TERRORIST ATTACKS 2001
war being the last conflict between India and
Pakistan till date has shaped their conception The September 11 terrorist attacks on U.S.
of future choices and Pakistan lately opened up new avenues to both Pakistan and
recognized the vast sum spent on Kargil India. Pakistan was left in a tussle whether to
which made Pakistan economically feeble, side U.S. and become its adversary or to
politically imbalanced and isolated it from the back its own radical Islamic fundamentalist
rest of the world, as a growing Islamic state allies in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pakistan
(Tellis, Fair, & Medby, 2002). In the midst of cleverly chose to stand by U.S. and its efforts
growing pressure from the International to invade Afghanistan and flush out the
community to withdraw its force from India; terror elements.
India during this period vehemently

wanted the U.S. to label all Islamist
confrontation to Indian military forces in
Kashmir as terrorism, and wanted to get
support from U.S. in crushing the Islamic
militants, which U.S. did support to a large
extent, though not fully matching the
expectations of India. Prof Kalim Bahadur
believes that though lately, but Pakistan has
then started losing its support base from the
Islamic world in the Kashmir issue. Indian
Image 18 : Gujarat riot 2002
Prime Minister’s visit to Saudi Arabia, Iran,
Indonesia, and Malaysia, justifies this Karsevaks and the riot between Hindu and
understanding (Anonymous, 2001). Muslim started suspecting the hand of
Muslims in setting the bogey at fire. Soon
GUJARAT RIOT 2002 large-scale violence started everywhere in
Gujarat against the Muslims, which
The Gujarat Riot in February-March 2002 is continued for almost one whole month killing
also known by the name of Godhra killing. It more than thousands of Muslims. The
all started with an incident that took place in Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) declared state
a station called Godhra, where a bogey of a th
wide bandh on Thursday, 28 of February,
train was set on fire, which was carrying 2002, protesting the killing of Karsevaks.
Karsevaks returning from Ayodhya. This Many Muslim slum dwellers were burnt alive
inhumane act killed more than 60 Hindu along with the former congress MP Ehsan
Jaffrey and his family who died during the New Delhi, India to Lahore, Pakistan,
bloodshed when their building was set on fire crossing the India-Pakistan border. The
by some activists in Meghaninagar. The 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings occurred
National Human Rights council criticised the around midnight on 18 February, 2007 in the
Gujarat government after this tragic Samjhauta Express, where bombs were set
bloodbath for not being able to take effective off in two carriages both filled with
measures to provide security to the Muslims passengers just after the train passed Diwana
during the riot. station, Haryana, about 80 kilometres north
of New Delhi. This terrible incident killed
SAMJHAUTA EXPRESS BOMBINGS 2007 about 70 people; most of them were
Pakistani civilians and some Indian security
personnel and civilians. Some alleged
Abhinav Bharat, a Hindu fundamentalist
group behind this attack, while others
stressed on the involvement of Lashkar-e-
Taiba, the Islamic fundamentalist linked with
this bombing. Nobody has yet taken charge of
the crime; however, the bombing was enough
to spoil the gradually improving relationship
between the duos. Continued tensions
Image 19 : Samjhauta Express Bombed between India and Pakistan are causing
serious problems of economic
Another issue of mistrust in the Indo-Pak
mismanagement, social chaos and political
relations was The Samjhauta bombimg, an
instability in both the nations (Ahmed, 1998).
international express train that runs from
ATTACK ON MUMBAI 2008
26/11 attack on Mumbai in 2008 is yet

another most recent, tragic and shameful act
carried out by the terrorists from Lashkar-e-
Taiba, and supported by Pakistan
intelligence agency, ISI, who entered India
via sea from Karachi in Pakistan. “Mumbai
attacks remain a mystery for long despite
the capture of a ‘Lashkar-e-Taiba’ terrorist
on the night of 26 November 2008. Pakistan
Image 20 : Taj on fire
took 77 days to admit its citizen’s
involvement, Mumbai police consumed 90 investigated the origin of the nexus between
days to file the chargesheet and Federal Pakistan and Terrorism, which he believes
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) spent a year to has initially started with infiltrations by
arrest a couple of conspirators.” (Rath, Pakistani tribes into the India territory,
2010). followed by the use of conventional army in
That day, I believe, the Indians weren’t the wars of 1947, 1965 and 1999 (Ogden,
only feeling helpless, but the whole world 2013).
was, when 10 young boys crippled Mumbai
for three days taking away 170 innocent
lives. Chris Ogden in his article ‘Tracing the
Pakistan Terrorism Nexus in Indian Security
Perspectives: From 1947 to 26/11’, has
which is constantly growing and it now seems

to be sweeter than the sugar or deeper than
the oceans, has turned not so sweet for India.
Sino-Pak growing military, nuclear, geo-stra-
tegic and geo-political alliance as well as eco-
nomic interactions has altered strategic
equations among India, China, and Pakistan
affecting the regional balance of power sys-
tem in the entire South Asia.
There is a famous proverb by former
French President Charles de Gaulle to high-
BALANCING WITH
light diverse nature of international rela-
THE GREAT POWER
tions- ‘There is no permanent friend or per-
Balancing with the Great Power: manent enemy in international politics but
Changing Nature of Sino-Pak Rela- permanent interests, a friend of today may
tions and Challenges for India be the enemy of tomorrow and enemy of
today may be the friend of tomorrow’.
21st century is deemed an Asian century. Hence it is necessary to reach a proper an-
The rise of China has altered the United swer to the question- if in the name of coop-
States led unipolar world order in the post- eration there are possibilities of future con-
cold war era and this emergence has a wide flict or competition which can actually ham-
impact on the balance of power system glo- per the balance of power system in South
bally specially on the countries of South Asia. Asia? Thus balance of power being the fun-
China’s ‘all weather’ friendship with Pakistan damental concept in international relations is
80
imperative and is everywhere, be it among the countries of the Islamic world. All
Kautiya’s Mandala theory or Thucydides and these countries maintain arsenals of nuclear
Machiavelli’s analysis, and South Asia is the weapons and missiles, India and Pakistan be-
most important part of the Asia continent ing the de facto nuclear weapon powers while
because of its dynamic balance of power. China is a recognized one with a permanent
South Asia is geopolitically and geo strategi- seat in the UN Security Council. Moreover,
cally important due to its unique location, its each country of this triangle shares mutual
natural resources, population and diverse borders, segments of which are disputed and
cultural identities and also due to the pres- in some cases the disputed areas are large
ence of four big powerhouses (Russia , China, enough to be considered just a territorial dis-
India and Pakistan) all armed with deadly pute. Though all three consider themselves
nuclear weapons. Hence, no doubt Security is as the members of the developing world,
an utterly sensitive issue in South Asian poli- China and India are the world’s fastest grow-
tics. As scholars rightly said that any event ing economies, while Pakistan still remains in
can bring India-Pakistan at the edge of a the economic backwater of Asia, however,
nuclear war (Naseer & Amin, 2011). India, two sides of this triangle, i.e., China and Pa-
China and Pakistan thus form a major strate- kistan, share a history of hostility with the
gic triangle in the geopolitics of Asia and the third side which is India and such
salient features of this triangle are striking. longstanding animosities with one another
To begin with India, it is the most influential are further initiating armed conflict.
developing country in contemporary world
politics; China is the most formidable com- In this situation, the major question is how
munist power in the existing hierarchy of to do away with conflict by maintaining the
major powers; and Pakistan is the mightiest balance of power system in the entire South
Asia? But before that we need to understand ment, Pakistan has always been a precious
the factors which became the foundational alley to China. The People’s Republic of China
stones of Sino-Pak relations. How the Islamic (PRC) and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Republic of Pakistan and the Peoples Repub- have enjoyed a strong friendship since Paki-
lic of China despite having vast ideological stan recognised the PRC in 1950 and strate-
differences turned “iron brothers”? gically located position of Pakistan has no
doubt provided China with the possibility to
Sino-Pak Relations during the Cold nearly ‘encircle’ India geographically. In-
War Period: An Analysis stances of Pakistan and China support sys-
tem are many- Islamabad backed Beijing’s
On 20 and 21 April 2015, for the first time
membership to the South Asian Association
Chinese President Xi Jinping addressed a
for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), to which
joint session of the Pakistani National Assem-
China has been an observer since 2006, and
bly and the Senate. He received an imperial
China on the other hand, has endorsed
welcome on his visit by Pakistan where the
Pakistan’s bid to join the Shanghai Coopera-
Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
tion Organisation (SCO), which focuses on se-
claimed that the two countries are ‘truly iron
curity, economic and cultural cooperation.
brothers’ and that ‘Pakistan considers
The security pillar of the SCO encompasses
China’s security as important as its own se-
military cooperation, intelligence exchanges
curity’, while Pakistani National Assembly
and particularly – joint counterterrorism ef-
Speaker Ayaz Sadiq termed Xi Jinping’s visit
forts. Pakistan was the first Islamic country
‘a brother’s homecoming’.
and third non-communist state to accord rec-
In spite of having vast ideological differ- ognition to the People’s Republic of China.
ence and differences in size and develop- Although Pakistan established diplomatic re-
lations with China in 1951, the actual consoli- emergence of a US-Pakistan-China strategic
dation of relations started in the early 1960s, triangle, which prompted India to sign a
when Pakistan changed its previous stance treaty of peace, friendship and cooperation
and supported China’s seating in the UN in with the Soviet Union. This development in-
1961. In the 1962 Sino-Indian border war, troduced a new dimension to the region, es-
United States rushed military assistance to pecially if seen in the context of the Cold War,
India, which Pakistan being an alley of the and also created more space for further con-
West considered detrimental to its security solidation of Pak-China relations. The other
concerns and moved out of the Western orbit development, which had profoundly influ-
(SEATO and CENTO). At this juncture, a enced Sino-Pak relations, was the Indo-Paki-
commonality of interests seemed to be stan war in 1971, followed by the Chinese
emerging between Pakistan and China, and military and economic assistance to Pakistan
the sense of an evolving geostrategic envi- and later, on the issue of Bangladesh’s appli-
ronment led the two countries amicably ne- cation for membership to the United Nations,
gotiate and they signed an agreement on the on Pakistan’s request, China exercised its
demarcation of their common border in veto power for the first time to stall the move
March 1963. that helped Pakistan to secure in a bargain
In the early 1970s, Pakistan wisely played the release of its POWs and the return of
an important role in facilitating secret com- troops to their pre-war positions. The Indian
munications between the US and China that nuclear explosion of 1974 introduced yet an-
resulted in Henry Kissinger’s secret visit to other new dimension to the strategic balance
China followed by President Richard Nixon’s in the region and gave fresh impetus to ex-
historic visit. Sino-US ‘rapprochement’ was panding Pak-China defence cooperation,
perceived in Indian strategic thinking as the where between 1971 and 1978, China as-
sisted Pakistan in building two defence-re- procurements and China’s support for
lated mega projects, first, the Heavy Rebuild Pakistan’s nuclear and missile programmes
Factory for T–59 tanks, and second, the F–6 remain a constant irritant in Sino-US and
Aircraft Rebuild Factory. Sino-Indian relations.
The invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Economic Engagements: The political inti-
Union created a situation of two hostile fronts macy of China and Pakistan has translated
for Pakistan—India and Afghanistan—threat- into other areas of cooperation too, primarily
ening peace and stability in the region. At economics. The two states concluded free
this crucial juncture, China stood firmly by trade agreement in the year 2006 and en-
Pakistan and condemned the invasion of Af- tered into effect in July 2007, where trade
ghanistan as a “hegemonic action” that posed volume between the two states increased
a threat to peace and stability not only for from $13 billion in 2013 to $20 billion in
that particular region but for the entire 2015 due to signing of 51 agreements and
world. Pakistan too has always supported Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for
China on issues important to Chinese na- cooperation in different fields. China had
tional interests such as, sovereignty over been contributing significantly to Pakistan’s
Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Tibet and issues re- imports even before the FTA was signed and
lating to human rights and democracy. China has seen considerable improvement in its
has forever appreciated and counted on ranking after the FTA was implemented in
Pakistan’s strong support as a trusted friend 2007. By 2012, it was the source for 15% of
over all these issues at international fora. Pakistan’s overall imports from the world as
Throughout the 1990s, Pakistan remained compared to 9.8% in 2006 (The Express Tri-
under US sanctions and China was the pri- bune Pakistan, 2015).
mary source of Pakistan’s military hardware
Another important feature of Sino-Pak re- New Century, Old Ties: India in Sino-
lationship is the China-Pakistan Economic Pak Relations
Corridor (CPEC). Though envisaged as early
as 1959, CPEC in its present form was first In May 1998, Pakistan argues that Indian
proposed by Chinese Premier Li Keqiang and nuclear tests destabilized the strategic bal-
Nawaz Sharif on 22 May 2013 in Islamabad. ance in South Asia and in a letter to the U.S.
CPEC is a conglomeration of infrastructure President Bill Clinton that was leaked to the
projects under construction which are pro- New York Times, Indian prime minister and
jected to upgrade and expand Pakistani infra- defence minister called her ‘northern
structure at a cost of $46 billion (Aneja, neighbour’ as a long-term security threat and
2015). CPEC belongs to the Silk Road Eco- therefore raison d’etre for the atomic tests.
nomic Belt/Maritime Silk Road which Beijing Following this disclosure, Sino-Indian rela-
has begun to build across South Asia to the tions suffered a major setback and this dete-
Indian Ocean, and across central Asia to Eu- rioration in Sino-Indian relations reinforced
rope. The CPEC is a project for a network of Pakistan’s position in China’s South Asian
railways, roads and pipelines connecting policy. China endorsed Pakistan’s compulsion
Pakistan’s port city of Gwadar in the prov- to go nuclear and it boosted Pakistan’s confi-
ince of Balochistan with the Chinese city of dence to re-establish the strategic balance of
Kashgar in the landlocked XUAR. the region by conducting its own nuclear
tests. The depth of Pakistan-China relations
can be gauged from the fact that only after
Pakistan had acquired demonstrable nuclear
weapons capability that the Chinese assured
US in June1998 of cooperating on the issue of
nuclear proliferation. In 1999 Kargil conflict that Pakistan would extend full support to
between India and Pakistan, China adhered China to fight against East Turkestan terror-
to strict neutrality. China was concerned ist forces. This was indeed the first time that
over the possibility of escalation of the con- a Pakistani leader went public in support of
flict, and asked both countries to defuse ten- Chinese policies to curtail Muslim separatists
sions. The Chinese position of neutrality was in Xinjiang, in view of Chinese concerns that
duly acknowledged by India, and China’s role there is a link between the separatist forces
to pacify the situation was considered more in Xinjiang and the jihad organizations in Pa-
favourably by the Pakistani authorities and kistan and Afghanistan (Rahman, 2007). Pa-
people. The Chinese leadership also stated kistan kept its promise and soon in Decem-
that it took the stand of neutrality in favour ber 2003 the Pakistan Army in a military
of both India and Pakistan and that the inter- operation near the Pak-Afghan border killed
national community expects them to main- Hahsan Mahsum, the leader of the East
tain peace and stability in South Asia. China’s Turkestan Islamic Movement, while extra-
proactive diplomacy to engage the US and diting a number of alleged terrorists to China.
India in the volatile South Asian situation In recent years, antiterrorism-related coop-
was received well in Pakistan and indeed eration between the two countries has con-
helped to ease tensions. President stantly been expanding and on August 6,
Musharraf, in his December 2001 visit to 2004, China and Pakistan conducted their
China, explicitly expressed support of the first joint antiterrorism military exercise
Chinese campaign against Muslim separatists named ‘Friendship 2004,’ in Xinjiang.
in Xinjiang. He further urged the Chinese
Muslims to be very patriotic and to work for
the betterment of their country and declared
Cooperation between ‘Iron Brothers’: would ensure flow of oil to China in the event
Challenge for India? of blocking up of Malacca Straits: Gwadar
port (handed over to Chinese Overseas Port
‘Strings of Pearls’: This term which was first Holdings Ltd. on February 18, 2013),
used by defence consultant Booz Allen Hambantota in Sri Lanka, Chittagong in
Hamilton in a 2005 report titled “Energy Fu- Bangladesh and Sittwe in Myanmar, and re-
tures in Asia”, prepared for the then US De- cipient of series of facilities in Somalia,
fence Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld has Yemen and Djibouti.
gained much currency in contemporary times
and scholars allege that encirclement of India However, one should not undermine
is a well-planned strategy of Chinese and it India’s preparedness to tackle these perils of
keeps creating glitches across the two Hima- proximity. Indian is aware of this policy and
layan neighbours. has taken several steps to strengthen her
maritime security and these include:
Today, China is the second largest con- strengthening its Tri Service Strategic Com-
sumer and third largest importer of oil and mand situated at Andaman & Nicobar Islands
nearly 80 per cent of which passes through with main objective to keep an eye on trade
Strait of Malacca. The US domination of the route through Malacca Strait by already de-
Indian Ocean region, especially in the South ployed Sukhoi aircraft and building of several
East Asia and Asia Pacific region, along with airfields across the Andaman & Nicobar Is-
rising Indian influence in contemporary era lands. India has strengthened her radar sys-
has threatened China’s vital energy trade tem, and is setting up listening posts (receiv-
routes. Hence, critics suggest that to ers) at Maldives and Mauritius. Recently,
neutralise such a scenario, China has devel- Mauritius has offered two of its islands in
oped a series of ports encircling India that North of Mauritius to India, however the
later is yet to take decision on it. Further, pend on seasonal monsoon winds. This
India is significantly improving her commer- project is being worked in association with
cial contacts with ASEAN region via India- Ministry of Culture and will focus on ancient
ASEAN trilateral highway (Guwahati- trade and cultural linkages and emphasise on
Mandalay-Ho Chi Minh City), Mekong India future maritime cooperation in the IOR.
Economic Cooperation, BIMSTEC, Kaladan However, in last couple of years especially
Multi Modal project, and so forth. In order to after Premier Wen Jibabao’s 2010 and Li
counter China’s Maritime Silk Road project, Keqiang 2013 visit to India, China has at-
India started reaching out to its maritime tempted to balance her relations with India
neighbours in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and today, the relationship between India
region with the proposal of enhanced eco- and China is mostly trade driven. China is
nomic and security cooperation which was India’s largest trading partner and India also
readily accepted by her maritime neighbours ranks 10th in the list of China’s largest trad-
and with this, India projected its strategic ing partners. India needs to dehyphenate
supremacy over the Indian Ocean Region Sino-Pakistan relations and Sino-India rela-
(IOR) and suggested that India’s relations tions. It is a reality that China is closer to her
with her maritime neighbours are much cor- ‘all-weather friend’ Pakistan and the latter is
dial than that with China’s, particularly with their irreplaceable alley in the current geopo-
reference to the South China Sea. India has litical setup of this region. Now the focus
also launched ‘Project Mausam’ (Project should be to resolve bilateral disputes peace-
Weather) to rival China’s Maritime Silk Road fully.
(MSR) advantage. This project is aimed at
deepening cultural relations in the region as
in ancient times maritime trade used to de-
screens to watch the game. Is it just a game?

Actually, India Pakistan matches are more
like mini-warfare to the citizens of both the
nations who desperately wants to defeat the
other team and where the ‘Sportspersons’
are largely seen as ‘Armies’ fighting a battle
in the play ground.
Stephen Cohen has termed the hostile
relationship between India and Pakistan as
CONCLUSION “hard to manage and even impossible to
resolve” (Cohen & Sandhu, 2010). Thus in
India and Pakistan are now among the list of near future, one cannot actually expect a
some worst enemies in the world and this scenario of full conflict resolution or
process has eventually made them more permanent peace to persist between the rival
aware and concerned about each other. No neighbours. Due to the fact that both India
other country on earth except Pakistan cares and Pakistan possesses nuclear weapons, it
so much about India: her socio-political restrains them from getting involved in any
behaviour, strategic ties, developments, dis- full-fledged war or hot war, however there
are no signs of long-lasting engagement,
cussions, and debates. The level of their con-
without interruptions. Scholars like Sanjeeb
cern towards one another is most evident
Kumar Mohanty and Jinendra Nath
from the very sporty Cricket World Cup Mohanty, views the military-madrasa-
match between India and Pakistan which is mullah complex in Pakistan since 1970s has
nothing less than an undeclared national holi- actually transformed Islam into a
day to the masses- who abandon all their fundamentalist creed which has given birth
work and sit in front of their television to a militant brand of Islam to fight its so-
98
believed enemies. They in the process has International Community has remained
confused religiosity with religion, and are ineffective till date (Thakur, 2011).
thus using region (Islam) in the name of jihad In the entire process of writing this book,
to take innocent lives in the form of I understood the necessity to root out
terrorism (Mohanty & Mahanty, 2010). differences in a society to prevent conflict
Terrorists, I believe do-not have any and restore peace. A standard view of Indo-
particular religion, because no religion asks Pak relationship describes their antagonistic
one individual to kill another fellow being of relations with tit-for-tat nuclear tests,
another faith. God has made us tolerant and allegations of spying on each other, all have
given us the rational faculty to judge things contributed enough in making the situation
on the basis of reason and hence, if someone worse (Mitra, 2001).
claims his/her religion to be supreme, they Our world is constantly growing from
must act supreme by showing love and primitive to modern and in this process it
respect to all fellow humans, irrespective of gets exposed to new and alien civilisations:
the religion they profess. their culture, ideas, approach to life, which
Pakistan’s real objective has always been has created an amalgam of ancient and
to destabilize India. Pakistan’s military, modern, war and peace.
intelligence agencies, jihadists have all given Indian society has achieved the glory of
ground to the terrorists who are repeatedly being a successful democratic nation since its
planning attacks and training militants in the journey as an independent country. Having a
soil of Pakistan, who is financing such
long history of being a colonised nation in the
activities against India. India being a peace-
past, India has now emerged as a multi-
loving nation has never responded such
cultural society. Individuals have grasped
brutally against Pakistan, however, all its
more than one culture that most likely has
peace appeal to Pakistan and to the
happened due to cultural intermixing with Kashmir has to be perhaps de-linked from
people from other imperial lands. The India for the sake of harvesting peace in both
importance of culture has evolved in the the nations (Dixit, J. N. 2001). This sort of
sphere of politics significantly after the approach towards claiming Kashmir out of
Second World War, where in a world India is dangerous because it can further
surrounded by deadly nuclear weapons, one initiate the risk of war between the duos
cannot think of extending its control over which would never turn out to be peaceful for
other nations through military power. The either of the two.
possession of Nuclear weapons by both India Scholars have noticed surprising
and Pakistan have made ‘balance of power’ behaviour among the Pakistani leaders, who
irrelevant (Basrur, 2009). In this world ruled brings up Kashmir issue every time when a
by soft power, India and Pakistan both peace talk is initiated between the two rival
should understand that the possession of nations (Routray, 2014).
nuclear weapons is not at all necessary to
Pakistan still believes that its threat of
peace, to security, or to prosper is any field
using nuclear weapon prevents India from
as such. While addressing a Women’s
getting into a full-fledged war with Pakistan.
delegation in Islamabad, General Pervez
According to Mr. A. Z. Hilali, the continued
Musharraf expressed his desire to give a new
tensions and misunderstanding between
status for the whole of Jammu and Kashmir
India and Pakistan, and misinterpretation of
under Indian occupation. When asked for his
comment, if the Kashmir valley being given each other’s behaviour will only lead to
to Pakistan, and the rest stays with India, increase in poverty and backwardness, and
Musharraf insisted on the presence of large hence only cooperation can bring about
number of Muslims in Jammu and Ladakh, positive changes in the life of the people
and hence the entire state of Jammu and living in the region (Hilali, 2005).
International peace and security has always security that includes, among other factors,
remained the primary concern of nation- non-proliferation of weapons of mass
states, with an aim to provide a secure and destruction. These weapons have the
stable lifestyle to their residents. As capacity to destroy the very existence of life
Ambassador Mr. Grover said, that the Indian on earth and hence their control is necessary
government and its leaders are trying to in reduction of tension among states.
Empirical investigations based on time series
better the relationship with Pakistan since
econometrics from 1950 till 2005, have
the last five decades, however, all efforts till
proposed that reduction in bilateral trade,
date hasn’t turned out as effective, may be
more expenditure on military capabilities,
because Pakistan’s sole objective has always lesser investment on developmental projects,
been to destabilize and destroy India unstable democracy, lower level of growth
(Grover, 2001). The concern of security had rates, all acts as catalyst in creating war-like
led to war and peace in the past, and would situations. Globalisation is thus seen as a tool
continue to promote these in future. to bring in peace, and cooperation through
European Union on 2003, declared the open trade relations among nations and
possession of weapons of mass destruction as hence focusing more on development, than
the greatest threat to world security, and on conflicts (Mamoon & Murshed, 2010). In
hence called for immediate vigilance on today’s date the only possible way to spread
nuclear proliferation, which has to be one’s hegemony worldwide is through
cultural and ideological fields, rather than
managed within its preferred multilateral
military or economic grounds. Indo-Pak
security governance framework (Hassan,
relationship sometimes seem to be heading
2013). A peaceful international order is
towards a more promising future with the
always linked to the notion of International
launching of ‘Composite Dialogue’ between
the two on issues related to peace, security, (1983) (Cheema, 2006). Thus, even though
confidence building measures, and other India is a rising Asian power with global
serious territorial disputes, even after its ambitions, its foreign policy is still dominated
long history of hostility, cross-border by policies concerning her relationship with
conflict, leading to four full-fledged war Pakistan.
(Wolf, 2012). India and Pakistan can never Few months before May 2013 election
make progress until they are called campaign in Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif
separately as rivals, increasing further expressed his willingness to make a new start
antagonism and hatred between the two, and with India after he stood victorious in the
hence further confidence building measures election. Soon he got congratulatory message
can only accelerate situations of peace and
from the office of the then Indian Prime
cooperation.
Minister, for his very thought of beginning a
Confidence building is an old phenomenon peaceful bilateral relation between the two.
in the Indo-Pak relations, since the However, it became visible shortly, that even
departure of British from the Indian after an impressive electoral victory; a
subcontinent and the partition of British democratic government in Pakistan is much
India into two separate province of India and weak as compared to its powerful military,
Pakistan, the duo has signed numerous peace who considers India to be its worst foe
building agreements to reduce tensions of (Routray, 2014).
conflict, notable among them are Liaquat-
However, India’s soft power still remains
Nehru Pact (1951), Indus Waters Treaty
one of its biggest strength, whether it is the
(1960), Tashkent Agreement (1966), Rann of
popularity of Bollywood films, music, TV soap
Kutch Agreement (1968), Shimla Accord
oversees, sports, or popular Indian culture
(1972), Salal Dam Agreement (1978), and the
and cuisine, all have made their own definite
establishment of the Joint Commission
contribution to India’s soft power. Both When the diplomatic relations between the
Bollywood stars and Indian cricketers are two were at their lowest, the test series
pretty popular in Pakistan, Afghanistan, were brought at the close, while at times
Arab countries and hence have strong when the bilateral relations are good enough
influence on the youth population. The iconic for sports to be played, cricket is played in
Indian movie Sholay was released in cheerful manner throughout the countries in
Pakistan almost 40 years after its release in good spirit (Crick, 2009). This shows that
India, by an initiative of Nadeem there are still enough possibilities of
Mandviwalla, who termed Indian movie bettering the relationship between India and
‘Sholay’ as the most unique movie of all times Pakistan by nourishing the aspects concerned
and initiated its screening on the other side of with harvesting soft power. As Pakistan’s
Wagah border as he felt that the Pakistanis renounced player cum ex-captain Wasim
were deprived from experiencing Sholay in said,
big theatre screen. The similar craze is
noticed among the people in these two
nations during a Cricket match, where “We are going there to better the
players from both the countries are equally relations between the two countries, and I
loved across borders. hope the Indian Government will not allow
a handful of people to deprive cricket lovers
Cricket, the best played sport in South
of some action and tension packed cricket.”
Asia however still it plays an important role
in the Indo-Pak relations. Cricket thus has –Wasim Akram. (Bandyopadhyay, 2008).
the capacity to unite as well as fragment
politics between nations, with special
reference to India and Pakistan relations.
hostility. I must have played about 20

matches against them. It’s the spectators
who make it so electrifying because people
are so tense. No politician can understand
the level of this hostility until and unless
they go and play on the ground.”
– Kapil Dev. (Bandyopadhyay, 2008).
Focusing on these cultural strengths which
are common to both the nations can help in
bettering bilateral ties though slowly but
st
surely, as soft power in this 21 century not
Image 21 : India-Pakistan Cricketers shaking hands
only has the ability to win over hard powers,
during a match
but also can win the consent of the other
Similar are the views of Indian Cricket ex- dominated classes, and make them view the
captain, Kapil Dev, who said: world in a manner favourable to the
“There’s no place for sentiment when ascendency of the dominant class.
India meets Pakistan in cricket. My very
first experience in Pakistan makes it amply
Five decades have passed now, but India
clear that the political differences between
and Pakistan are still fighting over Kashmir,
these two countries get translated into this
either on ground or at table; with both the
game. If you are batting, you feel that even
countries desperately trying to end the issue,
the fielders are hostile. I wish they played
however none has succeeded till date
more with a spirit of competition than
(Schofield, 2000). However, there are
growing signs of a bettering relationship

between the two in recent past with Pakistan
granting India the status of the ‘Most
Favoured Nation’ in late 2011. Scholars view
this development as an unexpected gesture
on the part of Pakistan, and no doubt that it
is a good sign in the improvement of
relationship between the duos which can also
boost trade relations between them that
have been considerably low, despite both
being members of the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) (Gopalan, Malik, &
Reinert, 2013). Improving relationship
between India and Pakistan could create a
more favourable environment for both the
nations to reduce the threat posed by
terrorism. Open and informal dialogue
between the Prime Ministers, followed by a
sudden visit of Indian Prime Minister
Image 22 : PM Modi’s surprise visit at Lahore, Pakistan
Narendra Modi at Pakistani Prime Minister on Christmas, 2015
Nawaz Sharif’s ancestral home in Lahore on
Christmas, 2015, was a welcoming step
towards recovering bond between India and
Pakistan.
Youths in these two nations have started

copying the footstep of their leaders in power
and are also participating voluntarily in
bringing the two lands and their people
closer. Though one can still witness situations
of conflict arising between the duos,
triggered by fundamentalist groups, but as
they say, there is an end to everything that
has started and terrorism being an inhumane
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The History of Perpetual War: Indo-Pak Relations

Book · January 2016

Thesis based View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

First Published : January 2016

Cover Design : Soumya Dutta

Typeset : Perfect Lasergraphics

Publisher : Parampara Prakashan

Printed by : SP Communications Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata-9

Price : ﬁ 200.00 (South Asia), £12 (UK),

Hindu-Muslim Split & Hindu Revivalism........16

Formation of Muslim League............................21

Indo-Pak War (1965)........................................44

The 1971 War...................................................45

Dispute Over Line of Control..........................60

Hindutva Ideology and the Ayodhya Dispute..61

Nuclear Test (1998)..........................................65

Kargil War (1999)..............................................68

Terrorist Attacks (2001)...................................73

Gujarat Riot (2002)...........................................74

Samjhauta Express Bombing (2007)...............76

Attack on Mumbai (2008).................................78

Balancing with the Great Power.......................80

Indo-Pak relationship has always remained

among nation states, South Asia is advancing PARTITION OF BRITISH INDIA

majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan,

Villages were set on fire and women of all

various other sabhas, prominent among them

DIRECT ACTION DAY bloodbaths in the borders of Bengal and

INDUS WATER TREATY pictured the inner differences between the

INDO-PAK WAR 1965

Pakistan after being left red faced in the

Islam and supplied them weapons to start

fundamentalists trained in Afghanistan’s solution for Kashmir to join Pakistan.

Image 14 : Kashmir Pandits

as a Hindu nation, thus, rotting the relationship

NUCLEAR TESTS 1998

Soon in the month of May, 1998, the locals

increase in debt and resultant poverty, far

KARGIL WAR IN KASHMIR 1999

After 16 years from the Kargil war,

India during this period vehemently

ATTACK ON MUMBAI 2008

26/11 attack on Mumbai in 2008 is yet

which is constantly growing and it now seems

screens to watch the game. Is it just a game?

hostility. I must have played about 20

growing signs of a bettering relationship

Youths in these two nations have started

Anonymous. (2001). Summary of Basrur, R. M. (2009). Nuclear Weapons and

Dixit, J. N. (2001). Indo-Pak Hilali, A. Z. (2005). Confidence-and

Routray, B. P. (2014). India–Pakistan Peace Tudor, M. (2013). The promise of power:

Thakur, R. (2011). Delinking Destiny from

Cohen, S. P. (1997). South Asia: The origins

Singh, L. G. H. (1991). War Despatches:

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