Costbook

2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator, All Rights Reserved Page 1
2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator
By Dan Atcheson
Includes:
An estimating program that makes it easy to use these costs,
A program that converts your estimates into invoices,
A program that exports your estimates to QuickBooks Pro.
To watch a short video guide to National Estimator, click ? on the National Estimator toolbar. Then click
ShowMe tutorial.
Quarterly price updates on the Web are free and automatic all during 2016. You'll be prompted when it's
time to collect the next update. A connection to the Web is required.
Download all of Craftsman's most popular costbooks for one low price with the Craftsman Site License,
http://www.craftsmansitelicense.com.
Craftsman Book Company

6058 Corte del Cedro / Carlsbad, CA 92011 / www.Craftsman-Book.com
Credits and Acknowledgments
John Azar, Sarasota, FL, Clark Balderson, Dymax Construction Equipment, Wamego, KS, Bobcat of
Sarasota, Sarasota, FL, Bucyrus International, Inc., South Milwaukee, WI, Don Bundock, Lubbock, TX,
Julie Flaherty, Case Construction Equipment, Racine, WI, Dan Gauthier, Gauthier Enterprises, Venice,
FL, Kent Grubbs, Sarasota, FL, Dennis Holt, Woodruff & Sons, Bradenton, FL, Kathe Hooper, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, Richard Johnson, R.E. Johnson Enterprises, Sarasota, FL,
Rick Langedyk, Construction Estimating Institute of America, Sarasota, FL, Luke Legner, Caterpillar,
Inc., Peoria, IL, Phil Light, Center Line Estimating, Sarasota, FL, Phil Mack, Ring Power, Sarasota, FL,
Jimmy McLeod, McLeod Land Services, Inc., Sarasota, FL, Miskin Scraper Works, Inc., Idaho Falls, ID,
C.W. Nall, Jr., District Engineer, Texas Highway Dept., Lubbock, TX, Terry Newman, Glen Rose, TX,
David Oriente, Professional Concrete, Inc., Sarasota, FL, Mark Roberts, York Modern Corp. (York
Rakes), Unadilla, NY, Roger Robuck, Ardaman & Associates, Inc., Sarasota, FL, Rome Plow
Company, Cedartown, GA, Joe Sorace, Sarasota, FL, Wacker Corporation, Menomonee Falls, WI,
Dwight Walker, Asphalt Institute, Lexington, KY.
This book is dedicated to Mom and Dad, James and Lucille Atcheson.
I'd like to thank the following personnel (and dear friends) at Craftsman Book Company for their
involvement and assistance in producing this book. Richard Pray, editor, Ray Hicks, editor, Tim
Campbell, digital conversion, Gary Moselle, producer and publisher.
When I work at what I love, I endeavor to be the best in the world at it; not for the bragging rights, should
this come to pass, but because no matter the outcome, I know I've done the best I can. (Dan Atcheson,
2004)
I want to also thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, who gave me eyes to see, hands to type and a
mind to think.
©2015 Craftsman Book Company

Published November 2015 for the year 2016
Estimating Earthwork 5
Variables Affecting Earthwork Project Costs 6
Getting Started with Earthwork 7
Using National Estimator 10
Labor Costs 11
Area Modification Factors 18
Contour Maps 23
Contour Lines in Lakes and Ponds 25
Adjusting Elevations to Achieve Site Balance 26
Site Preparation 29
Surveying 29
Site Clearing 31
Cut and Fill Operations 33

The Cross Section Method 34
The Average End Area Method 37
The Zero (Daylight) Line 38
Topsoil, Slabs and Paving 45

Topsoil Volumes 46
Net Cut and Fill Volumes 47
How Land Slope Affects Topsoil Quantities 50
Roadwork 53
Centerline Profiles 53
Road Cross Sections 54
Mass Diagrams 56
Asphalt Quantities 60
Curbs and Gutters 62
Soil Swell and Shrinkage 65

The Fundamental States of Soil 65
Ground Loss 69
Spoil, Borrow, and Soil Balancing 71

Site Balancing 71
Interim Spoil and Soil Piles 73
Basement Excavation 75
Determining Basement Excavation Quantities 76
Safe Bank Slope 77
The Pencil Plane Method for Volume Calculation 77
Trench Excavation 83
Trench Depth and Shape 83
Footing Trench Excavation Volumes 84
Utility Trenches 86
Dewatering 90
2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator, All Rights Reserved Page 3 (part 2)
Grade Beams and Drilled Piers 93

Calculating Pier-Drilling Volumes 94
Excavating Equipment 97
Excavator Production 97
Excavator Bucket Capacities 98
Cable-Operated Power Shovels 100
Cable Operated Draglines 104
Clamshells 105
Crane Lifting Capacities 108
Cable-Operated Hoes 109
Hydraulic Excavators 111
Hydraulic Shovels 115
Gradalls 116
Trenching Machines 116
Excavation cost estimates 117
Moving Vehicle Performance 191

Grade Resistance and Assistance 192
Travel Time Charts 193
Loaders 195
Loader Productivity 198
Soil State Cubic Yard Conversions 201
Loading cost estimates 202
Trucks and Wagons 209

Excavator and Hauling Unit Production Rates 211
Turning and Dump Time 212
Hauling cost estimates 212
Tractors and Bulldozers 223

Dozing Techniques 224
Dozer Blades 225
Dozer Productivity 228
Dozing cost estimates 226
Scrapers 241
Scraper Uses and Limitations 235
Scraper Varieties 237
Scraper Cycle Time 239
Push Loading 240
Maneuver and Dump Time 241
Scraper cost estimates 244
Soil Compaction 251

Compaction Fundamentals 251
Soil Testing 253
Grading Soil Particles 256
Calculating Dry Density 259
Field (In-Place) Soil Density Testing 260
Compaction Forces and Compaction Equipment 261

Estimating Compactor Productivity 268
Soil Stabilization 271
Soil compaction cost estimates 272
Motor Graders 273

Material Blending and Spreading 274
Motor Grader Productivity 276
Grading cost estimates 278
Paving 285
Aggregate 285
Binder 287
Bituminous Surface Treatments 289
Aggregate Surface Treatments 291
Installing Asphalt Paving 294
Pavement Compaction 297
Pavement Recycling 299
Rock Blasting and Ripping 303

Rock Blasting 305
Ripping Rock 317
Estimating Ripper Productivity 311
Ripping cost estimates 313
1
Estimating
Earthwork
Every earthwork bid begins with an estimator's perception of the site plan -- an informed guess on the
work required and the cost of that work. Soils vary. Conditions vary. So it's reasonable to expect that
estimates will vary. But that's just the beginning. Estimating procedures also vary. If one estimator plans
to strip four inches of topsoil and another plans to strip six inches, the difference on a 750- by 750-foot
project requiring only fill material is 3,500 cubic yards. Both estimators may be right, based on their own
evaluations. But the difference is far from trivial.
Most dirt estimators use a digitizer board and earthwork software to calculate cut and fill volumes. I use
a digitizer myself, and recommend it for doing consulting work. For several years I was an instructor of
computerized earthwork estimating. Today, nearly all excavation estimates are prepared with a
computer. But no computer program is a substitute for good judgment and sound estimating
experience. Finding the centerline of a sloping surface in a basement requires knowledge based on
experience doing earthwork take-offs by hand. As an instructor, I recognized that those who came to
class with experience doing earthwork take-offs on paper consistently made better use of their software.
Here's an example that illustrates my point. Figure 1-1 is a solution one of my students in a
computerized estimating class proposed for an assigned exercise. The job was one large building pad
requiring only fill material. This student calculated the excavation quantity with earthwork software. His
was the lowest bid in the class. Do you understand why?
If you've figured excavation quantities by hand, you'll see the error almost immediately. This student
planned to strip 12 inches of topsoil off the fill section. Unfortunately, that's not how Mother Nature
works. Topsoil starts out on the existing surface, not on the proposed surface. Figure 1-2 shows how
the job should have been figured -- requiring an additional 60,000 cubic yards of fill.
Variables Affecting Earthwork Project Costs
We can all agree that estimates for earthwork are going to vary. But variation should not be caused by
mistakes or a failure to consider job conditions. The more you know about the proposed job, the better
your chance of producing a good estimate. The most cautious estimators tend to be the best
estimators, accustomed to asking questions, getting answers and accepting the minimum risk
possible. To minimize your risk, get answers to the following questions:
* How accessible is the site? Will tight workspaces or steep slopes hamper production? Can existing
roads and bridges bear the weight of heavy equipment?
* How far will you need to haul imported or exported material?
* Are utilities, housing, food, and first-aid facilities readily available for employees?
* How much compaction will the fill material require? The more density required, the more compaction
needed, the more passes required with heavier compacting equipment. Soil density testing and
re-testing can be expensive.
* Is the equipment you need available locally? Will you need specialized equipment?
* Can you anticipate shortages of labor, equipment or qualified subcontractors? Costs will be higher
when resources are scarce.
* What type of earth is to be excavated? Hard, wet soil costs more to excavate than soft, dry material.
* What equipment is most appropriate for the surface conditions? Poor drainage, sharp rocks and
steep slopes call for crawler-mounted equipment. Crawlers are less mobile than rubber-tired vehicles
and must be transported to the site by truck.
* What are the subsurface conditions? When excavating below the local water table, you'll need
continuous de-watering. Excavating wet material takes more time, even when a firm, dry surface is
available above the pit.
* Will existing site conditions such as trees, power lines, traffic and adjacent structures hamper
production?
* What type of fill material is required? If on-site material is not suitable, fill has to be imported and
excess material hauled away.
* What weather can you expect? A heavy rain can stop production for days after the skies have
cleared. High temperatures affect evaporation. Cold weather can stop all work. Keep in mind that you'll
be paying equipment rental costs even during work stoppages.
* What limits are imposed by government: fees, hours of operation, noise limits, environmental
regulations, advance notice requirements, permits?
What's the retainage -- the percentage withheld from progress payments? Excavation will be finished
long before the entire project is finished. Will you have to wait until substantial work is completed before
collecting in full?
I can't answer questions like these for you. That's your job. But there's plenty I can do the help you
create consistently reliable estimates for excavation work. That's the purpose of this manual.
Getting Started with Earthwork
Certain aspects of dirt estimating are beyond your control. Plans aren't always drawn with surgical
precision. The surveyors shoot point elevations, often in very rugged and overgrown terrain throughout
the site. Then they take the field data and estimate contours with the help of existing contour locations.
When you move heavy equipment onto the site, most sites will subside to some degree. And the
equipment operators are human -- they'll make errors in the field by over-excavating some areas. But
that's not to say you should throw your hands up in frustration and consider a different career path. You
just need to adjust your attitude to accept the uncertainty that comes with earthwork, and focus on the
stuff you can control.
Most excavation work begins with a site plan. Your task is to figure excavation quantities and assign a
dollar cost to every work item in the job. I'm going to explain quantity take-off for excavation. But I'm not
going to teach any particular dirt take-off program. Your favorite dirt take-off software vendor will be
happy to do that. If you're a professional earthwork estimator, you probably have and use a dirt take-off
program already. If not, no problem. What I'm going to describe works as well for calculations done by
hand as for take-offs done with a digital tablet. In either case, this manual and the software included with
it will become valuable tools of your trade.
Earthwork estimating can be complex. If you can't be bothered with calculations like I'm doing on the
whiteboard in Figure 1-3, that's fine. I've simplified the subject into basics anyone can understand. How
do I know that? Easy. I've been teaching estimators for over 30 years. I've learned what it takes to
become an expert at earthwork take-off and pricing. I'm going to explain how to work with contour maps,
determine volumes of topsoil stripped and how to calculate volumes of cut and fill, whether for a building
site, basement or trench. You'll also learn to figure costs for roadwork and paving, including mass haul
diagrams -- a goldmine for road builders.
I'll demonstrate that heavy equipment production (and thus the costs) can be quantified and predicted
with reasonable accuracy. You'll learn how to work with machine production tables and graphs. And I've
included nearly 100 pages of current production and cost data for dozers, excavators, scrapers, loaders,
motor graders, trucks, rippers and soil compactors. I've used my training as a mathematician to build
tables that condense all the key variables into a single number. Find the line that best fits your job and
you've found your cost per cubic yard. I've done the math. All you have to do is read the table.
What qualifies me to write this book? As mentioned, I've been teaching estimators for over 30 years.
Before that, I worked as an earthwork estimator. For eight years prior, I was an instructor in the
Construction Engineering Department at Texas Tech University. I've taught earthwork estimating classes
all over the country and been a consultant to contractors all over the world. I'm the author of nearly 60
technical papers called the "Dr. Dirt Papers," published by Quest Solutions in Sarasota, Florida. I'm
also the author of Estimating Earthwork Quantities Earthmoving Equipment Production Rates and
Costs. I've been invited to speak at gatherings sponsored by the American Society of Professional
Estimators and the American Association of Cost Engineers.
This manual has two distinct parts. Part One explains how to figure job quantities. You need to
understand the work before you can estimate its costs, because what you don't understand can be very
expensive. My focus will be on sound estimating procedure, working carefully and eliminating as many
unknowns as possible. The estimate for everything you forgot to include is always zero. A tendency to
make errors like that can shorten the career of any estimator.
Part Two covers equipment rates and costs for nearly all excavation work. These tables deal with every
likely job condition and cover all job costs. Later in this chapter I'll explain in detail what these cost
tables include and exclude.
Of course, the best estimating reference for your company would be a catalog of actual costs on jobs
completed in the last few months -- work done with your equipment and under your supervision. Since
every excavation contractor uses different crews and equipment, every price book would be different.
And, naturally, prices in your company price book would need to be revised regularly to reflect current
labor and equipment costs.
Having admitted that there's no substitute for developing your own price book, I'll suggest that you not
bother. Most excavation specialists don't have the time or patience to maintain a book of current bid
prices for every conceivable type of work. Even if you had time to burn, spending several hours a month
revising your company price book would be a waste of time.
Instead, let this serve as your company price book. Using prices in the National Estimator software will
eliminate most common estimating mistakes. If your labor costs are higher or if your equipment is less
productive, you may have to increase the prices listed here to make a reasonable profit. And, of course,
sometimes you're going to have a job with costs that exceed what any reasonable estimate could have
predicted. This manual isn't a substitute for good judgment. That's always your job.
Using National Estimator
The National Estimator program makes it easy to copy and paste these costs into an estimate (or bid)
and then add whatever markup you select. If you have trouble using National Estimator, call Craftsman
Book Company Tech Support at 760-438-7828 ext. 2, from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. (Pacific), Monday through
Friday. We'll be glad to help.
Once an estimate is finished in the National Estimator program and saved to disk, press and hold the
Ctrl key on your keyboard and tap the letter J to convert the estimate into a proposal in Job Cost
Wizard. You can't make changes in the Job Cost Wizard screen. But it's easy to toggle back to the
National Estimator program (hold the Alt key down and tap the Tab key). Make the change. Then press
Ctrl-J once again.
Job Cost Wizard offers dozens of choices on what you show and don't show in written proposals. Your
bids can be long (full description for everything in the estimate) or short (only a summary of each
category). You can show or hide labor, material and equipment cost details. You can show or hide
markup and profit.
Once work begins, you'll want to monitor job expenses to be sure actual costs remain consistent with
estimated costs. If you use QuickBooks to pay bills and figure payroll, let QuickBooks do the
comparisons for you. Job Cost Wizard exports the proposal to QuickBooks, where you can prepare
progress invoices and track expenses against estimates.
The National Estimator program lets you change anything in the costbook, or even add your own
estimated costs. Let the National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator costbook become your
collection point for all estimating and pricing information. Anything you add to the cost database
(costbook) shows up in red and can be migrated to later editions of this manual when available. The
National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator costbook can be your most useful estimating
reference. What you add to that costbook will make it even more valuable.
Material Costs
Material costs for each item are listed in the column headed "Material." These are neither retail nor
wholesale prices. They are estimates of what most excavation contractors who buy in moderate volume
will pay suppliers as of mid-2016. Discounts may be available for purchases in larger volumes.
Add mobilization and delivery expense to the material cost for other than local delivery of
reasonably large quantities. Cost of mobilization (getting crews and equipment to the site) and
demobilization (returning crews and equipment from the site) varies with the distance from source of
supply, method of transportation and what's being mobilized.
Add sales tax when sales tax will be charged on materials or equip-ment. In some states, contractors
have to collect sales tax based on the contract price. No matter what your state (or county) requires,
National Estimator can handle the task. Click Edit on the National Estimator menu bar. Then click Tax
Rates.
Labor Costs
Labor costs for doing the work described are listed in the column headed "Labor." The labor cost per
unit is the labor cost per hour multiplied by the manhours per unit shown after the @ sign in the
"Craft@Hrs" column. Labor cost includes the basic wage, the employer's contribution to welfare,
pension, vacation and apprentice funds, and all tax and insurance charges based on wages.
Supervision expense is not included in the labor cost. The cost of supervision and non-productive
labor varies widely from job to job. Calculate the cost of supervision and non-productive labor and add
this to the estimate.
Payroll taxes and insurance are included in the labor cost. See the following section for more on the
"contractor's burden."
Manhours per unit and the craft performing the work are listed in the "Craft@Hrs" column. To find the
units of work done per man in an 8-hour day, divide 8 by the manhours per unit. To find the units done
by a crew in an 8-hour day, multiply the units per man per 8-hour day by the number of crew members.
Manhours include all productive labor normally associated with doing the work. This will usually include
tasks such as:
* Storing and securing materials, tools and equipment on site.

* Moving tools and equipment from a staging area on site at the beginning of the day.
* Returning tools and equipment to the staging area at the end of the day.
* Normal time lost for work breaks.
* Planning and discussing the work to be performed.
* Keeping a record of the time spent and work done.
* Infrequent correction or adjustment because of faulty work.
* Regular cleanup of construction debris.
Adjust the labor cost to the job you're figuring when your actual hourly labor cost is known or can be
estimated. Hourly labor costs listed in the following section and used in Part Two of this manual will
apply within a few percent on many jobs. But labor costs may be much higher or much lower on the job
you're estimating.
If hourly wage rates listed in the following section aren't accurate, divide your known or estimated cost
per hour by the listed cost per hour. The result is your adjustment for any figure in the "Labor" column
for that craft.
Adjust for unusual labor productivity. Costs in the labor column are for conditions commonly
encountered on reasonably well-planned and managed excavation projects with fair-to-good productivity
and non-adverse weather conditions. Labor estimates assume that the site has no unusual restrictions,
conflicts with other trades are minimized, utility lines have been marked and do not limit production, and
working conditions don't slow progress.
Working conditions at the job site have a major impact on labor cost. Estimating experience and careful
analysis can help you predict the effect of most changes in working conditions. Obviously, no single
adjustment will apply on all jobs. But the adjustments that follow should help you produce more
accurate labor estimates. More than one condition may apply on a job.
* Add 10 percent to 15 percent when working in temperatures below 40 degrees or above 95 degrees.
* Deduct 10 percent when the work is in an open area with excellent access.
* Add 5 percent to 50 percent for operators with below-average skill. Deduct 5 percent to 25 percent for
highly-motivated, highly-skilled operators.
* Deduct 10 percent to 20 percent for larger jobs where production can proceed without the need to
relocate equipment or re-stage for varying setups.
* Add 20 percent to 50 percent on small jobs where multiple equipment set-ups are required, adjacent
areas or utility lines have to be protected or when other contractors are active on the site.
* Add 25 percent to 50 percent for work done following a major flood, fire, earthquake, hurricane or
tornado when skilled operators are not readily available. Equipment costs may also be higher after a
major disaster.
* Add 10 percent to 35 percent for overly-demanding specs, rigid inspections, unreliable suppliers, a
difficult owner or an inexperienced engineer.
This manual has been compiled for excavation estimators, not for engineers. Nothing in this manual
is intended to suggest either approved or recommended engineering practice. Only an engineer licensed
to practice in your community can identify procedures that meet code requirements and accepted
standards for excavation.
Use an area modification factor from pages 18 through 22 if your actual material, hourly labor or
equipment costs are unknown and can't be estimated. Here's how: Use the labor, material and
equipment costs in this manual without modification. Then add or deduct the percentages shown for
labor, material and equipment.
Equipment costs for small tools and expendable supplies (such as shovels and chalk line) are usually
considered overhead expense and are covered by your markup. Cost for excavation equipment is
included in the Equipment column and is based on what most excavation contractors pay for equipment
in fair to good condition, including all operating costs.
Labor, material and equipment costs change. These costs were compiled in the winter of 2014 and
projected to mid-2016 by adding a small percentage. This projection will be accurate for some costs and
inaccurate for others. No one can predict material and equipment price changes accurately.
How accurate are these figures? As accurate as possible, considering that I don't know your
equipment suppliers, and have not seen the site plan, the site or the equipment. I don't know where the
job is, have to project costs at least six months into the future, and have no record of how much work
your crews can handle. You wouldn't bid a job under those conditions. And I don't claim that all
excavation is done at these prices.
Estimating is an art, not a science. On many jobs, the range between high and low bid will be 20
percent or more. There's room for legitimate disagreement on what the correct costs are, even when
complete plans and specifications are available, the date and site are established, and labor, material
and equipment costs are identical for all bidders.
No cost fits all jobs. Good estimates are custom-made for a particular project and a single contractor.
This book is not a substitute for good judgment, analysis, and sound estimating practice. It's an aid in
developing an informed opinion of cost. If you're using this book as your sole cost authority for contract
bids, you're reading more into these pages than I intend.
Use these figures to compile preliminary estimates, to check your costs and subcontract bids and
when no actual costs are available. This book will reduce the chance of error or omission on bid
estimates, speed "ball park" estimates, and be a good guide when there's no time to get an official
quote.
Where do these figures come from? From the same sources all professional estimators use:
equipment capacity tables, equipment vendors, analysis of plans, estimates I've compiled, and
completed project costs.
Craftsman Book Company will answer your questions about any part of this cost book and explain
how to apply these costs. Free telephone assistance is available from 8 a.m. until 5 p.m. Pacific time,
Monday through Friday, except holidays. Phone 760-438-7828 extension 2. Support personnel at
Craftsman don't accept collect calls and won't estimate the job for you. But if you need clarification on
something in this manual, help is available.
Labor Costs and Crews
Throughout this manual you'll see a column headed Craft@Hrs. Letters and numbers in this column
show my estimates of:
* Who will do the work (the craft code)

* An @ symbol, which means "at"
* How long the work will take (manhours).
For example, in Chapter 12 (page 164) you'll find estimates for excavating a 20-foot trench in tough clay
for 24-inch pipe using a 3 CY bucket. Opposite "20' deep, 18LF/hr" you see:
BD@.225
That means my estimate for excavating the trench for crew BD is .225 manhours per linear foot. That's
the same as 22.5 manhours per 100 linear feet.
The Craft Codes in Figure 1-4 define each of the craft codes used in this book. Notice that crew BD is
composed of three laborers and one operating engineer. To excavate 100 linear feet of trench would
require 22.5 manhours (5.6 hours for a crew of four).
OE -- 1 operating engineer -- $41.68 per hour
B8 -- 1 building laborer and 1 operating engineer -- $35.67 per hour
BD -- 3 building laborers and 1 operating engineer -- $32.66 per hour
TR -- 1 truck driver -- $30.39 per hour
Figure 1-4 Craft Codes
Notice also in the table that the cost per manhour for crew BD is listed as $32.66. That's the average for
three laborers (at $29.65 per hour) and an operating engineer (listed at $41.68 per hour). Multiply $29.65
by three, and add $41.68 to get $130.63. Since this is a four-person crew, divide by 4 to get $32.66, the
average cost per manhour for crew BD.
Costs in the labor column of this book are the product of the installation time (in manhours) multiplied
by the cost per manhour. For example, in Chapter 12 the labor cost listed for excavating the
aforementioned trench is $7.35 per linear foot. That's the excavation time (.225 manhours) multiplied by
$32.66, the average cost per manhour for crew BD.
Hourly Labor Costs
Hourly Labor Cost
1 2 3 4 5 6
Taxable Non-taxable
fringe fringe Total
Base benefits Insurance Insurance benefits hourly
wage (5.46% of and and (4.82% of cost
per base employer employer base used in
Craft hour wage) taxes(%) taxes($) wage) this book
Building Laborer $20.47 $1.12 32.73% $7.07 $0.99 $29.65
Operating Engineer $30.45 $1.66 25.22% $8.10 $1.47 $41.68
Truck Driver $22.04 $1.20 26.22% $6.09 $1.06 $30.39
Figure 1-5 Hourly Labor Cost Components
Components of Hourly Labor Costs
Figure 1-5 shows hourly labor cost components -- base wage, typical fringe benefits, payroll taxes,
insurance, and the total hourly cost.
The labor costs shown in Column 6 were used to compute the manhour costs for crews in Figure 1-5
and the figures in the "Labor" column of this manual.
It's important that you understand what's included in the figures in each of the six columns. Here's an
explanation:
Column 1, the base wage per hour, is the craftsman's hourly wage. These figures are representative of
what many excavation contractors will be paying operators in 2016.
Column 2, taxable fringe benefits, includes vacation pay, sick leave and other taxable benefits. These
fringe benefits average 5.46 percent of the base wage for many excavation contractors. This benefit is in
addition to the base wage.
Column 3 shows insurance and employer taxes as percentages for construction trades listed. The cost
of insurance in this column includes workers' compensation and contractor's casualty and liability
coverage. Insurance rates vary widely from state to state and depend on a contractor's loss experience.
Note that taxes and insurance increase the hourly labor cost by 30 to 35 percent for most trades.
There's no legal way to avoid these costs.
Column 4, insurance and employer taxes in dollars, shows the hourly cost of taxes and insurance for
each construction trade. Insurance and taxes are paid on the costs in both columns 1 and 2.
Column 5, non-taxable fringe benefits, includes employer-paid non-taxable benefits such as medical
coverage and tax-deferred pension and profit sharing plans. These fringe benefits average 4.82 percent of
the base wage for many excavation contractors. The employer pays no taxes or insurance on these
benefits.
Column 6, the total hourly cost in dollars, is the sum of columns 1, 2, 4, and 5.
These hourly labor costs will apply within a few percent on many jobs. But wage rates may be much
higher or lower in the area where you do business. We recommend using your actual labor cost rather
than national averages. That's easy with the National Estimator program. When copying and pasting
any cost to your estimate, adjust the assumed hourly labor cost to your actual cost. You need do this
only once for each trade. And you can make this adjustment at any time. Any change you make is
applied to that trade throughout the estimate.
Abbreviations
AASHTO American Assn. of State Highway
Transportation Officials
AC acre
ASTM American Society for
Testing and Materials
BCY bank (in place) cubic yard
BM benchmark
CCY compacted cubic yard
CF cubic foot
C.I. contour interval
CY cubic yard
F Fahrenheit
fps feet per second
FW footing width
FWD footing work distance
G.V.W. gross vehicle weight
HIPR hot in-place recycling
HMA hot mix asphalt
HS half slope
LF linear foot
LCY loose cubic yard
LPP location of the pencil plane
MI mile
mph miles per hour
NWL normal water line
O.C. on center
OLE outer limit of excavation
pcf pounds per cubic foot
psi pounds per square inch
PVC polyvinyl chloride
RAM reclaimed aggregate material
RAP reclaimed asphalt pavement
RHM recycled hot mix asphalt
R.O.W. right of way
SF square foot
Sq square (100 square feet)
SY square yard
TN ton
T.O.P. top of pad
T.O.S. top of slab
TS topsoil
USCS Unified Soil Classification System
VOD. velocity of detonation
WS work space
Area Modification Factors
Construction costs are higher in some cities than in others. Add or deduct the percentage shown on the
following pages to adapt the costs in this book to your job site. Adjust your estimated total project cost
by the percentage shown for the appropriate city in this table to find your total estimated cost. Where 0
percent is shown, it means no modification is required.
These percentages were compiled by comparing the construction costs in nearly 700 communities
throughout the U.S. and Canada. Because these percentages are based on completed project costs,
they consider all construction cost variables, including labor, equipment and material cost, labor
productivity, climate, job conditions and markup.
Modification factors are listed alphabetically by state. Areas within each state are listed by the first
three digits of the postal zip code. For convenience, one representative city is identified in each zip code
or range of zip codes.
The percentages are composites of many costs and will not necessarily be accurate when estimating
the cost of any particular operation. But when used to modify costs for an entire project, they should
improve the accuracy of your estimates.
Total
Wtd.
Location, Zip Material Labor Equip. Avg.
Alabama Average -1 -8 0 -4%

Anniston, 362 -3 -13 -1 -8%
Auburn, 368 0 -10 0 -5%
Bellamy, 369 -2 4 -1 1%
Birmingham, 350-352 -3 8 -1 2%
Dothan, 363 0 -13 0 -6%
Evergreen, 364 -1 -22 0 -11%
Gadsden, 359 -4 -19 -1 -11%
Huntsville, 358 1 -4 0 -1%
Jasper, 355 -1 -18 0 -9%
Mobile, 365-366 -1 -3 0 -2%
Montgomery, 360-361 0 -3 0 -1%
Scottsboro, 357 0 -9 0 -4%
Selma, 367 -1 -10 0 -5%
Sheffield, 356 -1 1 0 0%
Tuscaloosa, 354 1 -9 0 -4%
Alaska Average 14 32 5 22%

Anchorage, 995 17 38 6 27%
Fairbanks, 997 16 40 5 27%
Juneau, 998 18 22 6 20%
Ketchikan, 999 3 29 1 15%
King Salmon, 996 16 32 5 23%
Arizona Average 1 -9 0 -4%

Chambers, 865 1 -18 0 -8%
Douglas, 855 0 -15 0 -7%
Flagstaff, 860 2 -18 1 -7%
Kingman, 864 1 -11 0 -5%
Mesa, 852 1 5 0 3%
Phoenix, 850 1 6 0 3%
Prescott, 863 3 -16 1 -6%
Show Low, 859 1 -18 0 -8%

Tucson, 856-857 0 -10 0 -5%
Yuma, 853 0 5 0 2%
Arkansas Average -2 -12 0 -6%

Batesville, 725 0 -20 0 -9%
Camden, 717 -3 -1 -1 -2%
Fayetteville, 727 0 -8 0 -4%
Fort Smith, 729 -1 -14 0 -7%
Harrison, 726 -1 -25 0 -12%
Hope, 718 -3 -6 -1 -4%
Hot Springs, 719 -2 -25 -1 -13%
Jonesboro, 724 -1 -18 0 -9%
Little Rock, 720-722 -1 -6 0 -3%
Pine Bluff, 716 -4 -8 -1 -6%
Russellville, 728 0 -9 0 -4%
West Memphis, 723 -3 -4 -1 -3%
California Average 2 12 1 7%
Alhambra, 917-918 3 15 1 8%
Bakersfield, 932-933 0 4 0 2%
El Centro, 922 1 -1 0 0%
Eureka, 955 1 -12 0 -5%
Fresno, 936-938 0 -5 0 -2%
Herlong, 961 2 -8 1 -3%
Inglewood, 902-905 3 16 1 9%
Irvine, 926-927 3 24 1 13%
Lompoc, 934 3 4 1 3%
Long Beach, 907-908 3 17 1 9%
Los Angeles, 900-901 3 13 1 8%
Marysville, 959 1 -7 0 -3%
Modesto, 953 1 0 0 1%
Mojave, 935 0 11 0 5%
Novato, 949 3 21 1 11%
Oakland, 945-947 3 34 1 17%
Orange, 928 3 21 1 11%
Oxnard, 930 3 1 1 2%
Pasadena, 910-912 4 16 1 9%
Rancho Cordova, 956-957 2 6 1 4%
Redding, 960 1 -8 0 -3%
Richmond, 948 2 35 1 17%
Riverside, 925 1 7 0 4%
Sacramento, 958 1 6 0 3%
Salinas, 939 3 -1 1 1%
San Bernardino, 923-924 0 4 0 2%
San Diego, 919-921 3 13 1 8%
San Francisco, 941 3 55 1 27%
San Jose, 950-951 3 33 1 17%
San Mateo, 943-944 4 40 1 21%
Santa Barbara, 931 3 11 1 7%
Santa Rosa, 954 3 7 1 5%
Stockton, 952 1 7 0 4%
Sunnyvale, 940 3 39 1 20%
Van Nuys, 913-916 3 14 1 8%
Whittier, 906 3 14 1 8%
Colorado Average 2 1 1 1%
Aurora, 800-801 3 11 1 7%
Boulder, 803-804 3 5 1 4%
Colorado Springs, 808-809 2 -3 1 0%
Denver, 802 2 12 1 7%
Durango, 813 1 -3 0 -1%
Fort Morgan, 807 1 -6 0 -2%
Glenwood Springs, 816 2 6 1 4%
Grand Junction, 814-815 1 -1 0 0%
Greeley, 806 3 8 1 5%
Longmont, 805 3 2 1 3%
Pagosa Springs, 811 0 -9 0 -4%
Pueblo, 810 -1 2 0 0%
Salida, 812 2 -15 1 -6%
Connecticut Average 1 20 0 10%

Bridgeport, 066 1 20 0 10%
Bristol, 060 1 24 0 12%
Fairfield, 064 2 24 1 12%
Hartford, 061 0 25 0 12%
New Haven, 065 1 22 0 11%
Norwich, 063 0 10 0 5%
Stamford, 068-069 4 27 1 15%
Waterbury, 067 1 20 0 10%
West Hartford, 062 1 11 0 6%
Delaware Average 1 3 0 2%
Dover, 199 1 -9 0 -4%
Newark, 197 2 10 1 6%
Wilmington, 198 0 9 0 4%
District of Columbia Average 3 23 1 12%

Washington, 200-205 3 23 1 12%
Florida Average 0 -11 0 -6%

Altamonte Springs, 327 -1 -7 0 -4%
Bradenton, 342 0 -13 0 -6%
Brooksville, 346 -1 -16 0 -8%
Daytona Beach, 321 -2 -19 -1 -10%
Fort Lauderdale, 333 3 1 1 2%
Fort Myers, 339 0 -15 0 -7%
Fort Pierce, 349 -2 -21 -1 -11%
Gainesville, 326 -1 -18 0 -9%
Jacksonville, 322 -1 -4 0 -2%
Lakeland, 338 -3 -13 -1 -8%
Melbourne, 329 -2 -16 -1 -8%
Miami, 330-332 2 -2 1 0%
Naples, 341 3 -10 1 -3%
Ocala, 344 -2 -23 -1 -12%
Orlando, 328 0 1 0 0%
Panama City, 324 -2 -21 -1 -11%
Pensacola, 325 0 -17 0 -8%
Saint Augustine, 320 -1 -9 0 -5%
Saint Cloud, 347 0 -7 0 -3%
St Petersburg, 337 -1 -12 0 -6%
Tallahassee, 323 0 -15 0 -7%
Tampa, 335-336 -1 -2 0 -1%

West Palm Beach, 334 1 -5 0 -2%
Georgia Average -1 -7 0 -4%

Albany, 317 -2 -12 -1 -7%
Athens, 306 0 -11 0 -5%
Atlanta, 303 3 23 1 12%
Augusta, 308-309 -2 -2 -1 -2%
Buford, 305 0 -5 0 -2%
Calhoun, 307 -1 -19 0 -9%
Columbus, 318-319 -1 -8 0 -4%
Dublin/Fort Valley, 310 -3 -13 -1 -8%
Hinesville, 313 -2 -11 -1 -6%
Kings Bay, 315 -2 -15 -1 -8%
Macon, 312 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Marietta, 300-302 1 8 0 4%
Savannah, 314 -1 -7 0 -4%
Statesboro, 304 -2 -21 -1 -11%
Valdosta, 316 -1 -1 0 -1%
Hawaii Average 17 28 6 22%

Aliamanu, 968 17 30 6 23%
Ewa, 967 17 27 6 21%
Halawa Heights, 967 17 27 6 21%
Hilo, 967 17 27 6 21%
Honolulu, 968 17 30 6 23%
Kailua, 968 17 30 6 23%
Lualualei, 967 17 27 6 21%
Mililani Town, 967 17 27 6 21%
Pearl City, 967 17 27 6 21%
Wahiawa, 967 17 27 6 21%
Waianae, 967 17 27 6 21%
Wailuku (Maui), 967 17 27 6 21%
Idaho Average 0 -19 0 -9%

Boise, 837 1 -12 0 -5%
Coeur d'Alene, 838 0 -21 0 -10%
Idaho Falls, 834 -1 -19 0 -9%
Lewiston, 835 0 -24 0 -11%
Meridian, 836 0 -19 0 -9%
Pocatello, 832 -1 -20 0 -10%
Sun Valley, 833 0 -18 0 -8%
Illinois Average -1 9 0 4%
Arlington Heights, 600 2 29 1 14%
Aurora, 605 2 29 1 14%
Belleville, 622 -2 2 -1 0%
Bloomington, 617 1 -4 0 -1%
Carbondale, 629 -3 -6 -1 -4%
Carol Stream, 601 2 28 1 14%
Centralia, 628 -3 -3 -1 -3%
Champaign, 618 -1 -3 0 -2%
Chicago, 606-608 2 31 1 15%
Decatur, 623 -2 -13 -1 -7%
Galesburg, 614 -2 -6 -1 -4%
Granite City, 620 -3 11 -1 3%
Green River, 612 -2 12 -1 4%

Joliet, 604 0 31 0 14%
Kankakee, 609 -2 0 -1 -1%
Lawrenceville, 624 -4 -9 -1 -6%
Oak Park, 603 3 35 1 18%
Peoria, 615-616 -1 15 0 6%
Peru, 613 0 4 0 2%
Quincy, 602 3 31 1 16%
Rockford, 610-611 -2 8 -1 3%
Springfield, 625-627 -2 2 -1 0%
Urbana, 619 -3 -6 -1 -4%
Indiana Average -2 -2 -1 -2%

Aurora, 470 -1 -9 0 -5%
Bloomington, 474 1 -6 0 -2%
Columbus, 472 0 -9 0 -4%
Elkhart, 465 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Evansville, 476-477 -2 12 -1 4%
Fort Wayne, 467-468 -3 0 -1 -2%
Gary, 463-464 -4 39 -1 16%
Indianapolis, 460-462 -1 10 0 4%
Jasper, 475 -1 -14 0 -7%
Jeffersonville, 471 -1 -11 0 -6%
Kokomo, 469 -2 -15 -1 -8%
Lafayette, 479 -1 -9 0 -5%
Muncie, 473 -4 -13 -1 -8%
South Bend, 466 -4 0 -1 -2%
Terre Haute, 478 -4 -2 -1 -3%
Iowa Average -2 -5 -1 -3%

Burlington, 526 0 1 0 0%
Carroll, 514 -3 -20 -1 -11%
Cedar Falls, 506 -1 -7 0 -4%
Cedar Rapids, 522-524 0 5 0 2%
Cherokee, 510 -3 4 -1 0%
Council Bluffs, 515 -2 1 -1 -1%
Creston, 508 -3 -10 -1 -6%
Davenport, 527-528 -1 3 0 1%
Decorah, 521 -2 -14 -1 -8%
Des Moines, 500-503 -2 13 -1 5%
Dubuque, 520 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Fort Dodge, 505 -2 -5 -1 -3%
Mason City, 504 0 -6 0 -3%
Ottumwa, 525 0 -13 0 -6%
Sheldon, 512 0 -15 0 -7%
Shenandoah, 516 -3 -26 -1 -14%
Sioux City, 511 -2 14 -1 5%
Spencer, 513 -1 -14 0 -7%
Waterloo, 507 -4 -1 -1 -3%
Kansas Average -2 -7 -1 -4%

Colby, 677 -1 -17 0 -8%
Concordia, 669 -1 -25 0 -12%
Dodge City, 678 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Emporia, 668 -3 0 -1 -2%
Fort Scott, 667 -2 -11 -1 -6%
Hays, 676 -2 -26 -1 -13%

Hutchinson, 675 -3 -9 -1 -6%
Independence, 673 -3 11 -1 3%
Kansas City, 660-662 0 10 0 5%
Liberal, 679 -2 -4 -1 -3%
Salina, 674 -3 -11 -1 -7%
Topeka, 664-666 -3 2 -1 -1%
Wichita, 670-672 -2 -6 -1 -4%
Kentucky Average -1 -8 0 -4%

Ashland, 411-412 -3 -5 -1 -4%
Bowling Green, 421 0 -11 0 -5%
Campton, 413-414 -1 -23 0 -11%
Covington, 410 0 5 0 2%
Elizabethtown, 427 -1 -20 0 -10%
Frankfort, 406 1 5 0 3%
Hazard, 417-418 -1 -19 0 -9%
Hopkinsville, 422 -2 -9 -1 -5%
Lexington, 403-405 1 1 0 1%
London, 407-409 -1 -13 0 -7%
Louisville, 400-402 -1 5 0 2%
Owensboro, 423 -2 -6 -1 -4%
Paducah, 420 -2 2 -1 0%
Pikeville, 415-416 -3 -14 -1 -8%
Somerset, 425-426 0 -23 0 -11%
White Plains, 424 -3 -6 -1 -4%
Louisiana Average -1 2 -1 0%
Alexandria, 713-714 -3 -2 -1 -3%
Baton Rouge, 707-708 0 21 0 10%
Houma, 703 -2 12 -1 4%
Lafayette, 705 0 3 0 1%
Lake Charles, 706 -2 11 -1 4%
Mandeville, 704 0 -5 0 -2%
Minden, 710 -2 -8 -1 -5%
Monroe, 712 -2 -14 -1 -8%
New Orleans, 700-701 0 5 0 2%
Shreveport, 711 -2 -6 -1 -4%
Maine Average 0 -11 0 -5%

Auburn, 042 -1 -7 0 -4%
Augusta, 043 -1 -13 0 -7%
Bangor, 044 -1 -11 0 -6%
Bath, 045 1 -15 0 -6%
Brunswick, 039-040 1 -3 0 -1%
Camden, 048 -1 -21 0 -10%
Cutler, 046 -1 -16 0 -8%
Dexter, 049 -1 -12 0 -6%
Northern Area, 047 -2 -16 -1 -8%
Portland, 041 2 2 1 2%
Maryland Average 1 3 0 2%
Annapolis, 214 3 13 1 8%
Baltimore, 210-212 -1 16 0 7%
Bethesda, 208-209 3 24 1 13%
Church Hill, 216 2 -10 1 -4%
Cumberland, 215 -4 -12 -1 -8%
Elkton, 219 2 -14 1 -5%
Frederick, 217 1 13 0 7%
Laurel, 206-207 2 15 1 8%
Salisbury, 218 1 -14 0 -6%
Massachusetts Average 2 24 1 12%

Ayer, 015-016 1 12 0 6%
Bedford, 017 3 31 1 16%
Boston, 021-022 3 77 1 37%
Brockton, 023-024 3 41 1 20%
Cape Cod, 026 2 6 1 4%
Chicopee, 010 1 14 0 7%
Dedham, 019 3 36 1 18%
Fitchburg, 014 2 22 1 11%
Hingham, 020 3 37 1 19%
Lawrence, 018 2 28 1 14%
Nantucket, 025 3 16 1 9%
New Bedford, 027 2 15 1 8%
Northfield, 013 2 3 1 2%
Pittsfield, 012 1 0 0 1%
Springfield, 011 -1 18 0 8%
Michigan Average -2 4 -1 1%
Battle Creek, 490-491 -3 1 -1 -1%
Detroit, 481-482 0 15 0 7%
Flint, 484-485 -3 -5 -1 -4%
Grand Rapids, 493-495 -2 4 -1 1%
Grayling, 497 1 -17 0 -7%
Jackson, 492 -3 1 -1 -1%
Lansing, 488-489 0 1 0 0%
Marquette, 498-499 -1 7 0 3%
Pontiac, 483 -3 30 -1 12%
Royal Oak, 480 -2 18 -1 7%
Saginaw, 486-487 -2 -9 -1 -5%
Traverse City, 496 -1 -4 0 -2%
Minnesota Average 0 -1 0 -1%

Bemidji, 566 -1 -11 0 -6%
Brainerd, 564 0 -6 0 -3%

Duluth, 556-558 -2 7 -1 2%
Fergus Falls, 565 -1 -20 0 -10%
Magnolia, 561 0 -18 0 -8%
Mankato, 560 0 -8 0 -4%
Minneapolis, 553-555 1 28 0 13%
Rochester, 559 0 -3 0 -1%
St Cloud, 563 -1 6 0 2%
St Paul, 550-551 1 26 0 12%
Thief River Falls, 567 0 -5 0 -2%
Willmar, 562 -1 -9 0 -5%
Mississippi Average -2 -12 -1 -7%

Clarksdale, 386 -3 -16 -1 -9%
Columbus, 397 -1 1 0 0%
Greenville, 387 -4 -26 -1 -14%
Greenwood, 389 -3 -18 -1 -10%
Gulfport, 395 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Jackson, 390-392 -3 -4 -1 -3%
Laurel, 394 -3 -11 -1 -7%
McComb, 396 -2 -22 -1 -11%
Meridian, 393 -2 -3 -1 -2%
Tupelo, 388 -1 -15 0 -7%
Missouri Average -1 -7 -1 -4%

Cape Girardeau, 637 -2 -8 -1 -5%
Caruthersville, 638 -1 -15 0 -7%
Chillicothe, 646 -2 -9 -1 -5%
Columbia, 652 1 -9 0 -4%
East Lynne, 647 -1 -3 0 -2%
Farmington, 636 -3 -15 -1 -8%
Hannibal, 634 0 -4 0 -2%
Independence, 640 -2 13 -1 5%
Jefferson City, 650-651 1 -11 0 -5%
Joplin, 648 -2 -10 -1 -6%
Kansas City, 641 -2 15 -1 6%
Kirksville, 635 0 -33 0 -15%
Knob Noster, 653 0 -7 0 -3%
Lebanon, 654-655 -2 -23 -1 -12%
Poplar Bluff, 639 -1 -21 0 -10%
Saint Charles, 633 1 2 0 1%
Saint Joseph, 644-645 -3 2 -1 -1%
Springfield, 656-658 -2 -15 -1 -8%
St Louis, 630-631 -2 20 -1 8%
Montana Average 0 -8 0 -4%

Billings, 590-591 0 -4 0 -2%
Butte, 597 1 -7 0 -3%
Fairview, 592 -1 15 0 6%
Great Falls, 594 -1 -11 0 -6%
Havre, 595 -1 -19 0 -9%
Helena, 596 0 -4 0 -2%
Kalispell, 599 1 -15 0 -6%
Miles City, 593 -1 -15 0 -7%
Missoula, 598 1 -14 0 -6%
Nebraska Average -1 -17 0 -8%

Alliance, 693 -1 -21 0 -10%
Columbus, 686 0 -15 0 -7%
Grand Island, 688 0 -18 0 -8%
Hastings, 689 0 -20 0 -9%
Lincoln, 683-685 0 -9 0 -4%
McCook, 690 0 -21 0 -10%
Norfolk, 687 -3 -19 -1 -10%
North Platte, 691 0 -18 0 -8%
Omaha, 680-681 -1 1 0 0%
Valentine, 692 -2 -31 -1 -15%
Nevada Average 2 3 1 2%
Carson City, 897 2 -12 1 -4%
Elko, 898 1 37 0 18%
Ely, 893 2 -8 1 -3%
Fallon, 894 2 -2 1 0%
Las Vegas, 889-891 2 5 1 3%
Reno, 895 2 -4 1 -1%
New Hampshire Average 1 -4 0 -1%

Charlestown, 036 1 -11 0 -5%
Concord, 034 1 -7 0 -3%
Dover, 038 0 2 0 1%
Lebanon, 037 2 -8 1 -3%
Littleton, 035 -1 -12 0 -6%
Manchester, 032-033 0 4 0 2%
New Boston, 030-031 2 5 1 3%
New Jersey Average 1 26 0 12%

Atlantic City, 080-084 -2 20 -1 8%
Brick, 087 2 4 1 3%
Dover, 078 1 27 0 13%
Edison, 088-089 1 32 0 15%
Hackensack, 076 3 25 1 13%
Monmouth, 077 3 28 1 14%
Newark, 071-073 1 29 0 14%
Passaic, 070 2 29 1 14%
Paterson, 074-075 2 23 1 12%
Princeton, 085 -2 31 -1 13%
Summit, 079 3 38 1 19%
Trenton, 086 -3 27 -1 11%
New Mexico Average 0 -18 0 -8%

Alamogordo, 883 -1 -24 0 -12%
Albuquerque, 870-871 2 -8 1 -3%
Clovis, 881 -2 -22 -1 -11%
Farmington, 874 2 -4 1 -1%
Fort Sumner, 882 -3 0 -1 -2%
Gallup, 873 1 -17 0 -7%
Holman, 877 2 -24 1 -10%
Las Cruces, 880 -1 -21 0 -10%
Santa Fe, 875 3 -20 1 -8%
Socorro, 878 1 -35 0 -16%
Truth or Consequences, 879 -2 -23 -1 -12%
Tucumcari, 884 -1 -19 0 -9%
New York Average 0 18 0 8%

Albany, 120-123 0 16 0 7%
Amityville, 117 2 26 1 13%
Batavia, 140 -3 5 -1 1%
Binghamton, 137-139 -3 0 -1 -2%
Bronx, 104 2 28 1 14%
Brooklyn, 112 3 22 1 12%
Buffalo, 142 -3 7 -1 2%
Elmira, 149 -4 -1 -1 -3%
Flushing, 113 3 43 1 21%
Garden City, 115 3 39 1 20%
Hicksville, 118 3 35 1 18%
Ithaca, 148 -4 -6 -1 -5%
Jamaica, 114 3 41 1 20%
Jamestown, 147 -4 -11 -1 -7%
Kingston, 124 0 -8 0 -4%
Long Island, 111 3 71 1 34%
Montauk, 119 1 23 0 11%
New York (Manhattan), 100-102 3 73 1 35%
New York City, 100-102 3 73 1 35%
Newcomb, 128 -1 2 0 0%
Niagara Falls, 143 -4 -8 -1 -6%
Plattsburgh, 129 1 -3 0 -1%
Poughkeepsie, 125-126 1 2 0 1%
Queens, 110 4 46 1 23%
Rochester, 144-146 -3 8 -1 2%
Rockaway, 116 3 31 1 16%
Rome, 133-134 -3 -6 -1 -4%
Staten Island, 103 3 25 1 13%
Stewart, 127 -1 -9 0 -5%
Syracuse, 130-132 -3 7 -1 2%
Tonawanda, 141 -3 2 -1 -1%
Utica, 135 -4 -8 -1 -6%
Watertown, 136 -2 0 -1 -1%
West Point, 109 1 15 0 7%
White Plains, 105-108 3 33 1 17%
North Carolina Average 1 -9 0 -4%

Asheville, 287-289 1 -16 0 -7%
Charlotte, 280-282 1 15 0 7%
Durham, 277 2 -3 1 0%
Elizabeth City, 279 1 -18 0 -8%
Fayetteville, 283 -1 -12 0 -6%
Goldsboro, 275 1 -2 0 0%
Greensboro, 274 1 -7 0 -3%
Hickory, 286 -1 -17 0 -8%
Kinston, 285 -1 -19 0 -9%
Raleigh, 276 3 2 1 3%
Rocky Mount, 278 0 -14 0 -6%
Wilmington, 284 1 -14 0 -6%
Winston-Salem, 270-273 0 -10 0 -5%
North Dakota Average -1 10 0 4%

Bismarck, 585 0 6 0 3%
Dickinson, 586 -1 30 0 13%
Fargo, 580-581 0 3 0 1%
Grand Forks, 582 0 -2 0 -1%
Jamestown, 584 -1 -7 0 -4%
Minot, 587 -1 21 0 9%
Nekoma, 583 -1 -20 0 -10%
Williston, 588 -1 47 0 21%
Ohio Average -2 2 -1 0%
Akron, 442-443 -2 4 -1 1%
Canton, 446-447 -3 -2 -1 -3%
Chillicothe, 456 -2 -3 -1 -2%
Cincinnati, 450-452 -1 7 0 3%
Cleveland, 440-441 -3 11 -1 3%
Columbus, 432 0 11 0 5%
Dayton, 453-455 -3 6 -1 1%
Lima, 458 -3 -8 -1 -5%
Marietta, 457 -2 -8 -1 -5%
Marion, 433 -3 -8 -1 -5%
Newark, 430-431 -1 8 0 3%
Sandusky, 448-449 -1 -4 0 -2%
Steubenville, 439 -3 6 -1 1%
Toledo, 434-436 -1 16 0 7%
Warren, 444 -4 -6 -1 -5%
Youngstown, 445 -5 2 -2 -2%
Zanesville, 437-438 -2 0 -1 -1%
Oklahoma Average -3 -8 -1 -5%

Adams, 739 -2 -20 -1 -10%
Ardmore, 734 -3 -1 -1 -2%
Clinton, 736 -3 -2 -1 -3%
Durant, 747 -4 -20 -1 -11%
Enid, 737 -4 -4 -1 -4%
Lawton, 735 -3 -18 -1 -10%
McAlester, 745 -4 -11 -1 -7%
Muskogee, 744 -2 -16 -1 -8%
Norman, 730 -2 -6 -1 -4%
Oklahoma City, 731 -2 -4 -1 -3%
Ponca City, 746 -3 1 -1 -1%
Poteau, 749 -2 -14 -1 -8%
Pryor, 743 -2 -11 -1 -6%
Shawnee, 748 -4 -14 -1 -9%
Tulsa, 740-741 -1 1 0 0%
Woodward, 738 -4 15 -1 5%
Oregon Average 1 -9 1 -4%

Adrian, 979 -1 -25 0 -12%
Bend, 977 1 -14 0 -6%
Eugene, 974 2 -9 1 -3%
Grants Pass, 975 2 -13 1 -5%
Klamath Falls, 976 2 -19 1 -8%
Pendleton, 978 0 -7 0 -3%
Portland, 970-972 2 19 1 10%
Salem, 973 2 -7 1 -2%
Pennsylvania Average -3 0 -1 -1%

Allentown, 181 -2 8 -1 3%
Altoona, 166 -3 -14 -1 -8%
Beaver Springs, 178 -3 -8 -1 -5%
Bethlehem, 180 -1 10 0 4%
Bradford, 167 -4 -13 -1 -8%
Butler, 160 -4 1 -1 -2%
Chambersburg, 172 -1 -13 0 -7%
Clearfield, 168 2 -8 1 -3%
DuBois, 158 -2 -19 -1 -10%
East Stroudsburg, 183 0 -11 0 -5%
Erie, 164-165 -3 -10 -1 -6%
Genesee, 169 -4 -5 -1 -4%
Greensburg, 156 -4 -5 -1 -4%
Harrisburg, 170-171 -2 8 -1 3%
Hazleton, 182 -3 -3 -1 -3%
Johnstown, 159 -4 -16 -1 -9%
Kittanning, 162 -4 -9 -1 -6%
Lancaster, 175-176 -2 1 -1 -1%
Meadville, 163 -4 -16 -1 -9%
Montrose, 188 -3 3 -1 0%
New Castle, 161 -4 -1 -1 -3%
Philadelphia, 190-191 -3 28 -1 11%
Pittsburgh, 152 -4 17 -1 6%
Pottsville, 179 -4 -12 -1 -8%
Punxsutawney, 157 -4 -1 -1 -3%
Reading, 195-196 -4 9 -1 2%
Scranton, 184-185 -2 4 -1 1%
Somerset, 155 -4 -16 -1 -9%
Southeastern, 193 0 19 0 9%
Uniontown, 154 -4 -9 -1 -6%
Valley Forge, 194 -3 28 -1 11%
Warminster, 189 -1 24 0 11%
Warrendale, 150-151 -4 16 -1 5%
Washington, 153 -3 23 -1 9%
Wilkes Barre, 186-187 -3 2 -1 -1%
Williamsport, 177 -3 -1 -1 -2%
York, 173-174 -3 2 -1 -1%
Rhode Island Average 1 10 0 5%

Bristol, 028 1 9 0 5%
Coventry, 028 1 9 0 5%
Cranston, 029 1 12 0 6%
Davisville, 028 1 9 0 5%
Narragansett, 028 1 9 0 5%
Newport, 028 1 9 0 5%
Providence, 029 1 12 0 6%
Warwick, 028 1 9 0 5%
South Carolina Average -1 -5 0 -3%

Aiken, 298 0 9 0 4%
Beaufort, 299 -1 -8 0 -4%
Charleston, 294 -1 0 0 -1%
Columbia, 290-292 0 -6 0 -3%
Greenville, 296 0 -3 0 -1%
Myrtle Beach, 295 0 -17 0 -8%

Rock Hill, 297 -1 -12 0 -6%
Spartanburg, 293 -1 -6 0 -3%
South Dakota Average -1 -13 0 -7%

Aberdeen, 574 -1 -15 0 -7%
Mitchell, 573 -1 -12 0 -6%
Mobridge, 576 -2 -18 -1 -9%
Pierre, 575 -2 -21 -1 -11%
Rapid City, 577 -2 -14 -1 -8%
Sioux Falls, 570-571 0 -2 0 -1%
Watertown, 572 -1 -11 0 -6%
Tennessee Average 0 -5 0 -2%

Chattanooga, 374 -1 5 0 2%
Clarksville, 370 1 2 0 1%
Cleveland, 373 -1 -1 0 -1%
Columbia, 384 -1 -14 0 -7%
Cookeville, 385 0 -18 0 -8%
Jackson, 383 -1 -3 0 -2%
Kingsport, 376 0 -11 0 -5%
Knoxville, 377-379 -1 -3 0 -2%
McKenzie, 382 -1 -16 0 -8%
Memphis, 380-381 -1 3 0 1%
Nashville, 371-372 1 5 0 3%
Texas Average -2 3 -1 0%
Abilene, 795-796 -4 0 -1 -2%
Amarillo, 790-791 -2 -2 -1 -2%
Arlington, 760 -1 4 0 1%
Austin, 786-787 1 9 0 5%
Bay City, 774 -1 59 0 27%
Beaumont, 776-777 -3 18 -1 7%
Brownwood, 768 -3 -14 -1 -8%
Bryan, 778 0 -7 0 -3%
Childress, 792 -3 -28 -1 -14%
Corpus Christi, 783-784 -2 16 -1 6%
Dallas, 751-753 -1 15 0 6%
Del Rio, 788 -3 -9 -1 -6%
El Paso, 798-799 -3 -18 -1 -10%
Fort Worth, 761-762 -2 5 -1 1%
Galveston, 775 -3 30 -1 12%
Giddings, 789 0 -2 0 -1%
Greenville, 754 -3 9 -1 3%
Houston, 770-772 -1 33 0 15%
Huntsville, 773 -2 34 -1 15%
Longview, 756 -2 4 -1 1%
Lubbock, 793-794 -3 -11 -1 -7%
Lufkin, 759 -3 -6 -1 -4%
McAllen, 785 -3 -24 -1 -13%
Midland, 797 -3 25 -1 10%
Palestine, 758 -2 -7 -1 -4%
Plano, 750 -1 15 0 6%
San Angelo, 769 -3 -10 -1 -6%
San Antonio, 780-782 -2 4 -1 1%
Texarkana, 755 -3 -15 -1 -8%
Tyler, 757 -1 -15 0 -7%

Victoria, 779 -3 4 -1 0%
Waco, 765-767 -3 -3 -1 -3%
Wichita Falls, 763 -3 -16 -1 -9%
Woodson, 764 -3 -5 -1 -4%
Utah Average 1 -9 1 -4%

Clearfield, 840 2 -3 1 0%
Green River, 845 1 -7 0 -3%
Ogden, 843-844 0 -19 0 -9%
Provo, 846-847 2 -17 1 -7%
Salt Lake City, 841 2 -1 1 1%
Vermont Average 1 -11 0 -5%

Albany, 058 1 -16 0 -7%
Battleboro, 053 1 -9 0 -4%
Beecher Falls, 059 1 -19 0 -8%
Bennington, 052 -1 -13 0 -7%
Burlington, 054 2 5 1 3%
Montpelier, 056 2 -10 1 -4%
Rutland, 057 -1 -13 0 -7%
Springfield, 051 -1 -11 0 -6%
White River Junction, 050 1 -12 0 -5%
Virginia Average 0 -9 0 -4%

Abingdon, 242 -2 -18 -1 -9%
Alexandria, 220-223 3 18 1 10%
Charlottesville, 229 1 -15 0 -6%
Chesapeake, 233 0 -8 0 -4%
Culpeper, 227 2 -12 1 -4%
Farmville, 239 -2 -24 -1 -12%
Fredericksburg, 224-225 1 -11 0 -5%
Galax, 243 -2 -20 -1 -10%
Harrisonburg, 228 1 -14 0 -6%
Lynchburg, 245 -1 -17 0 -8%
Norfolk, 235-237 0 -4 0 -2%
Petersburg, 238 -2 -5 -1 -3%
Radford, 241 -1 -18 0 -9%
Reston, 201 3 12 1 7%
Richmond, 232 -1 5 0 2%
Roanoke, 240 -1 -18 0 -9%
Staunton, 244 0 -16 0 -7%
Tazewell, 246 -3 -10 -1 -6%
Virginia Beach, 234 1 -6 0 -2%
Williamsburg, 230-231 0 -6 0 -3%
Winchester, 226 0 -6 0 -3%
Washington Average 1 -2 1 0%
Clarkston, 994 0 -18 0 -8%
Everett, 982 2 2 1 2%
Olympia, 985 2 -6 1 -2%
Pasco, 993 0 2 0 1%
Seattle, 980-981 3 21 1 11%
Spokane, 990-992 0 -7 0 -3%
Tacoma, 983-984 2 3 1 2%
Vancouver, 986 2 4 1 3%
Wenatchee, 988 1 -14 0 -6%
Yakima, 989 0 -10 0 -5%
West Virginia Average -2 -8 -1 -5%

Beckley, 258-259 1 -11 0 -5%
Bluefield, 247-248 -1 2 0 0%
Charleston, 250-253 1 8 0 4%
Clarksburg, 263-264 -3 -9 -1 -6%
Fairmont, 266 0 -24 0 -11%
Huntington, 255-257 -1 -7 0 -4%
Lewisburg, 249 -2 -29 -1 -14%
Martinsburg, 254 -1 -10 0 -5%
Morgantown, 265 -3 -6 -1 -4%
New Martinsville, 262 -2 -18 -1 -9%
Parkersburg, 261 -3 5 -1 1%
Romney, 267 -4 -10 -1 -7%
Sugar Grove, 268 -3 -14 -1 -8%
Wheeling, 260 -3 10 -1 3%
Wisconsin Average -1 1 0 0%
Amery, 540 0 -3 0 -1%
Beloit, 535 0 10 0 5%
Clam Lake, 545 -1 -17 0 -8%
Eau Claire, 547 -1 -4 0 -2%
Green Bay, 541-543 0 6 0 3%
La Crosse, 546 -2 3 -1 0%
Ladysmith, 548 -2 0 -1 -1%
Madison, 537 2 14 1 8%
Milwaukee, 530-534 0 12 0 6%
Oshkosh, 549 -1 9 0 4%
Portage, 539 0 5 0 2%
Prairie du Chien, 538 -2 -12 -1 -7%
Wausau, 544 -1 -6 0 -3%
Wyoming Average 0 -3 0 -1%

Casper, 826 -2 4 -1 1%
Cheyenne/Laramie, 820 1 -6 0 -2%
Gillette, 827 -1 7 0 3%
Powell, 824 0 -13 0 -6%
Rawlins, 823 0 13 0 6%
Riverton, 825 -1 -12 0 -6%
Rock Springs, 829-831 0 2 0 1%
Sheridan, 828 1 -8 0 -3%
Wheatland, 822 0 -11 0 -5%
CANADIAN AREA MODIFIERS

These figures assume an exchange rate of $1.00 Canadian to $0.76 U.S.
Alberta Average 26 -1 7 13%

Calgary 26 1 7 14%
Edmonton 25 2 7 14%
Fort McMurray 28 -7 7 12%
British Columbia Average 26 -15 7 7%

Fraser Valley 26 -16 7 6%
Okanagan 27 -18 7 6%
Vancouver 26 -11 7 9%
Manitoba Average 20 -22 5 0%

North Manitoba 20 -22 5 0%
Selkirk 20 -22 5 0%
South Manitoba 20 -22 5 0%
Winnipeg 20 -22 5 0%
New Brunswick Average 16 -47 3 -13%

Moncton 16 -47 3 -13%
Newfoundland/Labrador Average 19 -29 4 -3%
Nova Scotia Average 17 -36 4 -8%

Amherst 16 -36 3 -8%
Nova Scotia 17 -35 4 -7%
Sydney 17 -37 4 -8%
Ontario Average 22 -11 5 7%

London 22 -10 5 7%
Thunder Bay 24 -14 6 6%
Toronto 21 -9 5 7%
Quebec Average 19 -24 4 -1%

Montreal 19 -24 4 -1%
Quebec City 19 -24 4 -1%
Saskatchewan Average 23 -18 5 4%

La Ronge 24 -21 6 3%
Prince Albert 22 -20 5 2%
Saskatoon 22 -14 5 5%
2
Contour Maps
Before you can estimate cut and fill quantities, you'll need to be familiar with topographic (contour) maps
and contour lines. A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional land
form. Contour lines on the map represent the third dimension (relief) of the ground surface. See Figure
2-1. A contour line represents points of equal elevation above or below an arbitrary reference (datum)
plane such as sea level or top-of-slab (T.O.S.) elevation. Closely-spaced contour lines indicate a steep
slope, while contours spaced far apart indicate a gentle slope. Contour lines rarely cross one another,
except at unusual geological features such as overhanging cliffs and natural bridges.
The elevation change represented by two adjacent contour lines is known as the contour interval (C.I.).
The contour interval should remain constant throughout any given contour map. In low-relief areas, the
contour interval may be as small as 6 inches; in areas of great relief, as large as 500 feet.
Existing and Proposed Contours
The designer draws existing and finish (proposed) contour lines on the same site plan, with existing
contours normally represented by dashed lines and proposed contours by solid lines. That makes it
easy to determine where, and how much, work needs to be done. At the point where a grading change
begins, a proposed (solid) contour moves away from an existing (dashed) contour of equal elevation and
returns to the existing contour at a point where the grading change stops. Figure 2-2 shows a cross
section, or profile, of a proposed contour that moves toward lower existing contours.
Notice how the proposed 14-foot elevation line extends to the existing 12-foot elevation line. That means
the existing 12-foot elevation needs to be increased to a 14-foot elevation, indicating the need for filling.
By the same token, cutting is required when proposed contour lines move toward higher existing
contours, as shown in Figure 2-3.
Convex and Concave Slopes

Looking from left to right in Figure 2-2, note the decreasing horizontal space between the proposed
contours -- especially between the proposed 13-foot and 12-foot elevations. That's an indication that the
land surface slope is increasing. The resulting slope is a convex shape that bows outward. Figure 2-3
demonstrates the opposite situation, resulting in a concave slope.
Summits and Depressions

Contour lines that form a closed loop represent either a summit or a depression. The profile in Figure 2-4
shows an example of each. You can distinguish between summits and depressions based on the
elevation markings.
Contour Lines in Lakes and Ponds
For lakes and ponds, the designer might show just the top-of-bank and normal water line (N.W.L.)
contours and give a general cross section of how the lake is supposed to be built. See Figure 2-5.
That leaves it up to you to add some missing pieces of information to the contour map. Referring to
Figure 2-6, the first step is to determine the horizontal distance from the normal water line contour to the
grade break contour. With a 5-to-1 slope, there are 5 feet of run for each foot of fall. Total fall in this case
is 3 feet (71 minus 68). That means total run equals 5 times 3, which is 15 feet.
Next, you need to determine the horizontal distance from the grade break contour to the bottom-of-lake
contour. Since the slope is 2-to-1, multiply 17 feet of fall by 2, which equals 34 feet of run.
Now, all that's left to do is trace the grade break and bottom-of-lake contours back onto the site plan.
Figure 2-7 shows what it would look like when complete.
Adjusting Elevations to Achieve Site Balance
Earthwork software allows you to make height adjustments to lakes or similar areas in order to obtain a
balanced site. For example, if your project requires import, you can lower the lake, which would look
something like Figure 2-8. But that leaves steep drop-offs at the lake edges, which is unacceptable from
an engineering standpoint. Lake edge slopes are gentle for a reason, and computer software isn't
capable of making the necessary adjustments.
To excavate additional material from the lake while keeping it in harmony with the required slopes, the
best you can do is to lower the lake interior as shown in Figure 2-9. Basically, you're extending the
existing slopes all the way down until they intersect. To determine the lake elevation at that intersection
point, start by drawing a line through the center of the lake on the site plan. Then, from a point of known
elevation at the grade break, draw and measure the distance to the centerline in the lake. You can then
use the measured distance and the lake slope to determine elevation at the bottom of the lake. Simply
divide the measured line's length by the slope. If the measured line is 20 feet, and the lower lake slope
is 1-to-1, then you know the bottom of the lake is 20 feet below the centerline of the lake. If the slope is
2-to-1, then the lake bottom's elevation would measure 10 feet (20 divided by 2) lower than the centerline
of the lake.
The engineer may allow you to over-excavate a little to get extra fill material for another part of the site,
but he'll set a limit to the depth you can go to. When you do this, you can again use the lake slope to
determine the contour line delineating the lake bottom. For instance, if the engineer will allow 10 feet of
additional depth and the lake slope is 1-to-1, the distance from the grade break contour to the lake
bottom contour will be 10 feet throughout the lake. If the lake slope is 2-to-1, the lake bottom contour
will be 20 feet inside the grade break contour. From there, plot points 20 feet (to scale) from the grade
break contour all around the lake, and assign the correct elevation to the line.
Limitations due to lake edge slopes may ultimately prevent you from achieving site balance using the
lake-lowering technique I've described. But at least you'll avoid unpleasant surprises due to earthwork
software's limitations.
3
Site Preparation
Every site work project begins with surveying and site clearing, so in this chapter I'll cover some of the
basics of each. The goal behind a site survey is to accurately convert three-dimensional earth surface
data into a two-dimensional map. Surveying has two main components. The first is boundary line
assessment. We've all heard horror stories about construction projects that mistakenly straddle
property lines. Those are expensive lessons that you don't want to learn the hard way. In addition to
boundary line assessment, surveying involves a topographic survey to plot existing elevations.
Surveying
The transit and the surveyor's level are two essential surveying tools. A transit is basically a
tripod-mounted telescope that measures angles and horizontal and vertical distances. A transit's scope
has three horizontal stadia hairs and one vertical hair, as shown in Figure 3-1.
Stadia hairs, used in combination with a specially marked stadia rod that's located at a point of interest,
gauge distance between the rod and the scope. Stadia surveying also measures angles and is
especially useful in determining property boundaries. Modern electronic tran-sits offer precision to within
a small fraction of a degree.
The surveyor's level is a scope with a bubble level. Surveyor's levels determine elevation variations
between a benchmark and other locations on the site. The surveyor aims the scope at a leveling rod and
reads the number on the rod that corresponds to the scope's center horizontal hair. After doing this for a
number of points, the information is used to generate a topographic site plan.
Let's say you set up the surveyor's level at Point A in Figure 3-2, which you know has a precise
elevation of 100 feet. You would then need to set up the leveling rod at a benchmark, such as Point B.
Through the level, you get a 6.3-foot reading off the rod. This means that the elevation of the leveling
instrument scope is 106.3 feet. You'll then use 106.3 as the basis for calculating elevations at other
points on the site. Setting up the rod at Point C and getting a reading of 5.3 feet means Point C has a
101-foot elevation (106.3 minus 5.3). At Point D, a 7.3-foot rod reading means that the relative elevation
at D is 99 feet (106.3 feet minus 7.3).
Silt Fences
Once the boundary and topographic surveys are done, the next step is to install a silt fence. Silt fencing
provides slope protection and prevents storm water from carrying sediment away from the site.
Install silt fencing along the site boundary and on contours where runoff accumulation is expected. Silt
fencing end points should turn upslope, forming a j- or smile-like shape so it can retain water. A silt
fence is like a chain -- it's only as strong as its weakest link. Post-spacing generally should not exceed
6 feet, and post depth should be at least 12 inches.
Site Clearing
After silt fencing is in place, the site is ready for clearing. Vegetation and existing structures will play a
role in determining which equipment is best suited to clear the site. Motor graders and dozers with a
blade or rake are popular choices for clearing land and stripping topsoil. In areas with lots of thick
vegetation, a truck-mounted mulcher comes in handy. See Figure 3-3.
Excavators, like the one in Figure 3-4, can perform several site-clearing duties, such as felling trees,
clearing, and grubbing.
Excavators and tractors equipped with thumb or hydraulic hammer attachments are among the many
options for structure demolition work. See Figures 3-5 and 3-6.
Most demolition contractors use a 40-CY truck to haul demolition debris. A 40-CY truck can haul about
10 tons of wood frame debris or 12 tons of demolished concrete material.
When you strip topsoil, remove vegetation or demolish existing structures, the resulting grades will be
lower than what is shown on the site plan. A large tree's root structure may leave a cubic yard void that
needs to be filled. Similarly, demolished concrete footings leave voids of various sizes depending on the
building's size and the winds it was designed to withstand.
The concrete being broken in Figure 3-6 was just one of several footings encountered during demolition,
and each one contained 15 cubic yards of concrete. Ground loss, which is caused by heavy equipment
traversing the site, is another situation to consider during the site-clearing stage. Ground loss quantities
depend on the condition of the existing soil. More loss will occur in loose soil than in compacted soil in
a bank condition. Chapter 7 has additional details addressing ground loss.
After the site is cleared, the surveyors return to set grade stakes. The stakes represent important site
landmarks and cut or fill elevation requirements at certain locations. Figure 3-7 shows two examples of
grade stakes: one indicates a 10-foot distance from a building corner, the other indicates the building's
finish floor elevation.
4
Cut and Fill
Operations
In this chapter, you'll learn how to take off cut and fill quantities by sectioning the site into grid cells and
determining the volumes within each cell. You'll also learn how to determine the zero line location. Zero
lines, also known as daylight lines, are imaginary lines that separate cut areas from fill areas. They also
show work boundaries, where work terminates at the edges of the site.
Figure 4-1 illustrates the first step to estimating cut and fill quantities. Tracing graph paper, placed on
top of the site plan, allows you to trace the blueprint and incorporate grid lines. The blueprint stays
clean, while the tracing paper becomes a record of how the take-off was generated.
The appropriate grid line spacing depends upon the site's topography (land surface shape) and the
required level of precision. Since site plan scales vary, it's a good idea to stock graph paper with a
variety of subdivisions per square inch. Figure 4-2 lists graph paper recommendations for various plan
scales.
Be sure to grid-off structure areas such as building slabs and paved areas separately from grid cells in
the "green" (grassy) areas where there aren't structures. Proposed elevations in structure areas must be
lowered to subgrade in order to get accurate cut and fill quantities. Chapter 5 discusses that in more
detail.
Estimating Cut and Fill Quantities with the Cross Section Method
The Cross Section Method is the first cut and fill estimating technique that we'll cover in this chapter. In
a nutshell, it involves cutting the site plan into smaller three-dimensional shapes and calculating the
volume of each individual shape. Each shape that represents a cut or fill volume is known as a prism.
See Figure 4-3.
For simplicity's sake while performing these calculations, assume that the slope between two existing
(or proposed) contour lines is constant. That means the elevation of any point between contour lines is
proportional to the relative distances of the point from the contour lines. If that sounds a little
complicated, don't worry. The plan view and cross section shown in Figure 4-4 should help clear things
up.
Cross section A-A' reveals a series of five right triangles. The triangles' bases, shown with dashes,
represent horizontal distances between contour lines. Each triangle's elevation is directly proportional to
the length of its base. For example, the 31.2-foot elevation is two-tenths of the horizontal distance
between contour lines 31.0' and 32.0'. Two-tenths of 20 feet is 4 feet of run. Similarly, the 31.8-foot
elevation has 16 feet of run. This math works the same way going the other direction, too. You can
determine a point's elevation based on its relative horizontal distance between points. The point that's
(horizontally) eight-tenths of the way from contour line 31.0' to contour line 32.0' has a 31.8' elevation
(0.8 times the 1-foot contour interval). Relative distances of a point between contour lines are usually
determined by "eyeballing," or with a scale. Other options include the Rubber Band Method and the
Subcontour Method, which I'll discuss later in this chapter.
If you put the technique I've just described into practice, you find that Prism D, outlined in Figure 4-3,
has existing corner elevations as shown in Figure 4-5. Doing the same for Prism D's proposed contours,
you get something resembling Figure 4-6. Note the elevations of the top right corner of Prism D in both
figures. The existing elevation is 102.7 feet, and the proposed elevation is 101.8 feet. That indicates a
0.9-foot cut depth.
Sometimes it helps to think of a prism in "before" and "after" terms. However, it's not always practical or
necessary to re-draw the site plan as two separate drawings. Figure 4-7 shows the entire site plan, with
existing and proposed elevations labeled at each grid corner.
Proposed elevations are less than existing elevations in Prisms A, D, and G. Those areas require
cutting. Prisms C, F and I call for filling because proposed elevations are greater than existing
elevations.
Prisms B, E, and H have areas requiring both cut and fill. Therefore, within those prisms, there exists a
line where neither cut nor fill is required. This theoretical line separating cut areas from fill areas is the
zero line. It's the heavy dashed line in Figure 4-8. Later in this chapter, I'll discuss the zero line in more
detail.
Now that we've determined cut and fill depth at the grid corners, we can estimate the soil volume to be
cut or filled within each prism. First, average the cut and fill depths of the prism's four corners. For Prism
D, that means adding 2.3, 0.9, 0.8 and 2.3, and then dividing that total (6.3) by four. The average comes
to 1.58 feet. Multiplying the cut depth average by the prism area will give you the prism's volume. The
prism's area is 2500 square feet (50 times 50), so its volume comes to 3590 cubic feet. To convert that
figure to cubic yards, divide it by 27, which is simply the number of cubic feet in a cubic yard. In this
case, that comes out to at just over 146 cubic yards.
To help get a better sense of how the Cross Section Method works, take a look at Figure 4-9. We've
taken an awkwardly-shaped prism and converted it mathematically to a rectangular prism of the same
volume. Most cut and fill estimating software works on the same principle, except the grid cells are very
small. Depending on the size and scale of the drawing digitized, the grid cells could be as small as one
square foot.
A prism can be any two-dimensional shape when you're estimating cut and fill quantities. But the Cross
Section Method only works with rectangular or square prisms. Squares make the math easy, but site
conditions such as buildings, parking lots, planters and sidewalks often make it necessary to use
triangular or circular grid shapes. In the section that follows, I'll show you a way to handle those shapes.
The Average End Area Method
Another good way to calculate cut and fill volumes is known as the Average End Area Method. With this
method, you take the average area of two parallel cross sections and multiply it by the distance
between them.
We can use Prism A, indicated with the dotted line in Figure 4-7, to put the Average End Area Method
to the test. Grid Lines C and D frame Prism A. The cross section at Grid Line C is diagrammed in
Figure 4-10.
The existing and proposed land surface dimensions at Grid Line C form a trapezoid. To calculate the
area of a trapezoid, multiply the average length of the two parallel sides by the distance between them.
In this case, the two parallel sides are 2.3 feet and 0.9 feet. That averages out to 1.6 feet (2.3 plus 0.9,
divided by 2). The distance between the two parallel sides is 50 feet, so the area of the trapezoid is 80
square feet. Using the same technique, you'll find that the area of the trapezoid at Grid Line D is 82.5
feet. The average area of the two parallel, adjacent trapezoids is 81.25 square feet. To figure total cut
volume, multiply 81.25 by the distance between the cross sections, which is 50 feet in this case. That
comes to 4063 cubic feet, which is roughly 151 cubic yards.
Irregular Regions
The grid square shown in Figure 4-11 indicates that no work is required within the prism. However, the
proposed contours imply that the area will require fill. In this situation, the need for fill is overlooked due
to the prism's size and shape. Important contour information is "hidden" within prism corners. This is
what I refer to as an irregular region.
In an irregular region, you need to establish a grid system that captures corner depth information at all
points where:
* There is a change in direction of land slope

* There is a radical change in direction of contour lines
* There is no activity (zero line)
Figure 4-12 demonstrates one way to grid the region. Compensating lines convert an area bounded by
curved lines into an equivalent area bounded by straight lines. That allows you to perform cut and fill
calculations using the Average End Area Method.
The Zero (Daylight) Line
Some areas, such as Prisms B, E, and H in Figure 4-7, require both cut and fill. In this situation, we
need to think of the prisms as two distinct sections -- one is cut and one is filled. The zero line divides
each prism and represents the transition from cut section to fill section. I'll show you an example of how
this works. Let's say Prism E has a zero line as shown in Figure 4-13.
The area between Grid Line 2 and the zero line requires cutting. Using the Average End Area Method, I'll
start by finding the area of Triangle AC1. The area of a triangle equals its base times its height, divided
by 2. For Triangle AC1, that comes to 12.4 square feet (0.8 x 31, divided by 2). Doing the same for
Triangle AC2, we get 12.6 square feet. So the average end area is 12.5, and if we multiply that by 50,
we get 625 cubic feet for the total cut volume. To get total fill volume, we'll need to do the same
calculations with Triangles AF1 and AF2. When all is said and done, the total is 311 cubic feet. So
Prism E as a whole will require a net soil export.
Subcontours Help Define the Zero Line

The interaction between existing and proposed contour lines of equal elevation determines the zero
line's path. If existing and proposed contour lines (of equal elevation) intersect to form a rectangular- or
parallelogram-shaped region (as shown in Figure 4-7), the zero line will be a diagonal through the region.
If the zero line intersects a contour (or subcontour) line, then there will also be an opposing contour (or
subcontour) line of equal elevation located at the point of intersection.
One way to determine zero line location is to "eyeball" it by connecting points where existing and
proposed contour lines of equal elevation intersect. These areas of intersection are known as zero
corners. See Figure 4-14.
In regions with irregular contour line shapes, you can use subcontour lines to determine the zero line's
path.
Subcontour lines are just additional contour lines plotted with smaller intervals than the originals. The
subcontour lines in Figure 4-15 have a 0.2-foot contour interval, and they reveal enough information to
draw the zero line.
You can estimate subcontour line location with the help of a rubber band. First, cut the rubber band to
produce a rubber strip. With the strip in a "relaxed" position, set a scale next to it and mark off ten
equal intervals with an ink pen. It doesn't matter what scale you use to rule the rubber strip, as long as
several marks fall within the range of the contour intervals that you're dividing. In this case, I'm using a
total of 11 marks -- two end points and nine subcontour points.
As the rubber strip stretches, each subinterval between the scale's end points will stretch by an equal
amount. Each mark on the strip indicates a subcontour line location between the contours in question,
as in Figure 4-16.
The site engineer should provide all the detail you need in order to draw appropriate subcontour and zero
lines. But it's your job to interpret those details and understand the purpose of the earthwork that's going
to take place. If this is to be a slab, the zero line will follow the existing 11-foot contour, as shown in
Figure 4-17.
But let's say instead that the design calls for a high-point near the center of the site. In that case, we'll
need to draw existing and proposed subcontour lines to get enough detail to draw a zero line. See
Figure 4-18.
After connecting existing and proposed subcontours of equal elevations, we get a new zero line.
The Zero Line as a Work Boundary

So far, we've only thought of the zero line as a line separating cut areas from fill areas on the site plan.
However, the zero line is also a boundary separating "work" areas from "no-work" areas. In fact, a site
plan isn't complete unless the zero line closes on itself at the outer work boundary. Figure 4-19
illustrates the site plan from Figure 4-17, with additional subcontour detail. A work boundary takes
shape as you connect the dots between intersecting existing and proposed subcontour lines.
One problem you may have noticed in this example is that the proposed grade line is incomplete
beyond the outermost proposed contour lines. To draw the complete work boundary, you can make the
following assumption: Existing and proposed slopes (beyond the outermost proposed contour line)
extend in a similar fashion to the slopes within the region. Figure 4-20 illustrates the contour extension,
and Figure 4-21 shows the site plan with complete work boundary.
It's generally-accepted practice to increase a region's slope once you're beyond the outermost
proposed contour line. When doing so, I recommend no greater than 1 to 1 (run to rise) for cut slopes,
and 2 to 1 for fill slopes.
If you'd like some extra practice plotting zero lines, take a look at the PDF practice drawings that are
included in this cost book. You'll find links to the PDF files below.
Practice Drawing Solution

Sample 1 Solution 1
Sample 2 Solution 2
Sample 3 Solution 3
Adjusting the Zero Line When it Crosses a Slab or Paving

You'll need to adjust the zero line whenever earthwork intersects with structures such as curbs, slabs
and retaining walls. Figure 4-22 demonstrates that type of situation.
If the original zero line crosses the top of the slab, then the adjusted zero line will be parallel to the
original zero line. To determine the adjusted zero line's elevation, start with the top-of-slab (T.O.S.)
elevation, and add the stripped topsoil thickness. Then subtract the slab and under-slab fill's thickness.
In this example, the top-of-slab elevation is 100 feet. Adding 6 inches to that figure yields 100.5 feet.
Since there's 6 inches of slab on 6 inches of gravel, we then subtract 12 inches (one foot) from 100.5
feet. That leaves 99.5 feet for the adjusted zero line elevation. Figure 4-23 shows the site plan with
adjusted zero line.
Adjusting the Zero Line for Topsoil Stripping

The zero line will shift to a new position if the depths of topsoil stripped (TS) and topsoil replaced (TR)
differ. Figure 4-24 illustrates the shift.
This situation is similar to that of the zero line crossing a slab or paving. The zero line's elevation shift
will equal the difference between the depth of topsoil stripped and the depth of topsoil replaced. As a
general rule, if more topsoil is stripped than replaced, the zero line shifts to a higher existing elevation.
For example, Figure 4-25 illustrates the outcome when 2 feet of topsoil are stripped, and only 1.5 feet
replaced. The net change is 0.5 feet, so the zero line shifts to a higher existing elevation by that
amount.
In cases where more topsoil is replaced than stripped, the zero line shifts to a lower existing elevation.
The math is the same as in the example above: simply take the difference between stripped topsoil
depth and replaced topsoil depth.
In this chapter, we've shown how to use contour lines to successfully balance a site, how to use prisms
as a method for calculating cut and fill in awkwardly-shaped sites, and how to grid a region with
compensating lines, changing an area bounded by curved lines into a workable area with straight-line
boundaries.
In Chapter 5, we'll discuss topsoil, from stripping to respreading to determining volume needed on site.
5
Topsoil, Slabs and
Paving
As I mentioned in Chapter 1, topsoil plays a significant role in earthwork estimating. A site plan's
existing and proposed contour line elevations don't take topsoil alterations into consideration. In this
chapter, you'll learn how to make the necessary cut and fill quantity adjustments. You'll also learn how
proposed structures such as roads and buildings affect cut and fill calculations. Finally, I'll discuss a
common earthwork software flaw relating to topsoil, and how to compensate for it.
Topsoil Stripping
Topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled at the beginning of the site-clearing operation. When choosing
a stockpile location, avoid heavily-traveled traffic routes and natural drainage paths. Use silt fences in
appropriate locations to retain sediment. On large sites, stockpile the topsoil in several small piles
throughout the site. That makes it easier and more economical when respreading the soil.
The site designer's specs usually require topsoil stripping at structure areas only. But it may be faster
or more cost-effective to strip the entire site. A 4- to 6-inch (10.2- to 15.2-centimeter) stripping depth is
most common, but that depth will vary depending on the site.
Topsoil Respreading
You shouldn't spread topsoil while it or the subgrade is frozen or muddy. Replace at least 4 inches of
topsoil if the site plans don't specify a depth. Ideally, you want "mellow" soil in place to encourage
vegetation growth. Once topsoil is spread, correct surface irregularities to prevent water from collecting
in any pockets. Compact the topsoil enough to ensure good contact with the underlying material, but
not so much that it will increase runoff and inhibit seed germination.
Topsoil Volumes
For estimating purposes, separate topsoil stripping and replacement volumes from other soil quantities,
because:
* Topsoil that is stockpiled for future replacement on the site is a physically separate entity.
* Equipment used to strip and replace topsoil might not be the same equipment used to perform other
site cut and fill operations.
* You may not need all of it. Excess topsoil can be sold to other contractors or saved for use on other
projects.
* Topsoil must be conducive to the growth of vegetation, so it's installed in a relatively loose state
compared to sub-topsoil material.
Calculating stripped topsoil volumes is pretty straightforward: Multiply the cut depth by the area of the
stripped region. Keep in mind that topsoil isn't replaced in areas where structures will stand. You'll need
to account for that when calculating how much topsoil to replace, and how much will be left over. I'll use
the site shown in Figure 5-1 to demonstrate the math.
In this example, let's say we're stripping 4 inches of topsoil from the entire site and respreading 4 inches
in non-structure areas. The site is 380 feet by 200 feet, so its total area is 76,000 square feet. That
figure, multiplied by the 4-inch (0.34-foot) cut depth equals 25,840 cubic feet of stripped topsoil. To
convert cubic feet to cubic yards, I'll divide 25,840 by 27, which equals 957.
Next, I'll calculate the combined area of the site's structures. That includes the new building (4,800 SF),
walkway (240 SF), parking area (30,000 SF) and street (3,600 SF). Adding the areas together equals
38,640 square feet which, when multiplied by the 4-inch cut depth, yields 487 cubic yards. That's the
total volume of topsoil displaced by structures.
At this point, I have all the information I need to determine how much topsoil will be replaced on the site.
If I'm going to strip 957 cubic yards, and 487 of them won't be replaced, then 470 cubic yards (957
minus 487) will be replaced.
Net Cut and Fill Volumes
A site plan's existing and proposed contour line elevations don't account for topsoil alterations. That's
not a problem if the depth of the replaced topsoil matches what's stripped. But if the depths don't match,
the site plan's contour elevations won't be accurate. This is true in any area involving topsoil removal and
eventual replacement.
To allow for net topsoil changes, we have two options:

1. Adjust the values assigned to the existing and proposed contour lines on the site plan before
drawing grid lines, or
2. Mathematically adjust for the topsoil and work with the site plan, as is. As you might have already
guessed, I recommend using math to make the adjustments. In areas requiring cut, here's how to
calculate the actual amount of cut needed. Determine the distance between existing and proposed
elevations, taken directly from the site plan. Subtract the stripped topsoil thickness. Finally, add the
replaced topsoil thickness. This calculation is perfectly logical. If you strip more topsoil than you
replace, you won't need to cut as much as the site plan indicates. On the other hand, if you replace
more than you strip, you'll need to cut more than the site plan indicates. See Figure 5-2.
In areas requiring fill, you can calculate the net fill depth in nearly the same manner. You still begin with
the distance between existing and proposed elevations, taken from the site plan. But now you'll add the
stripped topsoil thickness and then subtract the replaced topsoil thickness. Figure 5-3 illustrates the
situation.
You can also use this math technique to calculate the depth of cut (or fill) within an entire prism. Let's
say you have a prism requiring 2.5-, 0.8-, 0.9- and 2.3-foot cuts in its respective grid corners. The cut
depth averages 1.63 feet. But what if the plans call for stripping 6 inches of topsoil, and only replacing 4
inches of it? As before, start with the average plan cut (1.63 feet), then subtract the stripped depth (0.5
feet) and add the replaced depth (0.34 feet). The average net cut is 1.47 feet. To calculate the net cut
volume, simply multiply the average net cut by the area of the prism.
Cut and Fill Volumes Under Slabs and Paving
Some designers provide the elevations at the top-of-pad (T.O.P.). Other times you may be given
proposed elevations based on the top-of-slab (T.O.S.) or some other finished surface. Areas that are
intended to have a finished surface won't get their topsoil back, but you still need to factor in the finish
material thickness.
In areas requiring cut, the existing elevations are greater than the top-of-finished-surface elevations. Any
topsoil that's stripped will reduce the net cut requirement. At the same time, the finished surface
thickness increases the net cut requirement. See Figure 5-4.
To calculate the net cut requirement, we'll use math techniques similar to what we've already covered in
this chapter. Start with the distance between the existing elevation and the finished surface elevation.
Then add the thickness of the paving or slab material. Finally, subtract the stripped topsoil depth. For
areas requiring fill, the calculation is the same, except you'll subtract the slab thickness, and add the
stripped topsoil depth. See Figure 5-5.
For these calculations, the finish material thickness should include any material that's considered an
integral part of the slab or paving. For instance, slab thickness includes any leveling sand or granular fill
beneath the slab. Paving thickness includes concrete and any base and sub-base material.
Some projects require you to overexcavate 5 feet or more beneath and beyond the building footprint, and
then fill the void with stone or other select fill. In that case, you'll first have to build the pad up to grade.
Then excavate the void and fill it with acceptable material.
Interim Fill
Footing trench excavation will often cause compacted under-slab fill to feather out beyond the building
line. You'll probably need to remove this interim fill in order to meet the site plan's specifications. See
Figure 5-6. In that case, interim fill is a double-expense work item since it's installed and subsequently
removed. Calculate interim fill volumes using the Average End Area Method described in Chapter 4.
How Land Slope Affects Topsoil Quantities
Horizontal distances measured on a two-dimensional site plan are only accurate when they're parallel to
contour lines. Distance measurements taken at an angle with respect to contour lines are longer than
their plan length. Figure 5-7 illustrates why this is so.
The actual topsoil volume requirement will be greater than the one determined by using plan
dimensions. To adjust topsoil volume quantities accordingly, you'll need to add a percentage to the
original takeoff. The adjustment factors in Figure 5-8 will do the trick.
Computer programs "see" all areas as flat, horizontal planes. So you need these adjustment factors
even if you're using a computer program to do the takeoff. Otherwise, if a site has a 3:1 average slope,
your topsoil quantities will be low by 5 percent. On berms with 1:1 slope, that degree of error increases
to 41 percent!
Assuming a 4-inch topsoil replacement depth, let's calculate the topsoil volume requirement for the
building diagrammed in Figure 5-9.
The first step is to calculate topsoil volume based on plan dimensions. Volume equals length times
width times height (V = L x W x H). The height is 4 inches (0.34 feet) and the width is 20 feet. The
length, in this case, is the average perimeter of the berm. The outside perimeter of the berm is 560 feet,
and the insider perimeter is 400 feet. That averages out to 480 feet. So the volume based on plan
dimensions is 3,264 cubic feet. Since the land slope (run:rise) at the berm is consistently 20 feet to 5
feet (4:1), we need to increase that total by 3 percent. 3,264 times 1.03 equals 3,362 cubic feet, or 125
cubic yards.
Drawing Building Pad Areas
You may run into situations where you're given specified setback distances from the property lines, and
need to physically draw the building pad footprint. If you're using a digitizer to do your takeoff, take a
scale and draw lot corners and setback corners on a sheet of mylar or other clear overlay. Align one of
the lot corners on the mylar with a lot corner on the site plan, and digitize a corner of the pad. Then do
the same for the remaining three corners. Figure 5-10 shows a sheet of mylar in position to digitize the
upper left corner of a building pad. Note the drawing scale is 1 inch to 30 feet. The pad elevation is 86.5
feet, with front, back and side setbacks of 20, 15 and 10 feet, respectively.
When digitizing the building pad, be sure to use a contour line or a point contour feature of the
earthwork software. In other words, digitize the continuous outline of the pad.
Topsoil plays an important role in earthwork estimating. We've discussed in this chapter what conditions
need to be met when the material is stripped and when it's respread. We determined how to estimate
volume in a cut and fill project.
In the next chapter, this information will be applied to roadwork projects, along with further discussion of
volume calculation.
6
Roadwork
Roadwork projects are represented on a site plan via a centerline profile and/or cross-section view. In
this chapter, I'll discuss how to interpret and use them. I'll also cover mass diagrams, and demonstrate
their many uses. Other topics in this chapter include slope calculations, asphalt quantities, and
common curb profiles.
Centerline Profiles
Centerline profiles illustrate vertical elevation at points along the road corresponding to the exact center
of the roadway. A typical centerline profile looks something like Figure 6-1. To calculate cut (or fill)
volumes, start by adding the total area for the sections requiring cut (fill).
If you don't have a digitizer board to do the math for you, break the areas above and below the curves
into mathematical figures, such as triangles. If you're unclear on this concept, refer back to Chapter 4
for a refresher course. Once you have area totals for cut and fill, multiply each by the road width, from
one right-of-way (R.O.W.) to the other, and you'll have cut and fill volumes.
Centerline and Shoulder Profiles

Some site-designers provide additional profiles for the road's shoulders. The extra data may crowd the
plans a little, but it helps you determine quantities more accurately than with the centerline profile alone.
To calculate cut quantities using shoulder profiles, measure the areas of cut along the left shoulder.
Then measure the corresponding centerline areas that require cut. Average the two area totals using the
Average End Area Method, and multiply by the distance from the left shoulder to the centerline. Repeat
this for cuts along the right shoulder, to get the total volume of cut required. Repeat the procedure for
the fill areas, to get the total fill requirement.
Road Cross Sections
Cross-section views illustrate a road's third dimension, as if perpendicular slices were cut from the plan.
Cross-section designs are preferable to centerline profiles, since they provide the most accurate
takeoffs. That's because cross sections are taken at stations down the entire road at regular (usually
100-foot) intervals. Station markings indicate the distance from that particular station to the starting
point of the project. Station markings consist of a number followed by a "+," and then a second number.
The first number represents hundreds of feet. Station 4+00 means that the station is 400 feet from the
beginning of the project. The second number represents additional feet beyond those indicated by the
first number. Station 4+20 means that the station is 420 feet from the start of the project. So Station
4+20 is 20 feet away from Station 4+00 and 80 feet away from Station 5+00.
If the site-designer doesn't provide specific cross-section designs, he'll usually supply a typical: a
cross-section template. Using the typical, you can create your own road cross sections, if necessary.
Start by making copies of the road section, one for each station shown on the site plan. Place a copy of
the template under a sheet of translucent graph paper with 1-inch square grid marks. The template's
horizontal and vertical scale will determine how much distance each inch on the grid represents.
Position the grid over the template so that the road centerline is lined up with its corresponding elevation
on the grid. For example, if the centerline elevation is 80 feet, position the grid so that the template
centerline intersects a horizontal line on the grid. Likewise, if the centerline elevation is 79.5 feet,
position the grid so that the centerline of the template is halfway between two horizontal lines on the
grid. Then plot existing elevations (taken from the site plan) onto the grid, corresponding to that station's
left, right, and centerline. You'll usually have to extend the outer sloping lines on the template until they
intersect the line generated by the existing elevations. See Figure 6-2. Repeat this process for each
station, and you've got your set of cross-section designs.
To calculate excavation and embankment volumes based on road cross sections, use the Average End
Area Method. First, determine the cut (or fill) end areas at each station. Start by counting the number of
1-inch squares within each excavation (or embankment) area on the template. Then multiply that
number by the scale factor. See the sidebar for more information about scale factors. When you've
determined the end area figures for two adjacent stations, you can multiply the respective cut and fill
quantity averages by the distance between the stations.
Besides digitizers and graph paper, you can also use a polar compensating planimeter to determine
plan areas. The planimeter is a drafting tool that uses principles from calculus to measure the areas of
irregularly-shaped regions. I won't go into the planimeter's math background, in deference to those of
you who aren't calculus fans. The planimeter itself consists of a tracer arm, pole arm, and a main body
which houses the measuring mechanism. See Figure 6-3. A variety of planimeter styles, both
mechanical and electronic, are available at engineer supply stores.
The precise method for converting planimeter readouts to plan areas will vary depending on the type of
planimeter. One thing they all have in common is the tracing component. To offset the effect of any
imperfection in your first pass, I generally recommend doing the tracing step twice; the first time with
the tracer arm to the right of the pole arm, and the second time with the tracer arm to the left of the pole
arm. The pole should remain in the same position throughout both tracings. See Figure 6-4. Finally, add
the readouts and divide by 2 to determine the average.
Mass Diagrams
If you intend to make a living by building roads, learning how to plot and use mass diagrams will save
you time and money. Mass diagrams, also known as mass haul diagrams, indicate where to move cut
material (excavation) and place it as fill (embankment). To get a feel for what mass diagrams do,
imagine yourself walking down the road site, carrying a bucket and a shovel. In regions requiring cut,
you remove dirt and place it in the bucket. In regions requiring fill, you shovel dirt out of the bucket and
onto the site. A mass diagram is a graph showing how much dirt you have in your bucket at various
points along the road. In other words, mass diagrams show you which stations require import and which
stations require export -- and how much. This helps you select the optimum locations for borrow pits or
dumps. Mass diagrams also illustrate the average haul distance for excavation, and help define which
equipment will be most efficient to use within each haul zone.
To create a mass diagram, you'll need to determine excavation and embankment volumes along the
length of the road. In our example, we'll use the cross sections shown in Figure 6-5. Dashed lines
illustrate existing grades, while proposed grades are solid lines.
You can tell that Station 1+00 through Station 4+00 primarily require cutting. On the other hand, Station
5+00 through 7+00 require a considerable amount of fill. Station 8+00 requires equal amounts of cut and
fill, while Station 9+00 needs only cutting. Stations 0+00 and 10+00, at the start and end of the project,
aren't included in the cross sections, since existing and proposed grades are identical at each of these
stations. Excavation and embankment volumes for Stations 1+00 through 9+00 are shown in Figure 6-6.
Also note the 10 percent soil-shrinkage allowance for embankments.
To calculate the required excavation between Stations 4+00 and 5+00, multiply the average square
footage of cut area for the two stations (8 SF) by the length between the stations (100 feet). That comes
to 800 cubic feet, or 30 cubic yards. To determine embankment totals between stations, use the same
Average End Area Method applying the "SF Fill with Shrinkage" column's figures to assess soil
compaction.
Next, calculate the net excavation volumes. Subtract the embankment volume from the excavation
volume at each station. If there's more excavation than embankment, your net volume will be a positive
number. If there's more embankment than excavation, the net volume will be a negative number. For
example, the span between Stations 4+00 and 5+00 calls for 30 cubic yards of excavation and 80 cubic
yards of embankment. Subtract 80 from 30, and you get negative 50. The second from the last column
in Figure 6-6 shows net excavation volumes between Station 0+00 and 10+00.
Using my bucket and shovel analogy, think of positive net excavation as filling the bucket, and negative
net excavation as shoveling dirt out of the bucket.
Once you have net excavation volumes between stations, you can calculate cumulative excavation
volumes. Cumulative volume, shown in the last column of Figure 6-6, is the hypothetical amount of dirt
in your bucket between two adjacent stations.
Cumulative volume between Station 0+00 and 1+00 is 37 (39 minus 2) cubic yards. To calculate
cumulative volume for each successive interval, add its net excavation volume to the previous interval's
cumulative total. For example, in the interval between Station 1+00 and 2+00, you'd add 126 to 37 to get
163 cubic yards.
Cumulative totals give us the ordinates we'll use to plot points on the mass diagram. Ordinates
represent vertical distance from the horizontal axis to the point on the graph. For instance, the
cumulative volume between Stations 4+00 and 5+00 is 360 cubic yards. Directly above the Station 4+00
and 5+00 interval in Figure 6-7, you'll notice a point corresponding to 360 cubic yards.
When excavation volume exceeds embankment volume between two stations, the mass diagram curve
rises. When embankment volume exceeds excavation volume between two stations, the curve goes
down. The excavation between Stations 0+00 and 4+25 (Points A and B) balances the embankment
between Stations 4+25 and 6+50 (Points B and C). This means that all of the excavation between
Stations 0+00 and 4+25 can be used for embankment required between Stations 4+25 and 6+50. At
Point C (6+50), our hypothetical bucket will be empty.
Beyond Point C, we're at a deficit, and you can see from the final ordinate (-392) that we'll never break
even. We need to import 392 cubic yards to finish the job. However, the excavation between Stations
8+00 and 10+00 (Points E and F) can be used for embankment between Stations 7+40 and 8+00
(Points D and E). All that's left to account for now is the distance between Stations 6+50 and 7+40
(Points C and D) -- and that's where the import should be deposited.
Points A, C, D and F on the diagram are called balance points because they form bookends to
balanced regions. By the same token, Lines AC and DF are called balance lines. Points where the
diagram switches from ascending to descending (Point B), or vice versa (Point E), are called grade
points.
Mass diagrams also help you to determine average haul distances. In each balanced region, locate the
midpoint on the curve between the excavation-side balance point and grade point. In our example, the
midpoint between Balance Point A (0+00) and Grade Point B (4+25) is 2+12.50. The midpoint between
Balance Point F (10+00) and Grade Point E (8+00) is 9+00. From the points at which those distances
(2+12.50 and 9+00) intersect the curve, draw a horizontal line in the direction of the hauling. Figure 6-8
illustrates the average haul distances, haul direction, and other relevant details.
Since mass diagrams contain so much useful information in a tidy visual package, they can also help
you select the appropriate equipment for various job zones. Based on the haul distances indicated in
our diagram, a scraper, loader, and dozer would be a good equipment mix for this job, as shown in
Figure 6-9. The second half of this book provides more detail on equipment choices, including
recommendations based on haul distance.
By dividing the job into equipment zones based on haul distance, we also get an estimate of the volume
each piece of equipment needs to carry. You'll see in Figure 6-9 that the division between scraper and
loader zone occurs around the 130 cubic yard mark on the vertical axis. We'll use scrapers to move
approximately 130 cubic yards of dirt from the area between Stations 0+00 and 2+00 to the area
between Stations 6+00 and 6+50. Then we'll use loaders to move 90 (220 minus 130) cubic yards
between Stations 2+00 and 2+50 to an area between Stations 5+60 and 6+00. We have two dozer
zones, one on the left and one on the right side of the diagram. We'll use dozers to move approximately
170 cubic yards between Stations 2+50 and 4+20 to an area between Stations 4+20 and 5+40. We'll
also use them to move roughly 170 cubic yards between Stations 8+00 and 10+00 to an area between
Stations 7+20 and 8+00. All of the import will need to be trucked onto the site.
Slope Calculations
If you're working with roadwork plans, you need to understand how to calculate slopes. Slope from the
centerline to the curb-and-gutter lip is usually described in terms of percentage. If the road slopes off "at
two percent," it means the slope drops 2 feet for every 100 horizontal feet. To determine the elevation
drop, multiply the pavement width by the slope percentage, then divide by 100. For example, for a
15-foot pavement at 2 percent slope, multiply 15 by 2, then divide that number by 100. The result is 0.3
feet, or 3.6 inches of drop for the 15-foot span.
Asphalt Quantities
Asphalt paving is usually laid over an approved base material which lies above a sub-base. Base and
sub-base materials include gravel, crushed stone, crushed concrete, cement-treated shell, shell,
limerock and caliche.
Figure 6-10 shows sub-base material extending beyond the curb's outer (back) face. Six to 12 inches of
base is common, so be sure to take that extra amount into consideration when calculating aggregate
base volumes.
Asphalt is taken off by the square yard, but is purchased by the ton. For instance, you'll need to know
how much a 1-inch-thick square yard of asphalt weighs. Depending on the type of mix and the weight of
the aggregate, that can vary between 80 and 120 pounds per square yard. For this example, let's say an
inch-thick square yard of asphalt weighs 115 pounds, and we're paving a 1 1/2-inch-thick,
8,000-square-yard area.
To calculate the asphalt quantity requirement in tons, multiply the square-yard asphalt weight by the
thickness of the pavement. In this case, that's 115 x 1.5, which equals 172.50. Next, multiply that figure
by the total area (8,000 SY) to get the total asphalt weight in pounds. That comes out to 1.38 million.
Dividing by 2,000, the number of pounds in a ton, we get 690 tons of asphalt.
Curbs and Gutters
Curb and gutter designs vary by geographic region. I've included some common curb and gutter cross
sections in Figure 6-11, with a table explaining their concrete volume requirements.
Valley gutters like the one shown in Figure 6-12 are common at street intersections. A valley gutter
contains a cubic foot of concrete per linear foot of gutter. With 5 percent waste, a cubic yard will pour
roughly 26 feet of gutter. With 10 percent waste, a cubic yard will pour 24 feet of gutter.
In this chapter, you've learned how to estimate materials for roadwork projects. You've seen how
cross-section views and centerline profiles can be drawn to accurately determine quantities of cut and
fill required.
In Chapter 7, we'll discuss the fundamental characteristics of soil that can further influence your material
estimates.
7
Soil Swell and
Shrinkage
So far, we've discussed cut and fill volume in terms of net quantities. But soil is also subject to varying
degrees of swell and shrinkage. It's important to understand the physical properties of soil and their
effect on the final estimated quantities.
The Fundamental States of Soil
From a dirt-estimating standpoint, soil exists in three fundamental states. The first is bank (BCY), also
called in-place, which is soil's natural, undisturbed condition. The second state is loose (LCY), as found
in a stockpile. Finally there's compacted soil (CCY), such as that found in completed building pads and
paving bases. See Figure 7-1.
Soil swells (bulks) if disturbed. It also shrinks under pressure. The amount of shrinkage depends upon
several things. Among them are the type of equipment used in the compaction process, compaction
effort, soil moisture content, particle size and gradation, and the soil's initial density and cohesiveness.
When estimating soil quantities or production rates, you'll need to factor in adjustments for swell and
shrinkage. Soil conditions vary depending on location. The factors I'm giving you in Figure 7-2 provide
information you'll find useful.
Each row in Figure 7-2 shows how many loose cubic yards (LCY) and bank cubic yards (BCY) there are
in one compacted cubic yard (CCY) of soil. For each soil type, there are four or five factors listed, based
on different moisture densities and soil testing standards. The moisture density percentage figure
indicates the density as a percentage of maximum dry density (See Sidebar).The Standard Proctor Test
(Std. Proc.) and Modified Proctor Test (Mod. Proc.) refer to two techniques for determining soil moisture
content. For any given soil and moisture density percentage, the Modified Proctor Test value is higher.
Use Modified Proctor measurements when the fill material is designated for high design load areas,
such as concrete drives and airport runways. A project's compaction specifications will indicate which
soil density criteria to use.
Let's say you want to determine the CCY yield for 1000 cubic yards of moist common earth purchased
from a soil bank. If the plan specs call for 100 percent of the Standard Proctor Test value, you'll use the
1.07 BCY to CCY ratio (bold-outlined in Figure 7-2). By dividing 1,000 by 1.07 (which equals 935 CCY),
you convert the ratio from BCY to CCY. Compacted soil is denser than bank soil, hence the 935 CCY
value. To convert soil quantity from CCY to BCY, multiply the CCY value by the factor in the BCY
column.
Another scenario might involve calculating the total number of haul trips necessary for a project. Let's
say you're using a hauling unit with 24 LCY capacity, and the project requires 20,000 cubic yards of
damp compacted sand fill with 95 percent Modified Proctor Test value. This requires a conversion from
CCY to LCY. The corresponding adjustment factor indicated by the dashed line in Figure 7-2, shows a
1.21 LCY to 1.0 CCY ratio. Multiply 20,000 by 1.21, which yields 24,200 LCY. To calculate the number
of 24 LCY haul trips, divide 24,200 by 24, which equals 1,009.
If you know a soil's weight per cubic yard in two or more of its soil states, you can calculate shrinkage
or bulkage adjustment factors. This comes in handy when you don't have a reliable set of conversion
factors for soils in your area. Figure 7-3 shows average weights for a handful of soil types in their three
soil states. For any given soil type, you can determine the shrinkage factor by dividing average weight
per cubic yard in one state by the average weight per cubic yard in any denser state. For example, the
LCY to BCY shrinkage factor for moist common earth is 2,463 divided by 3,160, which equals 0.78. To
determine bulkage factors, divide average weight per cubic yard in one state by the average weight per
cubic yard in any looser state. For example, the CCY to BCY (100 percent Mod. Proc.) bulkage factor
for dry common earth is 3,510 divided by 2,883, which equals 1.22. Referring to Figure 7-2, the
information within the dotted line, confirms that calculation.
Let's say you've selected stockpiled moist common earth to use as compacted fill. It needs to be
compacted to within 95 percent of maximum Standard Proctor density. The project requires 11,000
CCY, so you need to figure out how many LCY to order. Assuming you don't have a set of conversion
factors available, the first thing to determine is how many pounds the soil will weigh at 95 percent of
maximum. Maximum density is 3,375 pounds. Multiply that by 0.95 (95 percent), and you get 3,206
pounds per cubic yard. Now divide the LCY weight for moist common earth (2,463) by 3,206 to get the
shrinkage factor which, in this case, is 0.768. That means there's 0.768 CCY per LCY of moist common
earth. Dividing 11,000 CCY by 0.768 equals 14,322 LCY, the amount of stockpiled soil you'll need for
the job.
Occasionally, you'll need to convert volume into an equivalent weight measurement. For example, what
if you need to know how many tons there are in 14,322 LCY of moist common earth? Assuming you
know the weight in pounds per cubic yard, conversion is a two-step process. First, divide the pounds per
cubic yard figure (2,463) by 2,000 (the number of pounds in a U.S. or "net" ton) to get the conversion
factor. In this case, it's 1.23 tons per LCY. Then multiply the conversion factor by your cubic yard value
-- 1.23 x 14,322 = 17,616 tons of soil.
Another useful earthwork conversion involves converting soil volume into coverage area. If the plans call
for a depth of 6 inches of compacted gravel at 100 percent Modified Proctor, calculate how much area
your 24-LCY dump truck can cover in a single load. A good place to start is by calculating how many
CCY of gravel the truck can haul. Divide 24 by 1.39 (a factor from Figure 7-2), which gives us 17.3 CCY.
Since we're working with a 6-inch (0.5 foot) depth, you'll convert cubic yards into cubic feet. There are 27
cubic feet in a cubic yard, so 17.3 cubic yards equals 467 (27 x 17.3) cubic feet. If the plans called for a
1-foot gravel depth, we could simply stop here, knowing each payload covers a 1-foot deep,
467-square-foot area. However, since the compacted depth is only 0.5 foot, you'll divide 467 by 0.5,
which comes out to 934 square feet of coverage per payload.
Ground Loss
During project setup and topsoil stripping operations, heavy equipment traversing the site will compact
the soil significantly. This compaction is called ground loss. Because it occurs before mass cut and fill
operations, you should calculate ground loss separately from the compaction that occurs during mass
earthmoving operations. In other words, adjust for ground loss before making earthmoving calculations
for the site. Also keep in mind that ground loss only affects fill volumes. In areas requiring cut, the
removal process will disturb the dirt and cause it to swell to its original volume.
The best predictor for how much ground loss you'll experience is the original land surface condition. In
dense, rocky soil, you may get hardly any ground loss, while a plowed field might subside 4 inches or
more. Figure 7-4 shows anticipated ground loss subsidence depths for various surface conditions.
Two major factors in estimating for a cut and fill project are soil swell and shrinkage. In this chapter,
we've discussed the three conditions of soil, from a dirt-estimating standpoint. We've learned how to
determine soil weight per cubic yard, and how to estimate the number of haul trips required for a project.
In Chapter 8, we'll learn the value of topsoil-balancing, as it relates to site-balancing.

8
Spoil, Borrow
and Soil Balancing
Export (spoil) is any excavated material that must be removed from the site. To calculate spoil volume
for any given project, subtract total fill from total excavation volume. If total fill volume exceeds the
excavation volume, your project requires import, or borrow. Borrow is a term for any acceptable material
that's hauled onto the site for use as fill material.
Export (or import) quantity is the difference between the total cut and fill volume. However, there's a
slight complication to this simple equation. When determining spoil (or borrow) volumes, you must also
take soil volume changes into consideration. Spoil and borrow volumes are usually expressed in terms
of loose cubic yards (LCY). That's because soil hauling units (better known as earth-moving equipment)
generally have capacities rated in terms of loose material.
Site Balancing
Since it costs money each time soil is handled, the ideal project site is one where neither spoil is
generated nor borrow required. Site balancing creates just that sort of money-saving design. It involves
estimating cut and fill quantities and adjusting the proposed contour line locations or elevations for
maximum usage. Figure 8-1 is an example of a balanced site. For each area that requires cut, there's
an area of roughly the same size requiring fill. For example, the proposed contour at 14 feet extends
beyond the existing contour at 13 feet, creating a fill area, F6. The proposed contour at 10 feet extends
beyond the existing contour at 11 feet, creating cut area C6, which balances out F6's fill requirement.
Site balancing is the responsibility of the designer. However, you can use your site-balancing knowledge
to gain a competitive advantage by "fine-tuning" the site plan when bidding a project. In some instances,
you can reduce spoil by increasing subgrade elevations beneath new building slabs or paving. This won't
thrill the engineer because it means redesigning the project, but the owner might approve if it promises
to substantially cut costs from the job.
Balancing a project that requires import is a little more difficult, because it involves adjusting proposed
elevations downward. That creates drainage problems. You might be able to obtain good fill material by
over-excavating a pond or lake on the site, which could reduce the import requirement. See Chapter 2
for a detailed description of the process. You can also backfill the pond or lake with any undesirable soil
that would otherwise need to be hauled off the site. When balancing soil volumes, keep in mind that all
fill material will shrink when compacted.
Coordinating Site Balance Between Two Job Sites

If you're starting two jobs at once, you can kill two birds with one stone by combining their soil
requirements to achieve site balance between them. Let's say Job X has a 20,000-square-foot perimeter
and requires 10,000 LCY of import, while Job Y covers a 16,000-square-foot area and requires 4,000
LCY of export. Combined, the required net import is 6,000 LCY. To achieve site balance, you'll need to
reduce both sites' elevations by a certain amount. To determine the necessary elevation change,
multiply the net import (or export) cubic yard quantity by 27 -- which converts cubic yards to cubic feet.
That figure comes to 162,000 in our example. Divide cubic feet by the total combined area of the sites
(36,000) to get the required elevation change. In this case, each site must be lowered by 4.5 feet.
Topsoil Balancing
Balancing stripped topsoil volume with replaced topsoil volume is a matter of calculating respread depth.
Respread depth (in feet) equals the topsoil volume (in cubic feet) divided by the respread area's square
footage. If you have 1,000 cubic yards of topsoil (27,000 CF), and 15,000 square feet to cover, the
respread depth will be 1.8 feet.
Sometimes the respread depth required for balance exceeds the depth allowed by the designer. To
determine the maximum allowable replacement volume, multiply the maximum allowable depth (in feet)
by the respread area, and divide by 27. For example, if maximum topsoil depth is 12 inches (1.0 foot)
and the respread area is 15,000 square feet, the maximum respread volume is 556 cubic yards.
Interim Spoil and Soil Piles
If you have excavated material that needs to be stored, but there's no room for it on the site, you'll need
to move it temporarily. This excess soil is called interim spoil, since it's eventually returned to the site
for use as backfill. Because you incur costs each time you transport soil, interim spoil and its storage is
an important issue to address.
If interim spoil is stored for a period of months, it naturally compacts slightly. Weather will erode
unprotected interim spoil. In either of these cases, you may need a new volume calculation using swell
and shrinkage factors, before bringing the soil back into use. Refer back to Chapter 7 for a discussion of
swell and shrinkage factors.
When you're determining soil storage requirements and locations, keep in mind that soil not only swells
when excavated, but it also seeks a natural angle of repose. The angle of repose, shown in Figure 8-2,
is the angle between the ground and the surface of the pile. Most soils will hold a 30- to 45-degree
maximum angle of repose.
Gravity is the primary force which causes a soil pile to spread. Surface-to-surface contact between
aggregates causes friction, which works against the gravity that prevents a soil pile from spreading. On
a per-unit volume basis, finer aggregates have greater surface-to-surface contact area than do coarse
aggregates. Here are some general rules regarding soil-pile behavior for coarse-grained aggregates
(gravels and sands) of comparable size:
* Large aggregate will spread more than smaller aggregate, and therefore have a lower angle of repose
* All other things being equal, heavier aggregate will spread more than lighter aggregate
* Rounded or smooth aggregate will spread more than angular-shaped aggregate
* The higher the water content, the more the soil pile will spread
* The farther the aggregate is dropped, the more the soil pile will spread
* Poorly-graded aggregate will spread more than well-graded aggregate. Well-graded aggregate
contains an even distribution of particle sizes that help create friction between the particles.
In this chapter, you've learned the advantages of balancing a site. The spoil and borrow concepts were
introduced to teach you how to make the most of your site's resources.
In Chapter 9, we'll dig into the best way to estimate basement excavation.
9
Basement
Excavation
Basement excavation is more expensive per cubic yard than other site cut-and-fill operations, because
it's done in a relatively confined space. Therefore, it's best to estimate your basement quantities
separately from other earthwork measurements. Also, many basement excavations can require
constant dewatering during construction, which adds complexity. In Chapter 10, I'll give you more
information on dewatering.
Basement Excavation Depth
In basement excavation, subgrade eleva-tion is the bottom of the concrete slab or the leveling material
(sand or gravel fill) beneath the slab, if there is any. See Figure 9-1. The easiest way to determine the
average depth of a basement excavation is to average the depths of excavation at the basement
corners. To calculate an individual corner's depth, determine the distance between the existing elevation
and the top-of-slab elevation. Add the thickness of the slab and any leveling sand or gravel fill. Then
subtract the thickness of the stripped topsoil.
Let's say the site plans show a rectangular basement with existing corner elevations at 52, 53, 54 and
55 feet, with a 40-foot top-of-slab elevation. Assume 4 inches of topsoil will be stripped initially, and the
slab is to be 6 inches thick over a 4-inch bed of gravel fill. To determine average excavation depth,
subtract each corner elevation from the top-of-slab elevation. Using our corner elevations, we calculate
12, 13, 14 and 15 feet, respectively. To those figures, add the 10-inch (0.83-foot) slab and gravel total,
and subtract the 4-inch (0.33-foot) topsoil stripping, to equal 12.5, 13.5, 14.5 and 15.5, respectively. Add
these numbers and divide by 4, for an average excavation depth of 14 feet.
Determining Basement Excavation Quantities
There are two conditions to consider when taking off basement excavation quantities. The first is the soil
volume displaced by the building shell, including its walls. To make your estimate, you'll use the
outside-of-wall to outside-of-wall building dimensions. Multiply this area by the average excavation depth
at the basement corners to determine the volume of the shell.
The second component to consider is the area outside the basement walls. You'll need to allow room for
footing width, work space, and safe bank slope beyond the outside wall plane. Footing width (FW) is the
distance from the outside face of the basement wall plane to the outside face of the continuous footing.
Footing width is determined and drawn by the architect or designer. Work space (WS), as the name
implies, gives workers room to safely and efficiently set forms or scaffolding. It also provides a buffer
between the slope and footing trench, reducing the amount of loose soil or rock that may collect in the
trench. Work space width is usually about 3 feet, but depends on the size of the backhoe used to
excavate the continuous footing after the mass basement excavation is completed.
The combination of footing and work space widths is called footing-work distance (FWD). It's the
distance from the outside face of the basement wall plane to the toe of the bank slope.
I recommend that you keep the outside basement wall soil volume calculation separate on your take-off
because that soil will ultimately be replaced by backfill. Backfilling -- even when compacted correctly --
is a very expensive operation, since it's usually done with hand compactors to avoid damaging the
basement shell. Consequently, you want to be as accurate as possible when you make your material
estimate.
Safe Bank Slope

The slope, which varies depending on soil-type, also plays a role in basement excavation calculations.
Figure 9-2 shows recommended bank slopes for various soil types. Type A soils include clay, silty clay,
sandy clay and clay loam. Cemented soils such as caliche and hardpan are also considered Type A.
Type B soils include angular gravel (similar to crushed rock), silt, silty loam and sandy loam. Silty clay
loam and sandy clay loam don't fit neatly into either classification, so you might see them classified as
either Type A or Type B, or both. Type C soils include gravel, sand, loamy sand, wet soil from which
water is seeping, or submerged rock that's unstable. Soils with a variety of layers are generally
classified based on the weakest layer, but each layer may also be classified individually.
Sometimes lack of space makes it necessary to excavate a steeper slope than may be considered
safe. In those situations, extra reinforcement is required. Sheet piling is generally used to shore up the
walls of the excavation. Building these supporting structures requires the skills and equipment of a
specialized subcontractor.
Half Slope
Bank slope is expressed as the ratio of run to rise. For each foot of run, the slope's elevation changes
(rises) by a certain amount, n. To calculate a basement excavation slope's total run, divide the average
excavation depth by n. For example, if the depth is 16 feet and the bank slope is 1 to 2, the slope's total
run is 16 divided by 2, or 8 feet.
It's useful to know the value of half slope (HS) when calculating volume of excavation beyond the
basement wall. Half slope is the distance midway between the toe and head of the slope. In other
words, half slope equals the total run divided by 2.
The Pencil Plane Method for Volume Calculation

As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, you should calculate soil volume outside of the basement wall
separately from other quantities. The easiest way to determine this outside volume (or VOUT) is to use
a little math magic. Using "paper excavation," draw a vertical pencil plane line at the half slope, dividing
the sloped bank in half. This creates a rectangular prism, with excavation volume equivalent to that of
the awkwardly-shaped region bounded by the slope. See Figure 9-3. The distance from the outside wall
plane to the center of the sloped bank is the distance to the pencil plane, or location of the pencil plane
(LPP). It equals the half slope plus the footing-work distance.
You'll also see OLE (the outer limit of excavation) at the top of Figure 9-3. That's the distance from the
basement wall to the head of the bank slope.
Now that I've defined all the components involved with outside volume of excavation, let's put them to
use. This excavation's boundaries are the outside face of the basement wall plane and the pencil plane.
The area is represented by VOUT in Figure 9-4. You could draw the pencil plane to scale around the
basement, and do a handful of volume calculations, but there's an easier way. Double the LPP distance
and add it to the structure's outside length plus width. Take that number, and double it. Next, multiply
the result by the pencil plane distance. Finally, multiply that figure by the average excavation depth.
Relating it to Figure 9-4, the outside volume equation looks like this:
2 x (L1 + L2 + 2LPP) x LPP x D (average excavation depth)
This method works for excavations with either vertical or sloped walls. When using the Pencil Plane
Method to determine sloped wall excavation volume, the volume calculation at each outside corner of
the basement will be "short." But at each inside corner, the excavation will be "long" by the same
amount, so it evens out. Any basement with square corners has a net sum, in terms of volume, of four
outside corners, regardless of how many inside and outside corners are involved.
Other Basement Excavation Volume Quantities

Once you've calculated the outside volume of excavation, the rest is easy. Total basement excavation
volume equals outside volume plus the below-grade basement shell volume. Basement shell volume
equals the outside-of-wall to outside-of-wall basement shell area times its depth.
The volume of backfill required for a basement excavation is equal to the volume of soil excavated
beyond the basement wall (i.e. outside volume).
The spoil volume generated by a basement excavation equals the total basement excavation volume
minus backfill volume. Remember to use spoil volumes in terms of loose cubic yards, since hauling unit
capacities are usually rated in terms of the amount of loose material they can haul.
Figure 9-5 shows the plan and section views of a 150- by 100-foot basement. Let's combine everything
I've discussed in this chapter and calculate this basement's excavation volumes, assuming the
following: the subgrade elevation equals the top-of-footing elevation. We're dealing with moist common
earth (Type B soil); average excavation depth is 15 feet; backfill material is damp sand at 90 percent
Standard Proctor.
First, I'll calculate the basement shell volume. The area inside the outer portion of the walls is 15,000
square feet (150 x100). Multiplying that figure by the 15-foot excavation depth, and then dividing by 27 to
convert from cubic feet to cubic yards, we end up with 8,333 bank cubic yards.
The footing width illustrated in Figure 9-5 is 2 feet. As previously mentioned, we need about 3 feet of
work space, so that makes 5 feet from the basement wall exterior to the toe-of-slope. I'll add that to the
half slope, which is half of the slope's total run. With Type B soil, the bank slope is 1 to 1 (from Figure
9-2) -- which means the run is 15 feet (15 / 1) and the half slope is 7.5 feet. Adding 7.5 to five equals
12.5 feet, which is the location of the pencil plane (LPP).
Once I have the LPP, all that's left to do is plug all the values into the outside volume equation. That
comes out to 103,125 cubic feet, or 3,819 bank cubic yards, which is also our backfill volume quantity.
The total excavation volume comes to 12,152 (8,333 + 3,819) bank cubic yards.
Total spoil volume for this basement excavation is 8,333 (12,152 - 3,819) bank cubic yards, but we'll
convert that figure into loose cubic yards. The BCY to LCY conversion factor (from Chapter 7) for moist
common earth, at 90 percent Standard Proctor, is 1.28. Multiplying 8,333 by 1.28 equals 10,666 loose
cubic yards of spoil.
Basement Ramps
If site space permits, it's helpful to excavate a ramp from existing grade to basement subgrade. A ramp
will pay for itself in terms of conveying people, materials, and equipment into and out of the pit during
construction.
Depending on the relative sizes of the pit and building site, there are several options for ramp design, but
we'll only be discussing interior and exterior ramps. Larger sites, with adequate vehicle turning space at
the toe of the ramp, are good candidates for an interior ramp. Interior ramps, like the one shown in
Figure 9-6, are fashioned by excavating all soil from the basement except for that used to form the
ramp. When work has progressed to a point where the ramp is more of a hindrance than a help, it can
be removed using excavating equipment working from a location above the excavation.
Interior ramps are great because they don't require any additional excavation or backfill beyond the
quantities required for the basement excavation itself. The soil volume in the ramp is included in the total
basement excavation taken off by the Pencil Plane Method.
Exterior ramps, on the other hand, do require extra excavation and backfill, over and above what's
excavated. An exterior ramp is generally recommended when excavation is small and the site large, in
relation to it. See Figure 9-7. This type of ramp is more expensive in terms of additional soil transport,
but on smaller excavations it could be your only option.
Calculating interior and exterior ramp volumes precisely requires the use of trigonometry. But you can
get a good approximation by using something similar to the Average End Area Method from Chapter 4.
First, draw a longitudinal cross-section to scale, through the excavation at the location of the ramp.
Then, calculate the end area of the ramp excavation. Since ramps are triangular in shape, the area of a
triangle is its base times its height, divided by two. The ramp volume will be approximately equal to the
end area times the ramp width.
We've learned how to estimate basement excavation quantities, and to include foot-work distance
(FWD) to our footing distance estimate. To ensure a safe bank, each excavation's slope is based on the
soil-type. Volume calculation was discussed in mathematical terms.
Many of the concepts discussed in this chapter also apply to trench excavation, which I'll cover next, in
Chapter 10.
10
Trench Excavation
This chapter focuses on two types of trench excavations: footing and utility trenches. Trenches require
greater excavating accuracy and the use of relatively small, slow-production excavating equipment, so
they're relatively expensive compared to other site cut-and-fill operations. Therefore, it's a good idea to
keep trench excavation quantities separate from other earthwork take-off quantities.
Trench Depth and Shape
Excavating a footing trench greater than 5 feet deep probably isn't practical. Most building codes don't
require a frost line elevation greater than 5 feet below grade. If excavation beyond 5 feet is necessary,
you should consider a drilled pier-grade-beam foundation or an actual basement. For more on basement
excavation calculations, see Chapter 9.
To calculate trench depth, subtract the trench subgrade elevation from the top-of-pad elevation, then
subtract the stripped topsoil thickness.
If the soil is unstable, trench walls should be sloped. This V-trench is illustrated in Figure 10-1.
V-trenches require a minimum of 18 inches of work space beyond each face of the continuous footing.
In contrast to V-trenches, U-trenches have vertical walls. Any trench less than 4 feet deep is a U-trench
candidate unless the soil is extremely unstable. Any cave-in that might occur at this shallow depth
wouldn't pose a hazard and, secondarily, loose debris on the trench floor can be cleared easily with
hand tools.
Footing Trench Excavation Volumes
To calculate the volume of a trench's excavation, multiply its end area by the footing length. A U-trench's
end area is its width (stem wall width plus combined work distance from both sides of the footing) times
the trench depth.
Calculating V-trench volume relies on the half slope concept I discussed in Chapter 9. To calculate the
end area of a V-trench, double the distance from the stem wall to the pencil plane and add it to the stem
wall width. Then multiply that figure by the trench depth.
Let's work through a V-trench volume calculation using the continuous footing diagrammed in Figure
10-2. The soil is dry sand, so we can use a 1-to-1 bank slope, and required compaction is 95 percent
Standard Proctor. We should also assume a standard 18-inch work space on each side of the footing.
The trench depth is 3 feet (99.67 - 96.67). Therefore, with a 1-to-1 slope, the half slope equals 18
inches. Doubling the half slope, work space and footing widths (to account for both sides of the footing),
and adding the stem wall width (1 foot), we get 9 feet for the total trench width (from pencil plane to
pencil plane). To get the trench end area, we'll multiply 9 by the trench depth (3 feet) to get 27 square
feet.
Now, for trench volume, all we do is multiply the trench end area by the footing length. For our purposes
here, the total footing length (along its centerline) equals the mean (average) building perimeter. To
calculate the mean perimeter, multiply half of the footing wall width by 8, and subtract it from the outside
building perimeter. In this example, that comes to 246 (250 - 4) feet. Multiplying 246 by 27 square feet,
we get 6,642 cubic feet or 246 bank cubic yards for the trench volume.
To calculate the total trench backfill volume, subtract concrete volume (below grade) from the trench
volume. The footing is 246 feet long, 3 feet wide and a foot thick, so it contains 738 (246 x 3 x 1) cubic
feet of concrete. The stem wall contains 492 (246 x 2 x 1) cubic feet of concrete below grade, so total
footing volume is 1,230 cubic feet, or 46 cubic yards. Subtracting 46 from 246, we get 200 cubic yards
of backfill. But that figure is in terms of bank cubic yards (BCY), and we need compacted cubic yards
(CCY). Use the volume conversion factors found in Chapter 7. For 95 percent Standard Proctor criteria,
the dry sand conversion factor is 1.17. Multiplying 200 by 1.17 gives us 234 bank cubic yards of backfill.
That means there will be 12 bank cubic yards (14 LCY) of spoil for this trench.
The Ditching Contractor
You can expect local ditching subcontractors to charge by the linear foot of trench excavated, assuming
the following conditions are met:
* The site is reasonably level

* Trench width or depth does not exceed 3 feet
* Building has long, straight walls
* Trench has few (if any) footing projections, and requires no bucket size changes
If the conditions above are not met, the excavating subcontractor will generally charge by the hour, with
a 2-hour minimum charge. For trenches greater than 3 feet deep or wide, they'll usually charge by the
cubic yard of excavated material.
If conditions are such that the excavating subcontractor charges by the linear foot, expect a 100-foot
minimum charge. The per-linear-foot cost will depend upon the trench's end area. There's almost always
an additional charge whenever a bucket needs changing or alteration.
Backhoe Buckets and Trench Widths
Small backhoe buckets come in 12-, 18-, 24-, 30-, and 36-inch standard widths, including the front
teeth. It's possible to customize bucket widths by welding an additional tooth to the outermost teeth on
either side of the bucket. Welding a half or full tooth to each side of the bucket adds 2 and 4 inches of
total cutting width, respectively. When they're no longer needed, the additional teeth can be removed
with a cutting torch.
Utility Trenches
Setting pipe in the trench, and taking the safety precautions necessary for pipe installation work, makes
for slow production. It also makes utility trench excavation more expensive per cubic yard than site
cut-and-fill operations or basement excavation. Production may come to a standstill when you need to
protect, or work around, existing utilities.
Utility trench bank slope criteria are the same as those for basement trench excavations over 5 feet
deep. The trench walls may be vertical if a protective cage is used to keep falling debris from injuring
workers, or if the soil is stable.
Pipe should be laid over a gravel or stone bed, as shown in Figure 10-3. This helps keep the pipe
secure, allows ground water to disperse without eroding the soil, and makes it easier to place the pipe
with the appropriate fall.
Some designers simply require a 6- to 12-inch stone bed beneath pipe, while others call for the stone
bed to cover the pipe up to its spring line. The spring line is located at the pipe's widest horizontal
dimension. In some cases, the specs might require stone placement all the way to the top of the pipe.
Once the pipe is in place, the trench over that pipe length is backfilled using a loader or dozer.
Utility Trench Excavation Volumes

Calculating utility U-trench excavation volume is the same as for footing trenches, discussed earlier. To
calculate utility V-trench excavation volume, multiply the end area by the trench length. Since the end
area of a V-trench is shaped like a trapezoid, it equals one-half the sum of the bases (top and bottom
lengths), multiplied by the trench height.
For practice, let's calculate the volume of the trench in Figure 10-4, assuming it's 600 feet long. The
sum of the bases (top and bottom) is 27 (21 + 6) feet. Dividing 27 by 2, and multiplying by the 10-foot
trench height, we get 135 square feet for the end area. Multiplying the end area by the 600-foot trench
length yields 81,000 cubic feet, or 3,000 cubic yards.
Next, we'll determine the stone bedding's volume. Had the stone been placed only beneath the pipe, its
volume would be the end area of the stone multiplied by the trench length. But in this case, the bedding
is 2.5 feet deep, covering half the pipe up to its spring line. When the stone bedding covers a portion of
the pipe, you need to account for pipe volume displacement.
Before doing that, however, you'll calculate the stone bedding volume as if the pipe didn't exist. It forms
a trapezoid with 9.76- and 6.0-foot bases, and a 2.5-foot height, so the end area is 19.7 square feet and
total volume for the 600-foot trench is 11,820 cubic feet.
Figure 10-5 lists pipe volume displacement figures for round and oval reinforced concrete pipe. In this
example, the inside diameter is 36 inches, and the stone bedding covers just half the pipe. The
corresponding displacement figure is 5.28 cubic feet per linear foot of pipe. With 600 feet of pipe, the
total displacement is 3,168 cubic feet. Subtracting 3,168 from 11,820 gives us 8,652 cubic feet of stone
bedding.
To calculate trench backfill volume, we'll subtract the stone bedding and pipe volumes from the total
trench volume. We already know that the stone bedding volume is 8,652 cubic feet. Using the 36-inch
full pipe displacement factor (10.56) from Figure 10-5, total pipe volume comes to 6,336 (10.56 x 600)
cubic feet. Add the two totals and subtract from the 81,000 cubic foot trench excavation volume, for a
backfill total of 66,012 cubic feet, or 2,444 cubic yards. Since total spoil equals total trench volume
minus backfill volume, the spoil volume comes to 555 cubic yards.
T-trenches
If the soil is stable, a T-trench can be a time- and money-saving alternative to the other trench types I've
discussed. See Figure 10-6. T-trenches are usually excavated down to the ledger with a bulldozer, and
then an excavator digs the remaining lower portion. Because the dozer has a higher production rate,
you'll need to make separate excavation volume calculations for the dozer and excavator. The
calculations are easy because all the end areas for each portion are rectangular.
Dewatering
If you excavate below the water table, you need to lower the water table until work is completed.
Dewatering is usually done by a contractor who specializes in that kind of work. Here are some
common techniques:
Sump pumps, placed in shallow ditches where water collects, are generally sufficient when water
seepage is light to moderate.
Well points, placed around the excavation site, are a more effective dewatering solution. Wells are
usually limited to a 20-foot suction lift, and well-spacing varies from 3- to 12-foot centers, depending on
soil porosity. A 1.5- or 2-inch self-jetting well point will normally pump 10 and 25 gallons per minute,
respectively. High-capacity 2-inch wells produce roughly 35 gallons per minute. To remove water at a
faster rate than that, you'll need to use suction wells. Suction wells use larger diameter pipe and the
well excavation process is more complex.
When well-pointing a trench excavation, the open portion of the excavation, as well as the portion behind
the open excavation, must be kept dry. Also, the expected trench path should be dewatered before
excavating that area.
The best way to dewater an open excavation such as a pond or open trench is to drop a 3- to 4-inch
flexible hose into the water at the lowest point and pump it dry using a centrifugal "mud pump," as
shown in Figure 10-7.
Other dewatering methods include sheet piling, chemically freezing the soil and soil cement, or
bentonite pressure injection. During the winter in cold climates, if the bottom of the excavation is above
the frost line, it may be unnecessary to dewater because the water will be frozen into the soil.
During any dewatering operation, it's important to control where the pumped water is going. Improper
disposal may have unintended consequences such as flooding areas beyond the site. It's also important
to anticipate any adverse effects, such as disruption of the water table.
Now that you're familiar with the different types of trench excavation, we'll move on to grade beams and
drilled piers.
11
Grade Beams and
Drilled Piers
The grade beam and drilled pier foundation is a common design in areas where the surface soil's
load-bearing capacity is inadequate for the anticipated design loads. Grade beams differ from
continuous footings. Continuous footings bear on soil, while grade beams bear on piers which then bear
on the soil. See Figure 11-1. In this chapter, I'll discuss the components of pier estimating.
Pier Subgrade Elevation
Drilled piers can be excavated as a cylindrical shaft or a belled pier, like the ones in Figure 11-1. Pier
subgrade elevation will be shown on the plans at a depth where the designer believes adequate bearing
soil exists. But the actual depth of suitable bearing soil may be different. That's why contractors are
usually required to submit, as part of the bidding documents, a list of cost additions and deductions per
linear foot of pier.
In that situation, the contractor has basically signed a stipulated sum contract with a unit price rider.
The amount charged for additional excavation will include the contractor's overhead and profit. Any
amount deducted for less-than-anticipated excavation, however, should be the net costs only. In other
words, the unit price deduction will not include overhead and profit. That's because, regardless of
whether less-than-expected excavation occurs, there are costs for maintaining and submitting records of
the drilling. The owner should still be liable for those costs.
Calculating Pier-Drilling Volumes
Pier drilling is usually a job for a contractor who specializes in this type of work. The shafts are drilled
with an auger bit, and bells are reamed with a belling tool -- a bit with hinged leaves that open to clear a
wider diameter near the bottom of the hole.
Pier drillers usually charge by the diameter-foot for drilling the pier shaft. Smaller shafts (less than 24
inches in diameter) carry a higher drilling unit price than shafts with a larger diameter, so you'll need to
account for them separately. Figure 11-2 shows cubic foot and diameter-foot factors per linear foot of
shaft excavation.
To determine the diameter-feet of soil excavated from a pier shaft, multiply the appropriate diameter-feet
factor (based on shaft diameter) by the shaft depth. For example, 1.83 is the diameter-foot factor for a
22-inch diameter shaft. If the shaft is 12 feet deep, then the total soil excavation is 22 (1.83 x 12)
diameter feet.
If a pier consists of a shaft only, the soil excavation volume equals shaft depth times the appropriate
cubic foot factor in Figure 11-2. The factors really just represent the area of a circle of the given diameter
-- recall that the area of a circle is pi (3.14) times radius (diameter / 2) squared. Take, for example, a
shaft with 48-inch diameter. The radius (2.0 feet) squared equals 4. Multiplying 3.14 by 4, we get 12.56,
which confirms the factor shown in the table. You can use this method to calculate your own cubic foot
factors for shaft diameters that aren't listed in the table. Be sure to convert shaft diameter measurement
into feet when performing the calculation.
Bells
Bell reaming is priced by the cubic foot of excavated soil. Figure 11-3 lists cubic-foot bell excavation
volumes. The figures represent only the bell's net soil volume. In other words, they do not include soil
volume from the pier shaft that forms the center of the bell.
To calculate total belled pier excavation volume, add the total shaft volume to the net bell volume. Let's
say you needed to calculate total soil volume displacement of a belled pier that's 18 feet deep with a
24-inch shaft diameter and a 60-inch bell diameter. The shaft volume equals 3.14 (from Figure 11-2)
times 18, which comes to 56.5 cubic feet. The net bell volume, from Figure 11-3, is 26.6 cubic feet. The
combined total equals 83.1 cubic feet, or 3 cubic yards.
If you've reached this point in the book reading from front to back, you'll have covered all the basics of
figuring excavation job quantities. In the remaining chapters, I focus primarily on equipment productivity
rates and costs -- starting with excavators.
12
Excavating
Equipment
In this chapter, I'll discuss power shovels, draglines, clamshells, backhoes, mass excavators and
trenching machines. I'll also show how to calculate excavating equipment productivity, which helps in
selecting the right equipment for the job.
Excavator Production
The production rate of an excavator is partially based on its cycle time, which consists of the following
components:
* Loading the bucket

* Swinging the loaded bucket
* Dumping the bucket load
* Swinging the empty bucket
For any given set of job conditions, cycle time generally depends upon the size of the excavator. Small
machines can usually cycle faster than large ones, but their overall production is limited by their small
bucket size. Other productivity variables include excavation depth, soil type, swing angle, job and
management conditions, hauling unit size and operator skill.
The deeper you excavate, the more likely it is that you'll encounter heavily-compacted soil. When
excavating this type of soil, it takes longer to fill the bucket. Using the correct bucket size and machine
power becomes even more important under such conditions. Wet, sticky soils take longer to dump, and
adhere to the bucket and teeth. That, in turn, reduces the bucket's capacity and ability to penetrate the
soil. To maximize production, keep the bucket teeth clean and sharp, and replace worn teeth
immediately to avoid damaging the shank. In soft soils, use the largest bucket possible that doesn't
exceed the safe lifting capacity of the excavator.
Adjusting swing angle to avoid obstacles (such as power lines, a growing spoil pile, or workers on the
site) will increase swing and cycle time, as will dumping into trucks located above the excavator. For
safety reasons, never swing the bucket over the cab of a truck.
Excavating Around Underground Utilities

Working where there are existing underground utilities inevitably slows production. It requires extra care,
and usually some degree of hand excavation.
Also be aware that most utility companies require a 24- to 48-hour notice before you dig. It's a good idea
to call them even if the site plans show existing utilities, because plans don't always give precise
locations. Once you've located a utility, mark its location with a surveyor tie. Each utility-type should
then be painted a different color: red for electrical power lines, cables, conduit and lighting cable; yellow
for gas, oil, steam, petroleum or chemical lines; orange for communication, alarm and signal lines, and
cable TV lines; blue for water and irrigation lines; and green for sewer or drainage lines.
Excavator Bucket Capacities
Excavator bucket size is usually expressed in terms of struck capacity, the volume enclosed by side
plates, rear and front bucket enclosures. In other words, struck capacity is the volume of soil beneath
the strike-off plane, as opposed to bucket size. See Figure 12-1. Heaped capacity is the struck volume
plus the volume above the strike-off plane, assuming a 1:1 angle of repose. The angle of repose is the
ratio of run to rise of the soil pile, and is expressed as run:rise.
Power shovel and dragline bucket capacities are rated according to their struck volumes. As the
excavator is digging bank material, the soil will swell somewhat, but only in an upward direction. This
upward swelling manifests itself in the heap at the top of the bucket, and is roughly equal to the
difference between struck and heaped capacity. In short, a bucket's heaped capacity (in BCY) is
basically the same as its struck capacity rating. For example, a 2-cubic-yard bucket has a heaped
capacity of 2 bank cubic yards of material.
When determining excavator production rates and payloads, you need to be familiar with bucket fill
factors -- also known as bucket-efficiency factors. These factors vary depending on the soil type or the
condition (size) of rock being excavated. A bucket's payload equals the heaped capacity times its
bucket fill factor. Figure 12-2 shows bucket fill factors for power shovels.
The actual soil volume contained in a bucket can be expressed as loose or bank cubic yards,
depending on the physical condition of the soil being excavated. However, since excavator production
rates are normally expressed in bank cubic yards per hour, you'll eventually need to convert LCY
production to BCY production. To get the necessary conversion, or load factor, divide the weight per
LCY by the weight per BCY. Then multiply the factor by the LCY total. For example, if 1 LCY of wet clay
weighs 2,800 pounds and 1 BCY weighs 3,500 pounds, then the load factor is 0.80. So 100 LCY of wet
clay equals 80 (100 x 0.80) BCY. Click this table listing load factors link for various soil types and
materials. You'll find a link to the PDF file in Chapter 12 of the digital version of the book. Refer back to
Chapter 1 for instructions on how to install the software.
Cable-Operated Power Shovels
A cable-operated power shovel, shown in Figure 12-3, is a crane equipped with a shovel attachment. Its
main components include a mounting, cab, boom, shipper shaft, dipper stick and a dipper. To excavate,
the dipper is lowered to the floor of the excavation. By applying tension to the hoist line, the dipper is
pulled up through the soil at the face of the excavation, filling the dipper as it goes. Although a shovel
can dig above or below ground level, shovel excavation is usually most efficient when the natural ground
level is roughly the same elevation as the shipper shaft. If the depth of the face is less than optimum, it
will be difficult, if not impossible, to completely fill the dipper in a single cycle. With the exception of
solid rock, this type of machinery can excavate all types of earth without prior loosening.
Since the shovel can excavate at ground level, it can dig its own roadway as it advances through the
soil. When excavation begins at ground level, the shovel must dig a ramp down into the soil until it
creates a digging face of the proper depth. This procedure is referred to as ramping down. Don't swing
the dipper left and right to move loose material.
I recommend using a small bulldozer to fill holes and keep the pit floor clean. A clean, smooth, and
well-drained floor will increase power shovel production.
Excavated material can be loaded into trucks or dumped into spoil piles. Hauling equipment should be
sized to accommodate the entire number of bucket loads. Otherwise, one of the trucks will be only
partially loaded.
Loading up the trucks with a shovel excavator usually involves either the frontal or the parallel approach.
Figures 12-4 and 12-5 illustrate these methods, respectively. The frontal approach allows the shovel to
apply its full digging force, making this its optimum digging position. Trucks placed on each side of the
shovel allow the excavator to swing at a 90-degree angle. When using the parallel approach, the shovel
advances down the face of the excavation as work progresses. This method requires less time to move
trucks into position, but only one truck can be in the loading position at any given time. The parallel
approach also prevents the shovel from exerting optimum digging force, so it's best to use the frontal
approach unless space is limited. In either case, never swing the excavator bucket over the cab of a
truck.
Choosing the Right Size Shovel Excavator

When it comes to shovel excavator size, there are some tradeoffs to consider. Large shovels yield high
production and exert tremendous digging forces, allowing them to excavate large rock pieces and tough
material. That may, in turn, reduce blasting and drilling costs. A large shovel's high lifting ability comes
in handy when hauling units are at natural ground level. On the other hand, large shovels can be
hampered by overhead obstructions. They're also more difficult to transport, and require equally large
hauling equipment to take full advantage of their capacity. Finally, not all soils are capable of supporting
the weight of this extremely heavy machinery.
Although many of the costs associated with large machines are higher than those of smaller ones, unit
productivity costs (cost per cubic yard) are generally lower for large machines. That's because they can
produce a larger quantity of material per unit of time. Also, the operator's wages are usually the same
regardless of equipment size.
Machine shipping dimensions, operating dimensions, digging ranges and clearances are normally
published with manufacturer's specifications for any given excavator. The most important
measurements, with regard to job planning and shovel selection, include, as illustrated in Figure 12-6:
* maximum dumping height

* maximum dumping radius
* maximum digging radius
* maximum cutting height
The first two measurements are critical when the shovel's in a pit, loading trucks at natural ground level.
Power Shovel Productivity

To calculate the hourly rate of power shovel productivity, multiply the number of cycles-per-hour by the
bucket payload. Remember from earlier in this chapter that bucket payload equals its heaped volume
times bucket fill factor. Let's say we have a 2 BCY power shovel excavating common earth, with a
22-second cycle time and 0.95 bucket fill factor. The bucket payload in this case is 1.9 (2 x 0.95) BCY.
To calculate cycles-per-hour, divide the number of seconds in an hour (3,600) by our cycle time (22
seconds) to get 164 cycles-per-hour. Multiplying 164 cycles-per-hour by 1.9 BCY per cycle, the shovel
production rate comes to 312 BCY per hour.
Job Efficiency
The power shovel example just given assumes 100 percent job efficiency. However, no job is ever 100
percent efficient. Delays, equipment failure, small dump targets, obstacles and other adverse
conditions, as well as operator skill must be factored into the production equation. To make a
production rate more realistic, multiply it by an efficiency factor. Figure 12-7 includes some general
efficiency factors based on various job and management conditions. Think of an efficiency factor as the
average number of productive minutes in any given hour. Equipment that's productive for 50 minutes of
every hour has a 0.83 (50 / 60) efficiency factor. It's up to you to determine the factor most appropriate
for a given job.
Engine efficiency also affects overall job productivity. Engines work less efficiently at higher altitudes
unless they're equipped with turbochargers. I discuss altitude derating in more detail in the next chapter.
Cable Operated Draglines
A crane shovel with less than a 2.5 CY capacity can usually be converted to dragline by replacing the
shovel boom with a crane boom, and substituting a dragline bucket. Draglines are usually outfitted with
a bucket the same size as the dipper of the power shovel from which it was converted. As with a shovel
bucket, the struck capacity of the bucket is equivalent to the heaped capacity expressed in bank cubic
yards.
The dragline bucket is controlled by coordinating the tension on the hoist and drag cables. The bucket
is raised vertically by placing tension on the hoist cable while playing out the drag cable. The bucket is
lowered vertically by releasing tension on the hoist cable while rolling in the drag cable. Digging depth is
controlled by tension on the hoist cable. The bucket is pulled toward the machine by placing tension on
the drag cable while slacking off the hoist cable. Putting tension on the hoist cable, while releasing the
drag cable, dumps the bucket contents.
Using a dragline makes it possible to excavate a pit from natural ground level. This eliminates the
burden of maintaining the pit floor, and frees hauling units from having to enter the pit. In fact, draglines
are often used for dredging material from below water level. The dragline also has a long digging and
dumping reach. This allows for excavation and disposal in a single operation, eliminating the need for
hauling units.
Draglines have some drawbacks, too. The first is their relatively slow cycle time, with a production rate
that's about 20 percent less than that of a comparably-sized power shovel. Draglines have less bucket
control, which leads to spillage. It's more difficult to accurately dump a dragline than a shovel, so it
works best in combination with large hauling units that hold five or six times the dragline bucket
capacity. A dragline's excavation ability is primarily dependent upon the bucket weight. The bucket's not
firmly attached to the machine, so is difficult to keep aligned. That usually limits draglines to excavating
soft materials or thin layers when the soil is hard. In hard soil, the use of a smaller bucket can improve
production, since there's less digging resistance.
To maximize dragline productivity, try to match the digging radius with the dumping radius, thereby
eliminating the need to raise and lower the boom during each cycle. The most common dragline
excavation techniques are the in-line approach and the parallel approach.
Using the in-line approach, best suited for ditches and canals, a dragline backs down the excavation
centerline and dumps material into spoil piles or trucks, on one or both sides of the excavation. Ditch
edges tend to collapse if they're given the chance, so digging should generally begin at the ditch edges,
followed by the center.
The parallel approach is appropriate for wide excavations and for sloping embankments. Using this
method, the dragline advances down the excavation's face as work progresses, dumping material into
trucks at the rear of the machine, or into a spoil bank.
A dragline's most efficient digging zone is one that includes the 15-degree angles to either side of a
vertical line through the boom point. Dragging the bucket too close to the machine will cause soil to pile
up in the front of the excavator, interfering with drag cable movement.
Machinery shipping dimensions, operating dimensions, digging ranges and clearances are normally
published with manufacturer's specifications. Figure 12-8 illustrates some important dragline operating
dimensions and ranges: maximum dumping height, boom length, maximum dumping radius, maximum
digging reach, and maximum digging depth.
Dragline Buckets
Dragline buckets are available in three basic classes. Type I buckets are used for excavating
easy-to-dig materials such as sandy loam, sandy clay, and stockpiled material. Type II buckets are
appropriate for excavating clay, soft shale or loose gravel. Type III buckets are for heavy-duty jobs like
excavating blasted rock, hardpan and for strip mining. Dragline buckets are further classified as solid
(Class S) or perforated (Class P), and both types are available with or without teeth. Perforated buckets
allow excess water to drain from the bucket. Toothless buckets are useful for topsoil stripping, grading
and general cleanup work.
Clamshells
A crane shovel can be converted to a clamshell by replacing the shovel boom with a crane boom and
substituting a clamshell bucket. See Figure 12-9. Clamshells can also be crane-mounted. A holding
line, attached to the top of the bucket, controls the clamshell bucket's vertical position. A tag line
prevents the bucket from twisting or swinging. The bucket itself consists of two hinged leaves, or
scoops, which close by placing tension on a line attached to counterweights at the center of the bucket.
Releasing tension on the closing line will open the bucket. Some clamshell buckets also operate by use
of hydraulic controls.
Clamshells are best suited for excavating vertical shafts and re-distributing loose materials from
stockpiles to bins, hoppers or conveyors. A clamshell's digging ability depends primarily on the bucket
weight. There are four basic clamshell re-handler bucket types, all of which typically use cutting lips
rather than teeth:
1. Extra light re-handlers are designed to move loose, free-flowing material such as ashes, coal, sugar
and salt, provided their weight doesn't exceed 75 pounds per cubic foot. These buckets are
manufactured with nominal capacities, ranging from 3/8 to 10 cubic yards.
2. Light re-handlers are best suited to move loose, free-flowing material whose weight doesn't exceed
100 pounds per cubic foot. Nominal bucket capacities range from 3/8 to 9 cubic yards.
3. Standard re-handlers are designed to move loose materials such as sand and gravel, when their
weight doesn't exceed 130 pounds per cubic foot. Nominal bucket capacities range from 1/4 to 6 cubic
yards. The standard re-handler can be optionally equipped with removable teeth.
4. Wide-scoop re-handling clamshell buckets are manufactured with a large deck area, which is the
area covered by the bottom of the fully-open clamshell bucket. Wide-scoop buckets are typically used
for re-handling materials from barges and gondola cars.
Unlike re-handling buckets, excavating clamshell buckets are normally equipped with teeth, and come
in two types:
* General purpose buckets for dredging and excavating loose materials weighing less than 130 pounds
per cubic foot. Nominal bucket capacities range from 1/4 to 6 cubic yards.
* Hard-digging buckets for heavy-duty dredging, excavating, industrial re-handling and rock handling.
The material weight limitation for this bucket-type normally ranges from 175 to 250 pounds per cubic
foot. Nominal bucket capacities range from 3/8 to 5 1/2 cubic yards.
Clamshell buckets are commonly rated by deck area, nominal cubic yards and/or cubic feet. Cubic foot
capacity is further expressed as water-level, plate-line or heaped volume. Water-level capacity
represents the volume of liquid a clamshell bucket can hold. Plate-line capacity is the volume of material
when struck off at the tops of the clams. Heaped volume is the capacity with soil heaped at a 1:1 angle
of repose.
Orange Peel Buckets

Orange peel buckets (also known as star or grapple buckets) are close relatives of the clamshell, but
are capable of excavating materials that a clamshell can't. Orange peel buckets come in full-blade or
semi-blade configurations. The full-blade model's blades (tines) completely close to reduce spillage,
while the semi-blade model has gaps between the tines to help load randomly-shaped materials such
as scrap and rock. Still other orange peel bucket varieties are equipped with independently-moving jaws
to help facilitate loading.
Clamshell and Orange Peel Productivity

With so many variables that can affect clamshell and orange peel productivity -- soil types, load size, lift
and swing angle, dump target size and operator skill -- it's difficult to generalize production rates. I
recommend using data from previous jobs, or measuring the average cycle time and payload. To get a
good approximation for production rate, multiply 3,600 (number of seconds in an hour) by the bucket
payload and the efficiency factor. Divide that total by average cycle time, in seconds. Let's say you're
using a 0.5 CY clamshell to excavate loose material, with a 55-minute hour and a 30-second average
cycle time. The production rate will be 3,600 times 0.5 times 0.92 (55 / 60), divided by 30, or 55 LCY
per hour.
You can optimize clamshell and orange peel production by using the proper bucket size and matching
the digging and dumping radius, which eliminates the need to raise and lower the boom during each
cycle.
Crane Lifting Capacities
Draglines, clamshells and orange peels are all cranes equipped with specialized excavation buckets. A
crane's safe lifting capacity depends on the operating radius, which is the horizontal distance from the
crane's center of rotation to the center of the hoist line. The operating radius is dependent on the boom
length and boom angle. Other factors that affect lifting capacity include the amount of counterweight,
stability of the working surface, the use of outriggers, and the number and strength of the hoist cables.
Crane manufacturers establish their cranes' safe lifting capacities and working ranges. The safe lifting
capacity at a specified operating radius is based on a set percentage of tipping load. For example,
crawler cranes with no outriggers have safe lifting capacities based on 75 percent of the tipping load.
Tipping load is defined as a load capable of lifting a crawler roller 2 inches from the track. So a crawler
crane with 27,000 pound safe lifting capacity has a 36,000 pound tipping load (27,000 / 0.75). For
wheel-mounted cranes or cranes with outriggers, the safe lifting capacities are based on 85 percent of
the tipping load. For wheel-mounted cranes, tipping occurs when all tires on one or more wheels leave
the supporting surface. The rated loads for crawler- or wheel-mounted cranes are normally based on the
direction of least stability for the mounting.
U.S. crane manufacturers have developed a standard crane-rating method. Each crane is given a
nominal safe lifting capacity (in tons) in the direction of least stability (with outriggers set if the crane is
so equipped) at a specified radius (usually 12 feet) while equipped with a base boom length. The
nominal rating is followed by two numbers separated by a hyphen. The first number indicates the
operating radius used for the rated capacity. The second number indicates the rated load in hundreds of
pounds, rounded off to the nearest whole number, when the crane is operating at a 40-foot radius using
a 50-foot boom. For example, a 30-ton crane (class 12-105) can safely lift a maximum load of 60,000
pounds (30 tons) at a radius of 12 feet with a basic boom. When equipped with a 50-foot boom and
working at a 40-foot radius, the crane can safely lift 10,510 pounds. In addition to the weight of the item
being lifted, these load ratings include the weight of hooks, hook blocks and slings -- but not the weight
of the hoist line.
Cable-Operated Hoes
A crane-shovel can be converted to a hoe (also referred to as a backhoe, trench hoe, drag shovel,
draghoe or pull shovel) by replacing the shovel mechanism with a hoe attachment. Unlike hydraulic
hoes, most cable-operated hoes don't have a pivoted wrist-action dipper. Instead, each is equipped with
a rigid brace. Figure 12-10 illustrates the major clearance components for cable-operated hoes, which
include:
* maximum dumping clearance

* maximum digging radius
* boom length and
* maximum digging depth
Hoes are capable of excavating downward from natural ground level. They don't have the digging and
dumping range of a dragline, but they're more powerful and accurate. That makes hoes well-suited for
excavating trenches and basements where precision is required. Cable-operated hoes work well with
dipper attachments. Large dippers don't increase cycle time by much, so use the largest dipper
available as long as it doesn't exceed the tipping load of the machine.
Hoes are most efficient when the dipper stick forms a right angle with the boom. As excavation depth
increases, hoe production decreases. When trenching, use a bucket width that matches the required
trench width. It's better to use a standard bucket than a small bucket equipped with side cutters.
Hydraulic Excavators
Hydraulic excavators use oil-filled pistons instead of cables to create machine movement. They are
available with crawler tracks or tires, and a wide assortment of accessories such as one- or two-piece
booms, adjustable booms, long-reach booms, telescopic sticks, quick-release buckets, clamshells,
ditch-cleaning buckets, grapples, and hammers. Long-reach excavators are well-suited for ditch
cleaning, slope finishing, river conservation and other work formerly reserved for draglines. Figure 12-11
illustrates three important hydraulic excavator operating ranges:
* maximum reach
* maximum dumping height
* maximum excavating depth
Hydraulic excavators are broadly classified as general purpose excavators, mass excavators and front
shovels. As compared to a general purpose excavator, a mass excavator is equipped with a larger
bucket and shorter, heavier boom and stick (or crowd). I'll discuss front shovels later in this chapter.
Excavator Bucket Selection

Any excavator can be equipped with a variety of bucket types and sizes. When choosing an excavator
bucket, the two most important factors to consider are bucket width and bucket tip radius. In general,
wider buckets are appropriate for excavating softer soils.
Most excavator bucket-types are available in two basic profiles. The first is a deep pocket profile with a
long tip radius, which is best for trenching. The second is a shallow profile with a short tip radius for
loading and general excavation work. Curling force increases as the tip radius decreases, so a shorter
bucket tip radius makes for more powerful excavating potential.
Extreme service trenching buckets like the one in Figure 12-12 excavate tough material such as
fragmented rock, frozen ground and caliche. This type of bucket can be equipped with rear-mounted
ripper shanks when penetration is otherwise impossible, using the front cutting edge. Rock-ripping
buckets are also designed for excavating rock and other extremely hard materials. The plate is about 75
percent thicker than on a standard bucket. As an alternative, you can weld ripper brackets onto just
about any bucket.
Hydraulic shovel or excavator bucket capacities are expressed in loose cubic yards of heaped capacity.
That's struck volume plus the volume above the strike-off plane, having an angle of repose of 1:1.
Hydraulic Excavator Productivity

Hydraulic excavator production rate equals the number of cycles-per-hour times the bucket payload
times the efficiency factor. The cycle-time chart, shown in Figure 12-13, shows a range of estimated
cycle times for various machines. In each column, the upper shaded range represents the fastest cycle
time, under optimal conditions. The middle shaded range indicates cycle times under average
conditions. Finally, the lowermost shaded range represents the slowest estimated cycle time, under
severe conditions.
Let's say you're using a Caterpillar 345B Series II excavator to dig hard clay with a 3.50 CY bucket,
working a 50-minute hour. The cycle time, using Figure 12-13, is about 0.33 minutes, or 20 seconds.
That works out to 180 (3,600 seconds-per-hour / 20 seconds per cycle) cycles-per-hour.
Next, you need to calculate the bucket payload, which is heaped volume times the bucket fill factor. A
fill factor of 0.85 is about right for hard clay, so that means the payload will be 2.8 (3.5 x 0.85) BCY.
The last component to calculate is the efficiency factor. With a 50-minute hour, that's 0.83 (50 / 60).
Multiplying the 180 cycles-per-hour by the 2.8 BCY payload and the 0.83 efficiency factor, the
estimated production rate comes to 418 BCY-per-hour.
It's often necessary to determine production rate in order to complete a project on schedule. To do this,
divide the total excavation volume by the total allowable production time. For example, if a 50,000 BCY
excavation needs to be done in 150 hours, the required production rate is 334 BCY-per-hour.
Once you've determined the required production rate, determine the bucket size that will allow you to
achieve that rate. For a 334 BCY-per-hour requirement, at 180 cycles-per- hour, you need to move 1.86
(334 / 180) BCY of material per cycle. To determine the 0.85 bucket fill factor, divide that material per
cycle total by 0.85, and you end up requiring 2.2 cubic yard bucket-size.
To figure project duration, divide the total quantity of work by the average daily production. A 60,000
BCY job, averaging 300 BCY-per-hour, will require 200 hours.
The cost per unit of work produced is equal to the hourly production cost divided by hourly production
rate. For example, if an excavator costs $100 per hour and it excavates 200 BCY-per-hour, the unit
production cost is $0.50 per BCY.
Excavator Trenching Productivity

When using an excavator for trenching operations, production rate is generally expressed in terms of
linear feet-per-hour, or per-day. It's just a matter of dividing the BCY production rate by the number of
BCY in a linear foot of trench. Let's say you're digging a 12-foot-deep trench that's 14 feet wide at the
top and 6 feet wide at the bottom. The area of this trapezoid equals the average length of the top and
bottom (10 feet) times the trench depth (12 feet), which comes to 120 square feet. So for each linear
foot of trench, the soil volume is 120 cubic feet, or 4.44 (120 / 27) BCY. If your hourly production rate is
418 BCY, then you need to divide that by 4.44 to calculate the linear feet-per-hour. In this example, it
equals 94.1 linear feet-per-hour, or 753 (94.1 x 8) per 8-hour day, assuming 100 percent efficiency. To
determine efficiency that's less than perfect (which is most of the time), you'll need to multiply those
figures by the appropriate efficiency factor.
Excavators are useful tools for laying pipe, too. When performing both tasks at once, production rate
depends upon pipelaying time as well as excavation time. Keep in mind that water pipe can be laid
faster than sewer or drain pipe, since the water pipe trench bottom doesn't need fine grading and sloping
for drainage.
The appropriate trench size depends on the size of pipe being installed and the safe bank slope
requirements. Generally, a trench bottom that's 3 feet wider than the pipe's outside diameter provides
sufficient workspace. For more on safe bank slopes, refer back to Chapter 9.
Felling Trees
Hydraulic excavators are useful for stump removal and felling trees. Saplings (up to 3 inches in
diameter) can often be knocked down by pushing the tree with the bucket. For larger trees, use the
bucket to cut the roots on the near side of the tree, and then push the tree over. Pulling the felled tree
toward the excavator will cut the roots on the opposite side of the tree. The felled tree can then be
picked up and moved by curling the bucket around the center of gravity of the tree.
Hydraulic Shovels
Hydraulic shovels (front shovels) handle the same types of jobs as power shovels, except they can also
excavate well below natural ground level. Front shovels use either a front-dump, or bottom-dump bucket.
Bottom-dump buckets have several advantages, including:
* versatility
* faster cycle times
* reduced spillage
* better reach and dump clearance
* ability to dislodge sticky material
Front-dump buckets, on the other hand, are lighter, while possessing greater capacity and digging force.
Overall, for two buckets of comparable size, front-dump buckets are 5 to 10 percent more productive
than bottom-dump buckets.
Hydraulic Shovel Productivity

Calculate hydraulic shovel productivity using the same basic formula introduced earlier in the chapter
(cycles-per-hour x bucket payload x efficiency factor) where payload equals heaped volume times the
shovel-specific bucket fill factors shown in Figure 12-14.
Let's say you want to estimate the hourly production rate of a 5130B front shovel with 10 BCY capacity,
while excavating bank clay. Assume average job conditions, using the hydraulic shovel cycle time from
Figure 12-15, and a 50-minute working hour.
Based on Figure 12-14, the cycle time will be about 33 seconds. That translates to 109 (3600 / 33)
cycles-per-hour. The bucket payload, assuming we're on the high end of the fill factor range (105%, or
1.05), comes to 10.5 (10 x 1.05) BCY. Using a 50- minute work hour, the efficiency factor is 0.83 (50 /
60). Multiplying the cycle time, payload and efficiency factor yields 950 BCY per hour.
Gradalls
Gradalls are excavators mounted on a turntable at the rear end of a truck. Their telescoping booms,
which allow them to safely work under high lines and other overhead obstructions, are best suited for
cutting, cleaning and grading roadside ditches. The boom reach also allows gradalls to work over areas
that are too soft or too steep to support heavy equipment. Optional accessories include a blade for
pushing soil, and rippers for loosening pavement and hardpan.
Trenching Machines
Trenching machines are best at digging utility trenches in stable soils that require no sloping. The two
basic trenching machines are wheel-type and ladder-type (bucket line). Ladder-type trenchers have a
small digging radius, and are well-suited for excavation near underground obstructions. Either variety
can excavate trenches faster than a hydraulic excavator.
Trenchers require level travel surfaces. The terrain can vary along the length of the trench, but must be
level at right angles to the trench to keep the trencher from leaning, which could result in slanted trench
walls that may cave in.
The actual production of a trenching machine depends on the soil type, trench depth and width, shoring
requirements, vegetation and other obstructions, such as sidewalks and buried utilities. Any trench
that's deeper than 5 feet requires shoring.
Wheel Trenchers
Figure 12-16 shows a typical wheel trencher, which can have more than 25 digging speeds. Buckets,
mounted along the circumference of a power-driven wheel, excavate as the wheel is lowered and rotated.
The buckets lift the soil and discharge it onto a conveyor belt, which deposits the soil at either side of
the trench. A crumbling shoe -- basically a long hook installed behind the bucket line -- reduces the
amount of loose dirt left behind at the bottom of the trench.
Wheel trenchers' maximum digging depth is about 8 feet and the width is about 5 feet. Optimum digging
depth is 6 feet, and the most common bucket width is 24 inches. Trenching widths can be fine-tuned by
installing side cutters.
Ladder Trenchers
Ladder (bucket-line) trenchers have chain-mounted buckets that travel along a boom, excavating as the
boom is lowered into the ground. The buckets discharge soil onto a conveyor belt, which deposits the
soil on either side of the trench. Ladder trenchers tend to leave a lot of loose soil along the trench's top
edge, so optional skirts, installed on each side of the bucket line, can push loose soil back into the
trench.
Ladder trenchers, equipped with boom extensions and additional buckets and chain links, are capable
of digging trenches that are more than 30 feet deep and 12 feet wide. Optional side cutters and ripper
teeth are useful for varying trench widths and for dealing with hard soil. Some ladder trenchers have
more than 30 digging speeds, for a multitude of uses and soil conditions.
Backhoe Loaders
The backhoe loader is a one of the most versatile excavators in the earthmoving industry. Backhoe
loaders can excavate, carry materials, load or stockpile loose material, grade, backfill, compact, remove
trees and perform demolition. They're also useful for excavating footing and utility trenches, and for
working in relatively tight spaces, as shown in Figure 12-17.
In short trenches with existing utilities to work around, a backhoe will probably perform better than a
trenching machine. Also, keep in mind that a backhoe is more versatile than a trencher since it can
excavate, install bedding material, set pipe and backfill the trench.
Backhoe loaders are mainly limited by their weight and power. For any given lift point position, the safe
lifting capacity is limited by either the machine's tipping load, or its hydraulic capacity. Loads should not
exceed 75 percent of the tipping load or 87 percent of the machine's hydraulic capacity. For example, if
the tipping load of a backhoe loader in a given lift position is 2,667 pounds, the safe lifting capacity is
2,000 (2,667 x 0.75) pounds.
You'll find more detail regarding loaders in Chapter 14, but first I'll discuss some important factors that
affect the performance of moving vehicles. They're the subject of Chapter 13, Vehicle Performance.
Excavator equipped with a 125 horsepower engine and a 0.75 or 1.0 CY bucket excavating a
large hole such as a pond or basement working a 50-minute hour. The equipment rental cost is $7,780
per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants.
Costs do not include transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or the setup costs.
.75 LCY bucket excavating moist loam or sandy clay

Favorable conditions, 146 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.13 0.30 0.32 0.75
Average conditions, 105 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.25 0.43 0.45 1.13
Unfavorable conditions, 82 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.40 0.51 0.57 1.48
.75 LCY bucket excavating sand
.75 LCY bucket excavating hard, tough clay
.75 LCY bucket excavating well-blasted or ripped rock
1 LCY bucket excavating moist loam or sandy clay
1 LCY bucket excavating sand
1 LCY bucket excavating hard, tough clay
1 LCY bucket excavating well-blasted or ripped rock
Excavator equipped with a 172 horsepower engine and a 1.25, 1.5, 1.75 or 2 CY bucket
excavating a large hole such as a pond or basement working a 50-minute hour. The equipment rental
cost is $7,890 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and
lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or the
setup costs.
1.25 LCY bucket excavating moist loam or sandy clay

1.25 LCY bucket excavating sand
1.25 LCY bucket excavating hard, tough clay

1.25 LCY bucket excavating well-blasted or ripped rock

Excavator equipped with a 243 horsepower engine and a 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3, 3.25 or 3.5 CY
bucket excavating a large hole such as a pond or basement working a 50-minute hour. Monthly
equipment rental cost is $9,300 and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel,
fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the excavator to and from the job
site, or the setup costs.



Excavator equipped with a 400 horsepower engine and a 3.75, 4, 4.25 or 4.5 CY bucket
excavating a large hole such as a pond or basement working a 50-minute hour. The equipment rental
cost is $18,550 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids
and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or
the setup costs.


Excavator equipped with a 500 horsepower engine and a 4.75, 5, 5.25, 5.5, 5.75, 6, 6.25, 6.5,
6.75, 7, 7.25, or 7.5 CY bucket excavating a large hole such as a pond or basement working a
50-minute hour. The equipment rental cost is $26,200 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material
prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the
excavator to and from the job site, or the setup costs.



Favorable conditions, 1,037 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.14 0.25


Excavator equipped with a 125 horsepower engine and a 1.0 CY bucket working a 50-minute hour
under average conditions. Trench slope is 0.75 to 1. The equipment rental cost is $7,790 per month and
fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Five minutes is
assumed for installing each 8-foot section of pipe. The crew is made up of an operator, lead pipe man,
tail man and top man. Trenches are excavated with 18 inches of work space on each side of the pipe
installed. Prices do not include the cost of the pipe, backfilling, transporting the excavator to and from
the job site, or the setup costs.
1 CY Bucket Excavating Trench for 12" pipe
Excavating moist loam or sandy clay

8' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 0.78 4.20 1.48 6.45
10' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 1.04 5.46 1.97 8.47
12' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 1.33 6.90 2.49 10.72
14' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.257 LF 1.56 8.56 2.96 13.08
16' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.313 LF 1.94 10.43 3.63 16.00
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.376 LF 2.30 12.52 4.29 19.11
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.444 LF 2.78 14.79 5.24 22.81
Excavating hard, tough clay
8' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 0.97 5.03 1.80 7.80
10' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.199 LF 1.25 6.63 2.36 10.24
12' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 1.56 8.49 2.96 13.01
14' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.320 LF 1.94 10.66 3.63 16.23
16' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.392 LF 2.51 13.06 4.72 20.29
18' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.473 LF 3.15 15.76 5.89 24.80
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.562 LF 3.60 18.72 6.74 29.06

8' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 0.71 3.76 1.31 5.78
10' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 0.93 5.00 1.74 7.67
12' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 1.19 6.43 2.24 9.86
14' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.243 LF 1.56 8.09 2.96 12.61
16' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.299 LF 1.94 9.96 3.63 15.53
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.362 LF 2.30 12.06 4.29 18.65
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.431 LF 2.78 14.36 5.24 22.38
8' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 0.88 4.56 1.63 7.07
10' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 1.14 6.16 2.14 9.44
12' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 1.48 8.03 2.77 12.28
14' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.306 LF 1.94 10.19 3.63 15.76
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.378 LF 2.30 12.59 4.29 19.18
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.459 LF 2.78 15.29 5.24 23.31
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.548 LF 3.60 18.25 6.74 28.59

8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 0.65 3.36 1.21 5.22
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 0.88 4.63 1.63 7.14
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.182 LF 1.14 6.06 2.14 9.34
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 1.48 7.73 2.77 11.98
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.288 LF 1.80 9.59 3.37 14.76
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.351 LF 2.30 11.69 4.29 18.28
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.419 LF 2.51 13.96 4.72 21.19
8' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 0.78 4.20 1.48 6.45
10' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 1.10 5.80 2.06 8.96
12' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 1.48 7.66 2.77 11.92
14' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.295 LF 1.80 9.83 3.37 14.99
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.367 LF 2.30 12.22 4.29 18.81
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.448 LF 2.78 14.92 5.24 22.94
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.537 LF 3.60 17.89 6.74 28.23
under average conditions. Trench slope is 1:1. The equipment rental cost is $7,790 per month and fuel
cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Five minutes is

8' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 0.89 4.76 1.68 7.33
10' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 1.19 6.33 2.24 9.76
12' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 1.56 8.16 2.96 12.68
14' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.308 LF 1.94 10.26 3.63 15.83
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.380 LF 2.30 12.66 4.29 19.25
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.461 LF 2.78 15.36 5.24 23.38
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.550 LF 3.60 18.32 6.74 28.66
8' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 1.10 5.76 2.06 8.92
10' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.233 LF 1.48 7.76 2.77 12.02
12' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.304 LF 1.94 10.13 3.63 15.70
14' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.386 LF 2.51 12.86 4.72 20.09
16' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.479 LF 3.15 15.96 5.89 25.00
18' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.583 LF 3.60 19.42 6.74 29.76
20' deep, 6 LF/hr BD@.679 LF 4.18 22.62 7.87 34.67

8' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 0.81 4.30 1.52 6.63
10' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 1.10 5.86 2.05 9.01
12' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 1.48 7.70 2.77 11.95
14' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.294 LF 1.80 9.79 3.37 14.96
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.366 LF 2.30 12.19 4.29 18.78
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.477 LF 2.78 15.89 5.24 23.91
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.536 LF 3.60 17.85 6.74 28.19
8' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.01 5.30 1.89 8.20
10' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.219 LF 1.40 7.30 2.62 11.32
12' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.290 LF 1.80 9.66 3.37 14.83
14' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.372 LF 2.30 12.39 4.29 18.98
16' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.465 LF 2.78 15.49 5.24 23.51
18' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.569 LF 3.60 18.95 6.74 29.29
20' deep, 6 LF/hr BD@.684 LF 4.18 22.78 7.87 34.83

8' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 0.73 3.93 1.39 6.05
10' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 1.04 5.50 1.97 8.51
12' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 1.40 7.33 2.62 11.35
14' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.283 LF 1.80 9.43 3.37 14.59
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.355 LF 2.30 11.83 4.29 18.42
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.436 LF 2.78 14.52 5.24 22.54
20' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.525 LF 3.15 17.49 5.89 26.53
8' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 0.93 4.93 1.74 7.60
10' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 1.33 6.93 2.49 10.75
12' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 1.80 9.29 3.37 14.46
14' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.361 LF 2.30 12.02 4.29 18.61
16' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.454 LF 2.78 15.12 5.24 23.14
18' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.558 LF 3.60 18.59 6.74 28.93
20' deep, 6 LF/hr BD@.672 LF 4.18 22.38 7.87 34.43
under average conditions. Trench slopes are terraced at 4' x 4'. The equipment rental cost is $7,790 per
month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Five
minutes is assumed for installing each 8-foot section of pipe. The crew is made up of an operator, lead
pipe man, tail man and top man. Trenches are excavated with 18 inches of work space on each side of
the pipe installed. Prices do not include the cost of the pipe, backfilling, transporting the excavator to
and from the job site, or the setup costs.

8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 0.68 3.63 1.27 5.58
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 0.95 5.06 1.76 7.77
12' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 1.19 6.46 2.24 9.89
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.253 LF 1.56 8.43 2.88 12.86
16' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.312 LF 1.94 10.39 3.53 15.86
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.389 LF 2.37 12.96 4.38 19.71
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.465 LF 2.78 15.49 5.24 23.51
8' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 0.81 4.30 1.52 6.63
10' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 1.15 6.13 2.15 9.43
12' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 1.48 7.96 2.77 12.22
14' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.316 LF 2.01 10.53 3.74 16.28
16' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.392 LF 2.51 13.06 4.72 20.29
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.490 LF 3.08 16.32 5.73 25.13
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.588 LF 3.60 19.59 6.74 29.93

8' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 0.61 3.20 1.13 4.93
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 0.88 4.60 1.64 7.12
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 1.14 6.00 2.14 9.28
14' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.240 LF 1.54 7.99 2.88 12.41
16' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.299 LF 1.94 9.96 3.63 15.53
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.375 LF 2.37 12.49 4.44 19.30
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.451 LF 2.78 15.02 5.24 23.04
8' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 0.72 3.83 1.36 5.91
10' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 1.06 5.66 1.99 8.71
12' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 1.40 7.50 2.62 11.52
14' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.302 LF 1.86 10.06 3.47 15.39
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.378 LF 2.30 12.59 4.29 19.18
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.476 LF 2.95 15.86 5.51 24.32
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.574 LF 3.60 19.12 6.74 29.46

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 0.53 2.80 1.00 4.32
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 0.80 4.23 1.49 6.52
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.169 LF 1.04 5.63 1.97 8.64
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.228 LF 1.42 7.60 2.67 11.69
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.287 LF 1.80 9.56 3.37 14.73
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.364 LF 2.30 12.12 4.31 18.73
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.440 LF 2.78 14.66 5.24 22.68
8' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 0.66 3.46 1.24 5.36
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.01 5.30 1.86 8.17
12' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 1.33 7.13 2.49 10.95
14' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.291 LF 1.81 9.69 3.38 14.88
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.367 LF 2.30 12.22 4.29 18.81
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.465 LF 2.95 15.49 5.51 23.95
20' deep, 7 LF/hr BD@.563 LF 3.60 18.75 6.74 29.09
under average conditions. Trench slope is 0.75:1. The equipment rental cost is $7,890 per month and
1.5 CY Bucket Excavating Trench for 12" pipe

8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 0.88 3.36 1.19 5.43
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.12 4.23 1.54 6.89
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.39 5.26 1.92 8.58
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 1.64 6.43 2.27 10.34
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.02 7.73 2.80 12.55
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.276 LF 2.47 9.19 3.42 15.09
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.325 LF 2.88 10.83 3.98 17.69
8' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.03 3.96 1.41 6.40
10' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.33 5.10 1.84 8.27
12' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 1.64 6.43 2.27 10.34
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.02 7.93 2.80 12.75
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.289 LF 2.47 9.63 3.42 15.52
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.346 LF 2.88 11.53 3.98 18.39
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.409 LF 3.46 13.62 4.78 21.86
Excavator equipped with a 170 horsepower engine and a 2 CY bucket working a 50-minute hour
installed. Prices do not include the cost of the pipe, backfill, transporting the excavator to and from the
job site, or the setup costs.

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 0.76 2.87 1.04 4.66
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 0.91 3.53 1.25 5.69
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.12 4.30 1.54 6.96
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.33 5.16 1.84 8.34
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 1.56 6.16 2.17 9.89
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 1.91 7.26 2.65 11.82
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.254 LF 2.16 8.46 3.00 13.62
8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 0.88 3.33 1.19 5.40
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.08 4.16 1.49 6.73
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.33 5.16 1.84 8.34
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.189 LF 1.64 6.30 2.27 10.20
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 1.91 7.23 2.65 11.79
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.270 LF 2.32 8.99 3.18 14.50
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.317 LF 2.65 10.56 3.67 16.88

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 0.76 2.90 1.04 4.70
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 0.98 3.76 1.37 6.11
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.23 4.80 1.70 7.73
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.179 LF 1.56 5.96 2.17 9.69
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.219 LF 1.91 7.30 2.65 11.85
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.263 LF 2.32 8.76 3.18 14.26
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.311 LF 2.65 10.36 3.67 16.68
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 0.91 3.50 1.25 5.66
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 1.19 4.63 1.65 7.47
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.179 LF 1.56 5.96 2.17 9.69
14' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 1.91 7.46 2.65 12.02
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.275 LF 2.32 9.16 3.18 14.66
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.332 LF 2.88 11.06 3.98 17.92
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.395 LF 3.46 13.16 4.78 21.40

8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.63 2.40 0.88 3.90
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 0.80 3.07 1.10 4.96
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 0.98 3.83 1.37 6.18
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.23 4.70 1.70 7.63
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 1.49 5.70 2.08 9.27
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 1.72 6.80 2.38 10.89
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 2.02 8.29 2.80 13.11
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 0.73 2.87 1.02 4.61
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 0.97 3.70 1.34 6.01
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.23 4.70 1.70 7.63
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.175 LF 1.49 5.83 2.08 9.40
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 1.81 7.10 2.52 11.42
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 2.16 8.53 3.00 13.69
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.303 LF 2.65 10.09 3.67 16.41

8' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.66 2.53 0.92 4.11
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 0.89 3.40 1.22 5.51
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.15 4.43 1.60 7.18
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 1.44 5.60 1.99 9.03
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 1.81 6.90 2.52 11.22
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.251 LF 2.16 8.36 3.00 13.52
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.300 LF 2.65 9.99 3.67 16.31
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 0.80 3.13 1.10 5.03
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.12 4.26 1.54 6.93
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 1.44 5.60 1.99 9.03
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.223 LF 1.81 7.43 2.52 11.76
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 2.32 8.79 3.18 14.30
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.321 LF 2.88 10.69 3.98 17.55
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.384 LF 3.46 12.79 4.78 21.03

8' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.53 2.03 0.73 3.29
10' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 0.71 2.70 0.98 4.39
12' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 0.89 3.46 1.22 5.57
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.12 4.33 1.54 6.99
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.39 5.33 1.92 8.64
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 1.64 6.43 2.27 10.34
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.02 7.63 2.80 12.45
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.65 2.50 0.89 4.03
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 0.88 3.33 1.19 5.40
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.12 4.33 1.54 6.99
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 1.44 5.46 1.99 8.90
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 1.72 6.73 2.38 10.83
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 2.16 8.16 3.00 13.32
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.292 LF 2.47 9.73 3.42 15.62

8' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 0.98 3.76 1.37 6.11
10' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.29 4.86 1.76 7.92
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 1.56 6.13 2.17 9.85
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.02 7.63 2.80 12.45
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.280 LF 2.47 9.33 3.42 15.22
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.336 LF 2.88 11.19 3.98 18.05
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.399 LF 3.46 13.29 4.78 21.53
8' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.15 4.46 1.60 7.22
10' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 1.49 5.90 2.08 9.47
12' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.227 LF 1.91 7.56 2.65 12.12
14' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.285 LF 2.47 9.49 3.42 15.39
16' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.351 LF 3.15 11.69 4.34 19.18
18' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.424 LF 3.84 14.12 5.31 23.27
20' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.505 LF 4.32 16.82 5.96 27.10

8' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 0.81 3.16 1.14 5.11
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.04 4.00 1.45 6.49
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.29 4.96 1.76 8.02
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.182 LF 1.56 6.06 2.17 9.79
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 1.91 7.33 2.65 11.89
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.263 LF 2.32 8.76 3.18 14.26
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.309 LF 2.65 10.29 3.67 16.61
8' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 0.97 3.70 1.34 6.01
10' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.23 4.76 1.70 7.70
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 1.56 6.03 2.17 9.75
14' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 1.91 7.46 2.65 12.02
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 2.32 9.09 3.18 14.60
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.328 LF 2.88 10.93 3.98 17.79
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.389 LF 3.46 12.96 4.78 21.20

8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 0.88 3.30 1.19 5.37
10' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.15 4.40 1.60 7.15
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 1.49 5.70 2.08 9.27
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 1.81 7.16 2.52 11.49
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.266 LF 2.32 8.86 3.18 14.36
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.322 LF 2.88 10.73 3.98 17.59
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.385 LF 3.46 12.82 4.78 21.06
8' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.04 4.00 1.45 6.49
10' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.39 5.43 1.92 8.74
12' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 1.81 7.10 2.52 11.42
14' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.271 LF 2.32 9.03 3.18 14.53
16' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.337 LF 2.88 11.23 3.98 18.09
18' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.410 LF 3.46 13.66 4.78 21.90
20' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.491 LF 4.32 16.36 5.96 26.64

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 0.71 2.70 0.98 4.39
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 0.91 3.53 1.25 5.69
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.15 4.50 1.60 7.25
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 1.44 5.60 1.99 9.03
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 1.81 6.86 2.65 11.32
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 2.16 8.29 3.00 13.46
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.296 LF 2.47 9.86 3.42 15.75
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 0.86 3.23 1.16 5.25
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.12 4.30 1.54 6.96
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 1.44 5.56 1.99 9.00
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 1.81 7.00 2.52 11.32
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.260 LF 2.32 8.66 3.18 14.16
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.315 LF 2.65 10.49 3.67 16.81
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.375 LF 3.15 12.49 4.34 19.98

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 0.78 2.93 1.06 4.77
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.04 4.03 1.45 6.52
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.39 5.30 1.92 8.61
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 1.72 6.80 2.38 10.89
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 2.16 8.49 3.00 13.66
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.311 LF 2.65 10.36 3.67 16.68
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.374 LF 3.15 12.46 4.34 19.95
8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 0.93 3.63 1.28 5.84
10' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.33 5.06 1.84 8.24
12' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 1.72 6.73 2.38 10.83
14' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.260 LF 2.32 8.66 3.18 14.16
16' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.326 LF 2.88 10.86 3.98 17.72
18' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.319 LF 3.46 10.63 4.78 18.87
20' deep, 8 LF/hr BD@.480 LF 4.32 15.99 5.96 26.27

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.61 2.33 0.85 3.79
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 0.81 3.16 1.14 5.11
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.08 4.13 1.49 6.70
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.39 5.23 1.92 8.54
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 1.72 6.50 2.38 10.59
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.02 7.93 2.80 12.75
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.284 LF 2.47 9.46 3.42 15.35
8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 0.76 2.87 1.04 4.66
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.03 3.93 1.41 6.37
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.33 5.20 1.84 8.37
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.199 LF 1.72 6.63 2.38 10.73
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.248 LF 2.16 8.26 3.00 13.42
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.303 LF 2.65 10.09 3.67 16.41
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.364 LF 3.15 12.12 4.34 19.61

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 0.78 2.97 1.06 4.80
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.04 3.96 1.42 6.42
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.29 4.96 1.76 8.02
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 1.66 6.36 2.28 10.30
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.02 7.73 2.80 12.55
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.286 LF 2.47 9.53 3.40 15.40
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.339 LF 2.88 11.29 3.98 18.15
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 0.89 3.43 1.22 5.54
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.23 4.73 1.70 7.66
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 1.56 6.03 2.17 9.75
14' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.235 LF 2.02 7.83 2.79 12.64
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.289 LF 2.47 9.63 3.42 15.52
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.359 LF 3.16 11.96 4.36 19.48
20' deep, 9 LF/hr BD@.428 LF 3.84 14.26 5.31 23.41
the pipe installed. Prices do not include the cost of the pipe, backfill, transporting the excavator to and
from the job site, or the setup costs.

8' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.077 LF 0.66 2.57 0.92 4.14
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 0.86 3.33 1.18 5.37
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.04 4.06 1.45 6.55
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.31 5.10 1.80 8.21
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 1.56 6.13 2.17 9.85
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 1.95 7.50 2.68 12.12
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.265 LF 2.32 8.83 3.18 14.33
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 0.78 2.93 1.06 4.77
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.04 3.90 1.42 6.36
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.29 4.86 1.76 7.92
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 1.61 6.23 2.21 10.04
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.227 LF 1.91 7.56 2.65 12.12
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 2.40 9.29 3.31 15.01
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.331 LF 2.88 11.03 3.98 17.89

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.65 2.50 0.91 4.05
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 0.91 3.50 1.25 5.66
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.15 4.50 1.60 7.25
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 1.54 5.90 2.13 9.56
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 1.91 7.26 2.65 11.82
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.272 LF 2.40 9.06 3.31 14.77
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.325 LF 2.88 10.83 3.98 17.69
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 0.78 3.00 1.06 4.84
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.12 4.30 1.53 6.95
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 1.44 5.56 1.99 9.00
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 1.87 7.36 2.59 11.82
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.275 LF 2.32 9.16 3.18 14.66
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.345 LF 2.90 11.49 3.98 18.37
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.414 LF 3.46 13.79 4.78 22.03

8' deep, 63 LF/hr BD@.063 LF 0.55 2.10 0.75 3.39
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 0.73 2.87 1.02 4.61
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 0.93 3.60 1.28 5.81
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.22 4.66 1.68 7.57
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 1.49 5.70 2.08 9.27
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 1.84 7.03 2.54 11.41
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.251 LF 2.16 8.36 3.00 13.52
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.65 2.47 0.89 4.00
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 0.91 3.43 1.24 5.58
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.15 4.40 1.60 7.15
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 1.49 5.76 2.06 9.32
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 1.81 7.10 2.52 11.42
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.265 LF 2.24 8.83 3.10 14.17
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.317 LF 2.65 10.56 3.67 16.88

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.55 2.13 0.76 3.44
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 0.81 3.13 1.13 5.07
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.08 4.13 1.49 6.70
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 1.46 5.53 2.01 9.00
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 1.81 6.90 2.52 11.22
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.261 LF 2.24 8.69 3.10 14.04
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.314 LF 2.65 10.46 3.67 16.78
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.68 2.60 0.94 4.21
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.01 3.40 1.40 5.81
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.33 4.20 1.84 7.37
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 1.81 6.50 2.52 10.82
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 2.32 8.79 3.18 14.30
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.334 LF 2.90 11.13 3.98 18.01
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.403 LF 3.46 13.42 4.78 21.66

8' deep, 76 LF/hr BD@.052 LF 0.46 1.73 0.62 2.82
10' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.66 2.50 0.90 4.05
12' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 0.86 3.23 1.16 5.25
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.12 4.26 1.54 6.93
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.39 5.30 1.92 8.61
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 1.71 6.66 2.36 10.73
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.240 LF 2.02 7.99 2.80 12.81
8' deep, 63 LF/hr BD@.063 LF 0.55 2.10 0.75 3.39
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 0.80 3.07 1.10 4.96
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.04 4.03 1.45 6.52
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.39 5.40 1.92 8.71
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 1.72 6.73 2.38 10.83
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.254 LF 2.20 8.46 3.04 13.70
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.306 LF 2.65 10.19 3.67 16.51

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.19 3.30 1.41 5.90
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.74 4.73 2.06 8.53
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 2.02 5.60 2.40 10.02
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 2.88 7.66 3.38 13.92
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.64 6.87
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 2.12 5.70 2.51 10.33
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.205 LF 2.57 6.83 3.03 12.42
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.243 LF 3.05 8.09 3.59 14.73
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.285 LF 3.49 9.49 4.11 17.10

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.240 LF 2.88 7.99 3.38 14.25
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.216 LF 2.57 7.20 3.03 12.79
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.87 5.20 2.21 9.27

16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 3.05 8.29 3.59 14.93
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.189 LF 2.32 6.30 2.73 11.35
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.226 LF 2.70 7.53 3.19 13.41
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.266 LF 3.25 8.86 3.83 15.94
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.310 LF 3.75 10.33 4.41 18.49

8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.98 8.23
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.73 11.45
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.259 LF 3.25 8.63 3.83 15.71
8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
10' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.02 5.46 2.40 9.88
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.236 LF 2.88 7.86 3.38 14.12
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.278 LF 3.49 9.26 4.11 16.86
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.323 LF 4.07 10.76 4.79 19.62

8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.233 LF 2.88 7.76 3.38 14.02
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.269 LF 3.25 8.96 3.83 16.04
8' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
10' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 2.57 6.90 3.03 12.49
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.289 LF 3.49 9.63 4.11 17.23
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.336 LF 4.07 11.19 4.79 20.05

8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.54 4.10 1.79 7.42
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.12 5.90 2.51 10.53
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.57 6.93 3.03 12.52
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.242 LF 2.88 8.06 3.38 14.32
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 3.49 9.29 4.11 16.90
8' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
10' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.216 LF 2.57 7.20 3.03 12.79
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 3.05 8.53 3.59 15.17
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.301 LF 3.75 10.03 4.41 18.19
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.349 LF 4.43 11.63 5.23 21.29

8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.91 2.50 1.06 4.47
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.22 5.93 2.61 10.76
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 3.05 8.16 3.59 14.80

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21

18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.179 LF 2.22 5.96 2.61 10.79
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 2.57 6.90 3.03 12.49
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.64 4.36 1.92 7.92
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 2.70 7.33 3.19 13.21
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.98 8.23
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.32 6.20 2.73 11.25
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 2.02 5.50 2.40 9.92
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.44 6.50 2.86 11.80
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.266 LF 3.25 8.86 3.83 15.94

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.47 6.09
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.223 LF 2.70 7.43 3.19 13.31
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.06 8.59
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.88 7.10 3.38 13.35
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.277 LF 3.49 9.23 4.11 16.83

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 2.12 5.80 2.51 10.43
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.47 6.09
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.81 5.03 2.13 8.97
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.57 7.10 3.03 12.69
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.248 LF 3.05 8.26 3.59 14.90
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.287 LF 3.49 9.56 4.11 17.16

8' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.209 LF 2.57 6.96 3.03 12.56
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
8' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.95 5.23 2.29 9.47
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 2.70 7.36 3.19 13.25
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.258 LF 3.05 8.59 3.59 15.23
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 1.01 4.20
10' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.082 LF 1.01 2.73 1.17 4.91
12' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95

18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.21 9.17
20' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.38 5.66
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.22 6.20 2.61 11.03
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.216 LF 2.57 7.20 3.03 12.79

8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
16' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.082 LF 1.01 2.73 1.17 4.91
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.54 4.10 1.79 7.42
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.44 6.73 2.86 12.03
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.234 LF 2.88 7.80 3.38 14.05

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.44 6.56 2.86 11.87
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.243 LF 3.05 8.09 3.59 14.73

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.19 3.20 1.41 5.80
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.92 7.99
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.22 5.93 2.61 10.76
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.36 3.76 1.60 6.73
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.219 LF 2.70 7.30 3.19 13.18
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03

8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.19 5.02
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 2.22 6.16 2.61 10.99
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62

8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.74 4.66 2.06 8.46
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.44 6.50 2.86 11.80
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.227 LF 2.70 7.56 3.19 13.45
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.261 LF 3.25 8.69 3.83 15.78

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.216 LF 2.57 7.20 3.03 12.79
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.47 6.09
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.73 11.45
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.271 LF 3.25 9.03 3.83 16.11

8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.88 2.37 1.02 4.26
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.08 3.00 1.27 5.35
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 2.32 6.43 2.73 11.48
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.226 LF 2.70 7.53 3.19 13.41
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.19 5.02
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.44 6.73 2.86 12.03
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.284 LF 3.49 9.46 4.11 17.06

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 1.15 3.16 1.38 5.70
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.74 4.73 2.06 8.53
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.12 5.66 2.51 10.29
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.236 LF 2.88 7.86 3.38 14.12
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.175 LF 2.12 5.83 2.51 10.46
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.296 LF 3.75 9.86 4.41 18.02

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.48 4.10 1.74 7.32
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.22 5.93 2.61 10.76
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 3.05 8.16 3.59 14.80
8' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.38 5.66
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.48 4.00 1.74 7.22
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.81 5.03 2.13 8.97
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.70 7.40 3.19 13.28
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 3.25 8.79 3.83 15.88
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.309 LF 3.75 10.29 4.41 18.45

8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
10' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 1.14 3.07 1.35 5.56
14' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.92 7.99

18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 1.01 4.20
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.136 LF 1.69 4.53 1.98 8.20
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 2.02 5.50 2.40 9.92
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.196 LF 2.44 6.53 2.86 11.83
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.98 2.63 1.15 4.76
12' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
16' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.69 4.66 1.98 8.33
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 2.02 5.50 2.40 9.92
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 2.32 6.43 2.73 11.48
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.91 2.50 1.06 4.47
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 1.15 3.16 1.38 5.70
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.06 8.59
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.50 10.38
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
12' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.48 4.10 1.74 7.32
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.182 LF 2.22 6.06 2.61 10.89
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.86 2.37 1.01 4.23
10' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.21 9.17
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.209 LF 2.57 6.96 3.03 12.56
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.263 LF 3.25 8.76 3.83 15.84

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 58 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.99 4.08
12' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
14' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
16' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
18' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 1.69 4.63 1.98 8.30
20' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.080 LF 0.98 2.67 1.15 4.79
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.44 6.73 2.86 12.03

8' deep, 68 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.85 3.53
10' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
12' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
14' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.51 6.27

16' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
18' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.81 4.83 2.13 8.77
20' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.169 LF 2.02 5.63 2.40 10.05
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.56 4.23 1.85 7.64
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.87 5.06 2.21 9.14
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62

8' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.062 LF 0.76 2.07 0.89 3.71
10' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
12' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
16' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.87 5.06 2.21 9.14
20' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.08 3.00 1.27 5.35
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.92 7.99
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 3.28 7.33 3.19 13.80

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.065 LF 0.80 2.17 0.93 3.89
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
12' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.15 3.20 1.38 5.73
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.69 4.66 1.98 8.33
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.44 6.56 2.86 11.87
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.91 2.47 1.06 4.43
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.205 LF 2.44 6.83 2.86 12.13
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.12 3.00 1.31 5.43
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.44 3.86 1.69 7.00
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.81 4.86 2.13 8.80
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 2.70 7.26 3.19 13.15
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.260 LF 3.25 8.66 3.83 15.74

8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.060 LF 0.73 2.00 0.88 3.61
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.75 7.42
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.31 9.34
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 2.88 7.66 3.38 13.92
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 3.25 9.09 3.83 16.18

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77

16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.02 5.46 2.40 9.88
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.285 LF 3.49 9.49 4.11 17.10

8' deep, 81 LF/hr BD@.050 LF 0.61 1.67 0.71 2.98
10' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
12' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
14' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
16' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
18' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
20' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
8' deep, 67 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.87 3.55
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.21 9.17
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 2.22 6.16 2.61 10.99
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 2.70 7.33 3.19 13.21

8' deep, 76 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.65 1.77 0.75 3.16
10' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
12' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
14' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
16' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.56 4.16 1.85 7.57
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93

8' deep, 63 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.78 2.13 0.92 3.83
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.92 7.99
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.32 6.50 2.73 11.55
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 2.88 7.66 3.38 13.92

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.89 2.40 1.04 4.33
12' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
14' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.161 LF 1.95 5.36 2.29 9.60
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.69 4.66 1.98 8.33
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.12 5.66 2.51 10.29
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29

8' deep, 89 LF/hr BD@.045 LF 0.55 1.50 0.64 2.68
10' deep, 70 LF/hr BD@.057 LF 0.71 1.90 0.83 3.44
12' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
14' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.08 2.93 1.27 5.28
16' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
18' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
20' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
8' deep, 75 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.65 1.77 0.76 3.17
10' deep, 58 LF/hr BD@.069 LF 0.83 2.30 0.99 4.12
12' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.08 2.93 1.27 5.28
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.33 3.66 1.55 6.55
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.161 LF 1.95 5.36 2.29 9.60
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42

8' deep, 84 LF/hr BD@.048 LF 0.58 1.60 0.68 2.85
10' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
12' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
14' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.22 3.10 1.35 5.67
16' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
18' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
20' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
8' deep, 70 LF/hr BD@.057 LF 0.71 1.90 0.83 3.44
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.91 2.47 1.06 4.43
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.169 LF 2.02 5.63 2.40 10.05
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97

8' deep, 79 LF/hr BD@.051 LF 0.63 1.70 0.72 3.05
10' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
12' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.080 LF 0.98 2.67 1.15 4.79
14' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
16' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
18' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
20' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 2.02 5.50 2.40 9.92
8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.12 5.90 2.51 10.53
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.209 LF 2.57 6.96 3.03 12.56

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.136 LF 1.69 4.53 1.98 8.20
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97

18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.237 LF 2.88 7.89 3.38 14.15
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 3.49 9.29 4.11 16.90
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.02 5.46 2.40 9.88
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.203 LF 2.44 6.76 2.86 12.07
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.295 LF 3.49 9.83 4.11 17.43
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.348 LF 4.43 11.59 5.23 21.25

8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.74 4.73 2.06 8.53
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.57 6.93 3.03 12.52
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.289 LF 3.49 9.63 4.11 17.23
8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.98 8.23
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 3.05 8.53 3.59 15.17
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.306 LF 3.75 10.19 4.41 18.35
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.361 LF 4.43 12.02 5.23 21.68

8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.216 LF 2.57 7.20 3.03 12.79
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08
8' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
10' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.06 8.59
12' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
14' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 2.70 7.33 3.19 13.21
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.266 LF 3.25 8.86 3.83 15.94
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.318 LF 3.75 10.59 4.41 18.75
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.374 LF 4.43 12.46 5.23 22.12

8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.223 LF 2.70 7.43 3.19 13.31
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 3.25 8.79 3.83 15.88
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.308 LF 3.75 10.26 4.41 18.42
8' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
10' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
12' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.277 LF 3.49 9.23 4.11 16.83
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.329 LF 4.07 10.96 4.79 19.82
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.386 LF 4.89 12.86 5.75 23.50

8' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 3.25 9.09 3.83 16.18
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.318 LF 3.75 10.59 4.41 18.75
8' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.54 4.10 1.79 7.42
10' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
12' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.32 6.50 2.73 11.55
14' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.88 7.93 3.38 14.19
16' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.287 LF 3.49 9.56 4.11 17.16
18' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.340 LF 4.07 11.33 4.79 20.19
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.399 LF 4.89 13.29 5.75 23.93

8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
10' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.282 LF 3.49 9.39 4.11 17.00
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.328 LF 4.07 10.93 4.79 19.79

8' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
10' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
12' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.203 LF 2.44 6.76 2.86 12.07
14' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87
16' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.297 LF 3.75 9.89 4.41 18.05
18' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.352 LF 4.43 11.73 5.23 21.39
20' deep, 10 LF/hr BD@.412 LF 4.89 13.72 5.75 24.36

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.205 LF 2.44 6.83 2.86 12.13
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.44 3.86 1.69 7.00
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.06 8.59
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.253 LF 3.05 8.43 3.59 15.07
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 2.70 7.36 3.19 13.25
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.262 LF 3.25 8.73 3.83 15.81
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.308 LF 3.75 10.26 4.41 18.42

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.95 5.23 2.29 9.47
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.219 LF 2.70 7.30 3.19 13.18
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 3.05 8.53 3.59 15.17
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.47 6.09
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.54 4.23 1.79 7.56
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.272 LF 3.25 9.06 3.83 16.14
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.319 LF 3.75 10.63 4.41 18.79

8' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 2.32 6.43 2.73 11.48
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.227 LF 2.70 7.56 3.19 13.45
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 3.25 8.79 3.83 15.88
8' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
10' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.88 7.93 3.38 14.19
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.282 LF 3.49 9.39 4.11 17.00
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.330 LF 4.07 10.99 4.79 19.85

8' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.38 5.66
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.74 4.66 2.06 8.46
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 2.02 5.60 2.40 10.02
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.234 LF 2.88 7.80 3.38 14.05
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.272 LF 3.25 9.06 3.83 16.14

8' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.291 LF 3.49 9.69 4.11 17.30
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.340 LF 4.07 11.33 4.79 20.19

8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
10' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.48 4.00 1.74 7.22
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 2.12 5.80 2.51 10.43
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.242 LF 2.88 8.06 3.38 14.32
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.280 LF 3.49 9.33 4.11 16.93
8' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
10' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.57 7.10 3.03 12.69
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.301 LF 3.75 10.03 4.41 18.19
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.351 LF 4.43 11.69 5.23 21.35

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.53 6.49
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.70 7.40 3.19 13.28
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.261 LF 3.25 8.69 3.83 15.78

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 1.15 3.16 1.38 5.70
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 2.70 7.26 3.19 13.15
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.32 6.50 2.73 11.55
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.270 LF 3.25 8.99 3.83 16.08

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.74 4.66 2.06 8.46
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.64 6.87
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.69 4.66 1.98 8.33
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.44 6.73 2.86 12.03
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 3.49 9.29 4.11 16.90

8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.19 5.02
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 2.12 5.70 2.51 10.33
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.88 7.73 3.38 13.99
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.19 3.20 1.41 5.80
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.81 4.86 2.13 8.80
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49

16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.288 LF 3.49 9.59 4.11 17.20

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.12 5.90 2.51 10.53
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 2.57 6.90 3.03 12.49
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.182 LF 2.22 6.06 2.61 10.89
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.70 7.23 3.19 13.11
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.297 LF 3.75 9.89 4.41 18.05

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.08 3.00 1.27 5.35
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.57 7.10 3.03 12.69
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.25 3.46 1.47 6.19
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.85 7.67
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.189 LF 2.32 6.30 2.73 11.35
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 3.25 8.79 3.83 15.88
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.307 LF 3.75 10.23 4.41 18.39

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.48 4.10 1.74 7.32
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.87 5.06 2.21 9.14
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.22 6.20 2.61 11.03
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.233 LF 2.70 7.76 3.19 13.65
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.265 LF 3.25 8.83 3.83 15.91
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.189 LF 2.32 6.30 2.73 11.35
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.88 7.73 3.38 13.99
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.281 LF 3.49 9.36 4.11 16.96
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.334 LF 4.07 11.13 4.79 19.99

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.88 7.73 3.38 13.99
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.275 LF 3.25 9.16 3.83 16.24
8' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.38 5.66
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
12' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.88 7.73 3.38 13.99
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.292 LF 3.49 9.73 4.11 17.33
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.347 LF 4.07 11.56 4.79 20.42

8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95

16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.44 6.73 2.86 12.03
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.285 LF 3.49 9.49 4.11 17.10
8' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
10' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 2.57 6.90 3.03 12.49
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.304 LF 3.75 10.13 4.41 18.29
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.360 LF 4.43 11.99 5.23 21.65

8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.74 4.66 2.06 8.46
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.250 LF 3.05 8.33 3.59 14.97
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.294 LF 3.49 9.79 4.11 17.40
8' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.51 6.27
10' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.136 LF 1.69 4.53 1.98 8.20
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
14' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
16' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.263 LF 3.25 8.76 3.83 15.84
18' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.315 LF 3.75 10.49 4.41 18.65
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.383 LF 4.43 12.76 5.23 22.42

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.64 4.36 1.92 7.92
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64

16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.284 LF 3.49 9.46 4.11 17.06

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.86 2.37 1.01 4.23
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.08 3.00 1.27 5.35
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.98 8.23
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.234 LF 2.88 7.80 3.38 14.05
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.98 8.23
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.207 LF 2.57 6.90 3.03 12.49
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 3.05 8.29 3.59 14.93
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.294 LF 3.49 9.79 4.11 17.40

8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.91 2.47 1.06 4.43
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.242 LF 2.88 8.06 3.38 14.32
8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.12 5.90 2.51 10.53
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.258 LF 3.05 8.59 3.59 15.23
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.305 LF 3.75 10.16 4.41 18.32

8' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.077 LF 0.95 2.57 1.10 4.61
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.179 LF 2.22 5.96 2.61 10.79
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.57 7.10 3.03 12.69
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.250 LF 3.05 8.33 3.59 14.97

8' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 1.12 3.07 1.31 5.50
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 2.22 6.16 2.61 10.99
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.268 LF 3.25 8.93 3.83 16.01
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.316 LF 3.75 10.53 4.41 18.69

8' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.062 LF 0.76 2.07 0.89 3.71
10' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.077 LF 0.95 2.57 1.10 4.61
12' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.15 3.20 1.38 5.73
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.44 6.56 2.86 11.87
8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 1.12 3.07 1.31 5.50
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.64 6.87
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 2.12 5.80 2.51 10.43
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.209 LF 2.57 6.96 3.03 12.56
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 0.98 2.70 1.15 4.83
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.81 4.86 2.13 8.80
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 2.12 5.80 2.51 10.43
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.15 3.20 1.38 5.73
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.70 7.23 3.19 13.11
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 3.05 8.53 3.59 15.17

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.51 6.27
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.54 4.23 1.79 7.56
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.87 5.06 2.21 9.14
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.87 5.20 2.21 9.27
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.265 LF 3.25 8.83 3.83 15.91

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 1.01 4.20
10' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.64 4.36 1.92 7.92
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 2.70 7.26 3.19 13.15
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.196 LF 2.44 6.53 2.86 11.83
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.233 LF 2.88 7.76 3.38 14.02
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.274 LF 3.25 9.13 3.83 16.21

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.92 3.85
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.175 LF 2.12 5.83 2.51 10.46

18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.254 LF 3.05 8.46 3.59 15.10
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 1.69 4.63 1.98 8.30
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.12 5.93 2.51 10.56
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 2.70 7.36 3.19 13.25
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.270 LF 3.25 8.99 3.83 16.08
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.323 LF 4.07 10.76 4.79 19.62

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 2.70 7.36 3.19 13.25
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.264 LF 3.25 8.79 3.83 15.88
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
14' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.32 6.20 2.73 11.25
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.281 LF 3.49 9.36 4.11 16.96
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.336 LF 4.07 11.19 4.79 20.05

8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
10' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.15 3.20 1.38 5.73
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.54 4.10 1.79 7.42
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 2.88 7.66 3.38 13.92
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 3.25 9.09 3.83 16.18
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.08 2.93 1.27 5.28
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.44 6.50 2.86 11.80
16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.88 7.13 3.38 13.39
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.293 LF 3.49 9.76 4.11 17.36
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.349 LF 4.43 11.63 5.23 21.29

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.91 2.47 1.06 4.43
12' deep, 42 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.15 3.20 1.38 5.73
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.48 4.00 1.74 7.22
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.57 7.13 3.03 12.72
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.228 LF 2.70 7.60 3.19 13.48
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 3.25 9.09 3.83 16.18

8' deep, 67 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.87 3.55
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.70 7.40 3.19 13.28
8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.89 2.40 1.04 4.33
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.196 LF 2.44 6.53 2.86 11.83
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.237 LF 2.88 7.89 3.38 14.15
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.283 LF 3.49 9.43 4.11 17.03

8' deep, 64 LF/hr BD@.063 LF 0.76 2.10 0.90 3.76
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64

18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.32 6.46 2.73 11.52
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
8' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.95 2.53 1.10 4.58
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.294 LF 3.49 9.79 4.11 17.40

8' deep, 79 LF/hr BD@.051 LF 0.63 1.70 0.72 3.05
10' deep, 61 LF/hr BD@.066 LF 0.80 2.20 0.94 3.94
12' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
14' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
16' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.56 4.33 1.85 7.74
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.87 5.20 2.21 9.27
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.22 6.20 2.61 11.03
8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 0.98 2.70 1.15 4.83
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.51 6.27
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.44 6.56 2.86 11.87
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.236 LF 2.88 7.86 3.38 14.12

8' deep, 75 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.65 1.77 0.76 3.17
10' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 1.01 4.20
12' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
14' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.95 5.43 2.29 9.67
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.193 LF 2.32 6.43 2.73 11.48
8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26

16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 3.05 8.16 3.59 14.80

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.64 6.87
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.169 LF 2.02 5.63 2.40 10.05
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.08 3.00 1.27 5.35
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.64 6.87
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.12 5.90 2.51 10.53
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.57 7.13 3.03 12.72
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.254 LF 3.05 8.46 3.59 15.10

8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.15 3.10 1.35 5.60
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.72 4.70 2.03 8.44
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 2.02 5.60 2.40 10.02
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.47 6.80 2.90 12.17
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.05 5.66 2.40 10.11
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.205 LF 2.44 6.83 2.86 12.13
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.251 LF 3.10 8.36 3.65 15.11
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.297 LF 3.75 9.89 4.41 18.05

8' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.077 LF 0.95 2.57 1.10 4.61
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.69 7.10
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.79 4.93 2.10 8.82
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.59 7.10 3.05 12.73
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 3.05 8.29 3.59 14.93
8' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.40 3.83 1.65 6.88
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.16 5.93 2.55 10.64
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.263 LF 3.16 8.76 3.72 15.64
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.310 LF 3.75 10.33 4.41 18.49

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.27 3.43 1.49 6.19
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.20 9.23
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.184 LF 2.22 6.13 2.61 10.96
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.74 7.40 3.22 13.35
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.259 LF 3.25 8.63 3.83 15.71
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.73 7.25
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.27 6.23 2.66 11.16
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.274 LF 3.39 9.13 3.99 16.51
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.323 LF 4.07 10.76 4.79 19.62

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.04 2.83 1.22 5.09
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.31 3.60 1.54 6.45
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.56 4.36 1.85 7.77
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.73 11.45
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.80 7.70 3.28 13.77
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.269 LF 3.25 8.96 3.83 16.04
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.19 3.26 1.41 5.87
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.54 4.26 1.80 7.60
12' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.87 5.23 2.21 9.31
14' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.39 6.56 2.79 11.75

16' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.236 LF 2.88 7.86 3.38 14.12
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.286 LF 3.49 9.53 4.09 17.11
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.335 LF 4.07 11.16 4.79 20.02

8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.39 3.76 1.63 6.79
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.136 LF 1.69 4.53 1.98 8.20
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.168 LF 2.07 5.60 2.43 10.10
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.240 LF 2.98 7.99 3.50 14.47
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.279 LF 3.49 9.29 4.11 16.90
8' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.25 3.43 1.47 6.15
10' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.94 8.04
12' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.02 5.46 2.40 9.88
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.205 LF 2.54 6.83 3.00 12.36
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 3.05 8.19 3.59 14.83
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.297 LF 3.75 9.89 4.40 18.04
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.348 LF 4.43 11.59 5.23 21.25

8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.70 7.08
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.74 4.73 2.06 8.53
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.175 LF 2.16 5.83 2.55 10.54
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.57 6.93 3.03 12.52
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 3.03 8.29 3.57 14.89
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.289 LF 3.49 9.63 4.11 17.23
8' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48
10' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.72 4.66 2.04 8.42
12' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
14' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.59 7.13 3.05 12.76
16' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.256 LF 3.05 8.53 3.59 15.17
18' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.309 LF 3.75 10.29 4.40 18.44
20' deep, 11 LF/hr BD@.361 LF 4.43 12.02 5.23 21.68

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.085 LF 1.03 2.83 1.20 5.06
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.50 4.13 1.78 7.41
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.81 4.90 2.13 8.83
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.20 5.90 2.58 10.68
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.57 6.86 3.03 12.46
8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
10' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.40 5.82
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.84 4.93 2.15 8.92
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.22 5.93 2.61 10.76
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.63 7.23 3.10 12.95
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13

8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.88 2.37 1.02 4.26
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.26 5.31
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.59 4.33 1.86 7.78
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 2.24 6.16 2.62 11.02
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.215 LF 2.57 7.16 3.03 12.76
8' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.080 LF 0.98 2.67 1.15 4.79
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.27 3.43 1.48 6.18
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.125 LF 1.54 4.16 1.79 7.49
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.94 5.20 2.26 9.40
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.187 LF 2.32 6.23 2.73 11.28
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.227 LF 2.80 7.56 3.28 13.64
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.266 LF 3.25 8.86 3.83 15.94

8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.91 2.50 1.06 4.47
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.34 5.58
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.136 LF 1.66 4.53 1.95 8.14

16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.74 11.46
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.223 LF 2.70 7.43 3.19 13.31
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.34 3.60 1.58 6.52
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.131 LF 1.64 4.36 1.92 7.92
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 2.05 5.43 2.40 9.88
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.44 6.50 2.86 11.80
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.236 LF 2.98 7.86 3.50 14.34
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.276 LF 3.49 9.19 4.11 16.80

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.39 5.81
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.64 6.91
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.142 LF 1.72 4.73 2.03 8.48
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.02 5.56 2.40 9.98
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.199 LF 2.47 6.63 2.90 12.00
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.231 LF 2.88 7.70 3.38 13.95
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.39 3.80 1.63 6.82
12' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 2.07 5.70 2.43 10.20
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.246 LF 2.98 8.19 3.50 14.67
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.287 LF 3.49 9.56 4.11 17.16

8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.46 6.08
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.74 7.26
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.147 LF 1.80 4.90 2.13 8.82
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.206 LF 2.50 6.86 2.96 12.33
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.239 LF 2.88 7.96 3.38 14.22
8' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
10' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.119 LF 1.44 3.96 1.70 7.11
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.06 8.59
14' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.16 5.93 2.55 10.64
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.16 8.49 3.72 15.38
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08

8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
10' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.54 4.20 1.79 7.52
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.20 9.16
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.63 7.13 3.10 12.85
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.247 LF 3.05 8.23 3.59 14.87
8' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
10' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.50 4.13 1.76 7.39
12' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.81 5.00 2.13 8.93
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.27 6.20 2.66 11.13
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.221 LF 2.70 7.36 3.19 13.25
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.265 LF 3.24 8.83 3.81 15.88
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.308 LF 3.75 10.26 4.41 18.42

8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.14 4.71
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 1.14 3.07 1.35 5.56
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.39 3.73 1.63 6.75
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.92 7.95
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.94 5.26 2.26 9.46
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.88 2.37 1.02 4.26
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.10 2.97 1.28 5.35
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.93 8.00
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.74 11.46
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35

8' deep, 60 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.81 2.23 0.96 4.00
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.082 LF 1.01 2.73 1.18 4.92
12' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07

16' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.69 4.60 1.98 8.26
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.01 5.46 2.36 9.83
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.91 2.50 1.06 4.47
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.36 5.64
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.40 3.76 1.64 6.81
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.72 4.66 2.03 8.41
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.166 LF 2.02 5.53 2.40 9.95
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.47 6.66 2.90 12.04
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.233 LF 2.88 7.76 3.38 14.02

8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 0.80 3.99
10' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.12 5.03
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.22 3.36 1.44 6.03
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.10 5.66 2.48 10.24
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.44 6.56 2.86 11.87
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.098 LF 1.22 3.26 1.42 5.91
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
14' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.79 4.86 2.10 8.75
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.59 6.93 3.05 12.56
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.243 LF 3.05 8.09 3.59 14.73

8' deep, 55 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
10' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.10 2.97 1.27 5.34
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.56 4.23 1.81 7.60
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.81 4.96 2.13 8.90
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.177 LF 2.15 5.90 2.51 10.56
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.204 LF 2.44 6.80 2.86 12.10
8' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.082 LF 1.01 2.73 1.17 4.91
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.103 LF 1.27 3.43 1.49 6.19
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.20 9.16
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.63 7.23 3.10 12.95
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03

8' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.32 5.56
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.61 4.40 1.89 7.89
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.155 LF 1.87 5.16 2.21 9.24
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.24 6.10 2.62 10.96
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.57 7.03 3.03 12.62
8' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
10' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.31 3.60 1.54 6.45
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.32 6.26 2.73 11.32
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.80 7.50 3.28 13.57
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.261 LF 3.25 8.69 3.83 15.78

8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.97 2.60 1.13 4.70
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.19 3.20 1.39 5.78
12' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.40 3.80 1.64 6.84
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.137 LF 1.69 4.56 1.97 8.22
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.189 LF 2.32 6.30 2.74 11.36
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 2.70 7.26 3.19 13.15
8' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.08 2.97 1.27 5.32
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.112 LF 1.36 3.73 1.60 6.69
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 1.99 5.50 2.32 9.81
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.195 LF 2.32 6.50 2.73 11.55
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.226 LF 2.80 7.53 3.28 13.61
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.257 LF 3.25 8.56 3.83 15.64

8' deep, 67 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.87 3.55
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.15 4.75
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.56 4.23 1.82 7.61

16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.154 LF 1.87 5.13 2.21 9.21
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.30 6.33 2.70 11.33
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.225 LF 2.70 7.50 3.19 13.38
8' deep, 58 LF/hr BD@.069 LF 0.83 2.30 0.99 4.12
10' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.095 LF 1.15 3.16 1.38 5.70
12' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.48 4.00 1.74 7.22
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.91 5.20 2.24 9.34
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.191 LF 2.32 6.36 2.73 11.42
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.237 LF 2.92 7.89 3.43 14.24
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.283 LF 3.49 9.43 4.11 17.03

8' deep, 63 LF/hr BD@.063 LF 0.78 2.10 0.92 3.80
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.21 5.05
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.91 8.01
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.199 LF 2.42 6.63 2.83 11.88
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.235 LF 2.88 7.83 3.38 14.09
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.074 LF 0.91 2.47 1.06 4.43
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.101 LF 1.25 3.36 1.46 6.08
12' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.127 LF 1.56 4.23 1.85 7.64
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.01 5.46 2.36 9.83
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 2.98 8.29 3.50 14.77
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.296 LF 3.49 9.86 4.11 17.46

8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.10 2.97 1.28 5.35
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.71 4.70 2.01 8.41
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.02 5.66 2.40 10.08
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.54 6.93 3.00 12.46
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.245 LF 3.05 8.16 3.59 14.80
8' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
10' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.31 3.56 1.52 6.40
12' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
14' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.174 LF 2.10 5.80 2.48 10.38
16' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.212 LF 2.57 7.06 3.03 12.66
18' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.261 LF 3.16 8.69 3.72 15.58
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.309 LF 3.75 10.29 4.41 18.45

8' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.88 2.37 1.02 4.26
10' deep, 45 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.37 5.65
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.84 4.93 2.15 8.92
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.22 5.93 2.61 10.76
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.63 7.23 3.10 12.95
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.255 LF 3.05 8.49 3.59 15.13
8' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.19 5.02
10' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.114 LF 1.39 3.80 1.63 6.82
12' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
14' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.24 6.10 2.63 10.97
16' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.70 7.40 3.19 13.28
18' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.272 LF 3.39 9.06 3.99 16.44
20' deep, 12 LF/hr BD@.321 LF 4.07 10.69 4.79 19.55

8' deep, 74 LF/hr BD@.054 LF 0.66 1.80 0.77 3.23
10' deep, 60 LF/hr BD@.071 LF 0.88 2.37 1.01 4.25
12' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
14' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.34 3.66 1.59 6.60
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.92 7.99
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.99 5.43 2.32 9.74
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.32 6.40 2.73 11.45
8' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.062 LF 0.76 2.07 0.89 3.71
10' deep, 52 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.20 5.03
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.66 4.50 1.96 8.11
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.164 LF 2.02 5.46 2.40 9.88
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.203 LF 2.47 6.76 2.90 12.14
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29

8' deep, 70 LF/hr BD@.057 LF 0.71 1.90 0.83 3.44
10' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.08 4.51
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.092 LF 1.14 3.07 1.35 5.56
14' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.42 3.86 1.66 6.95

16' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.140 LF 1.69 4.66 1.98 8.33
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.171 LF 2.07 5.70 2.43 10.20
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.201 LF 2.44 6.70 2.86 12.00
8' deep, 60 LF/hr BD@.066 LF 0.81 2.20 0.96 3.97
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.10 2.97 1.27 5.34
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.36 3.70 1.60 6.66
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 1.74 5.76 2.06 9.56
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 2.12 5.76 2.51 10.39
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.213 LF 2.59 7.10 3.05 12.73
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.252 LF 3.05 8.39 3.59 15.03

8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.14 4.74
12' deep, 41 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.41 5.83
14' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.50 4.06 1.76 7.33
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.146 LF 1.81 4.86 2.13 8.80
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.20 5.93 2.58 10.71
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.209 LF 2.57 6.96 3.03 12.56
8' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.070 LF 0.86 2.33 1.01 4.20
10' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.15 3.13 1.36 5.64
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.117 LF 1.44 3.90 1.69 7.03
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.149 LF 1.84 4.96 2.15 8.95
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.222 LF 2.74 7.40 3.22 13.35
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.262 LF 3.25 8.73 3.83 15.81

8' deep, 63 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.78 2.13 0.92 3.83
10' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
12' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.102 LF 1.25 3.40 1.47 6.12
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.128 LF 1.56 4.26 1.84 7.66
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.21 9.17
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.185 LF 2.30 6.16 2.70 11.16
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.217 LF 2.70 7.23 3.19 13.11
8' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.91 2.50 1.06 4.47
10' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.23 3.33 1.44 6.00
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
14' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.157 LF 1.94 5.23 2.26 9.43
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.232 LF 2.80 7.73 3.28 13.81
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.273 LF 3.25 9.09 3.83 16.18

8' deep, 79 LF/hr BD@.050 LF 0.63 1.67 0.72 3.01
10' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.065 LF 0.80 2.17 0.93 3.89
12' deep, 51 LF/hr BD@.079 LF 0.97 2.63 1.13 4.73
14' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.42 5.94
16' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
18' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.144 LF 1.74 4.80 2.05 8.58
20' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.169 LF 2.02 5.63 2.40 10.05
8' deep, 70 LF/hr BD@.057 LF 0.71 1.90 0.83 3.44
10' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
14' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.120 LF 1.44 4.00 1.70 7.14
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.74 4.83 2.06 8.63
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.178 LF 2.16 5.93 2.55 10.64
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.210 LF 2.57 7.00 3.03 12.59

8' deep, 75 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.65 1.77 0.76 3.17
10' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.98 4.07
12' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.03 2.77 1.19 4.99
14' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.50 6.26
16' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
18' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.150 LF 1.84 5.00 2.15 8.99
20' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.176 LF 2.12 5.86 2.51 10.49
8' deep, 66 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
10' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.080 LF 0.98 2.67 1.16 4.80
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.44 5.96
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.126 LF 1.56 4.20 1.82 7.57
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.87 5.06 2.21 9.14
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.186 LF 2.30 6.20 2.70 11.20
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.220 LF 2.70 7.33 3.19 13.21

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.03 4.31
12' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.06 2.90 1.24 5.20
14' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.55 6.48

16' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
18' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.156 LF 1.90 5.20 2.23 9.32
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.22 6.10 2.61 10.93
8' deep, 62 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
10' deep, 50 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.04 2.80 1.22 5.06
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.104 LF 1.29 3.46 1.51 6.27
14' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.132 LF 1.64 4.40 1.91 7.94
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.194 LF 2.42 6.46 2.83 11.72
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.229 LF 2.88 7.63 3.38 13.89

8' deep, 68 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.85 3.53
10' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.075 LF 0.93 2.50 1.07 4.50
12' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.091 LF 1.12 3.03 1.31 5.46
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.39 3.76 1.62 6.78
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.163 LF 1.99 5.43 2.32 9.74
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.089 LF 1.10 2.97 1.28 5.35
12' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.110 LF 1.36 3.66 1.60 6.63
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 1.66 4.63 2.01 8.30
16' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 1.97 5.56 2.40 9.93
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.203 LF 2.42 6.76 2.90 12.09
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.88 7.93 3.38 14.19

8' deep, 83 LF/hr BD@.048 LF 0.58 1.60 0.69 2.86
10' deep, 65 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
12' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.06 2.93 1.24 5.23
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.40 3.86 1.65 6.92
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.143 LF 1.74 4.76 2.06 8.56
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.179 LF 2.16 5.96 2.55 10.67
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.214 LF 2.57 7.13 3.03 12.72

8' deep, 70 LF/hr BD@.058 LF 0.71 1.93 0.83 3.47
10' deep, 54 LF/hr BD@.084 LF 1.03 2.80 1.19 5.02
12' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.109 LF 1.33 3.63 1.55 6.51
14' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.79 4.83 2.09 8.71
16' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.180 LF 2.22 6.00 2.61 10.83
18' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.226 LF 2.74 7.53 3.22 13.49
20' deep, 15 LF/hr BD@.272 LF 3.25 9.06 3.83 16.14

8' deep, 77 LF/hr BD@.052 LF 0.63 1.73 0.74 3.10
10' deep, 60 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.04 4.36
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.094 LF 1.14 3.13 1.35 5.62
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.50 4.10 1.77 7.37
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.151 LF 1.87 5.03 2.21 9.11
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.188 LF 2.30 6.26 2.70 11.26
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.224 LF 2.70 7.46 3.19 13.35
8' deep, 64 LF/hr BD@.063 LF 0.76 2.10 0.90 3.76
10' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.090 LF 1.10 3.00 1.29 5.39
12' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.116 LF 1.44 3.86 1.69 7.00
14' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.90 5.10 2.21 9.20
16' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
18' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.238 LF 2.92 7.93 3.43 14.28
20' deep, 14 LF/hr BD@.285 LF 3.49 9.49 4.11 17.10

8' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.056 LF 0.68 1.87 0.82 3.36
10' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.95 2.60 1.13 4.68
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.130 LF 1.59 4.33 1.88 7.80
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.159 LF 1.95 5.30 2.29 9.54
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.197 LF 2.42 6.56 2.83 11.82
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.234 LF 2.88 7.80 3.38 14.05
8' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
10' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.096 LF 1.19 3.20 1.39 5.78
12' deep, 32 LF/hr BD@.124 LF 1.54 4.13 1.79 7.46
14' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.99 5.40 2.33 9.72
16' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.200 LF 2.44 6.66 2.86 11.97
18' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.249 LF 3.10 8.29 3.65 15.04
20' deep, 13 LF/hr BD@.298 LF 3.75 9.93 4.41 18.08

8' deep, 93 LF/hr BD@.043 LF 0.53 1.43 0.61 2.57
10' deep, 73 LF/hr BD@.060 LF 0.73 2.00 0.86 3.59
12' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
14' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.099 LF 1.22 3.30 1.42 5.94
16' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.122 LF 1.48 4.06 1.74 7.29
18' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.152 LF 1.86 5.06 2.18 9.10
20' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.181 LF 2.22 6.03 2.61 10.86
8' deep, 79 LF/hr BD@.051 LF 0.63 1.70 0.72 3.05
10' deep, 61 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.89 2.40 1.03 4.32
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.123 LF 1.50 4.10 1.77 7.37
16' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.153 LF 1.87 5.10 2.21 9.17
18' deep, 22 LF/hr BD@.192 LF 2.39 6.40 2.79 11.58
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.230 LF 2.88 7.66 3.38 13.92

8' deep, 86 LF/hr BD@.046 LF 0.57 1.53 0.66 2.76
10' deep, 68 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.93 3.86
12' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.081 LF 1.01 2.70 1.17 4.88
14' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.105 LF 1.29 3.50 1.51 6.30
16' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.129 LF 1.56 4.30 1.85 7.70
18' deep, 26 LF/hr BD@.160 LF 1.95 5.33 2.29 9.57
20' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.190 LF 2.32 6.33 2.73 11.38
8' deep, 73 LF/hr BD@.055 LF 0.66 1.83 0.78 3.27
10' deep, 57 LF/hr BD@.078 LF 0.95 2.60 1.12 4.67
12' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.100 LF 1.22 3.33 1.44 5.99
14' deep, 33 LF/hr BD@.173 LF 1.59 5.76 1.88 9.23
16' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.162 LF 1.95 5.40 2.29 9.64
18' deep, 21 LF/hr BD@.202 LF 2.42 6.73 2.83 11.98
20' deep, 17 LF/hr BD@.241 LF 2.88 8.03 3.38 14.29

8' deep, 81 LF/hr BD@.050 LF 0.61 1.67 0.71 2.98
10' deep, 64 LF/hr BD@.068 LF 0.83 2.27 0.97 4.06
12' deep, 47 LF/hr BD@.086 LF 1.04 2.87 1.22 5.13
14' deep, 39 LF/hr BD@.111 LF 1.34 3.70 1.58 6.62

16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.135 LF 1.64 4.50 1.92 8.05
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.05 5.56 2.40 10.01
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.198 LF 2.44 6.60 2.86 11.90
8' deep, 67 LF/hr BD@.059 LF 0.72 1.97 0.87 3.55
10' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.083 LF 1.01 2.77 1.19 4.97
12' deep, 38 LF/hr BD@.106 LF 1.29 3.53 1.51 6.33
14' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.138 LF 1.71 4.60 2.02 8.32
16' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.170 LF 2.12 5.66 2.51 10.29
18' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.211 LF 2.59 7.03 3.05 12.66
20' deep, 16 LF/hr BD@.251 LF 3.05 8.36 3.59 15.00

8' deep, 102 LF/hr BD@.039 LF 0.47 1.30 0.56 2.33
10' deep, 81 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.66 1.77 0.76 3.18
12' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.067 LF 0.83 2.23 0.97 4.03
14' deep, 48 LF/hr BD@.087 LF 1.08 2.90 1.26 5.24
16' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.107 LF 1.33 3.56 1.55 6.45
18' deep, 31 LF/hr BD@.133 LF 1.64 4.43 1.93 8.00
20' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.158 LF 1.95 5.26 2.29 9.50
8' deep, 87 LF/hr BD@.046 LF 0.57 1.53 0.65 2.75
10' deep, 68 LF/hr BD@.064 LF 0.80 2.13 0.92 3.85
12' deep, 49 LF/hr BD@.082 LF 1.01 2.73 1.17 4.91
14' deep, 40 LF/hr BD@.108 LF 1.33 3.60 1.54 6.47
16' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.134 LF 1.64 4.46 1.92 8.02
18' deep, 25 LF/hr BD@.167 LF 2.05 5.56 2.40 10.01
20' deep, 20 LF/hr BD@.199 LF 2.44 6.63 2.86 11.93

8' deep, 95 LF/hr BD@.042 LF 0.51 1.40 0.60 2.50
10' deep, 76 LF/hr BD@.057 LF 0.71 1.90 0.83 3.44
12' deep, 56 LF/hr BD@.072 LF 0.88 2.40 1.02 4.30
14' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.12 3.10 1.31 5.53
16' deep, 36 LF/hr BD@.113 LF 1.36 3.76 1.60 6.73
18' deep, 30 LF/hr BD@.139 LF 1.71 4.63 2.01 8.35
20' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.165 LF 2.02 5.50 2.40 9.92

8' deep, 81 LF/hr BD@.050 LF 0.61 1.67 0.71 2.98
10' deep, 64 LF/hr BD@.069 LF 0.93 2.30 0.98 4.21
12' deep, 46 LF/hr BD@.088 LF 1.25 2.93 1.24 5.42
14' deep, 37 LF/hr BD@.115 LF 1.49 3.83 1.65 6.98
16' deep, 28 LF/hr BD@.141 LF 1.74 4.70 2.06 8.49
18' deep, 24 LF/hr BD@.175 LF 2.16 5.83 2.55 10.54
20' deep, 19 LF/hr BD@.208 LF 2.57 6.93 3.03 12.52

8' deep, 89 LF/hr BD@.045 LF 0.55 1.50 0.64 2.68
10' deep, 71 LF/hr BD@.061 LF 0.73 2.03 0.88 3.64
12' deep, 53 LF/hr BD@.076 LF 0.93 2.53 1.08 4.54
14' deep, 44 LF/hr BD@.097 LF 1.19 3.23 1.40 5.82
16' deep, 34 LF/hr BD@.118 LF 1.44 3.93 1.69 7.07
18' deep, 29 LF/hr BD@.145 LF 1.79 4.83 2.10 8.72
20' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.172 LF 2.12 5.73 2.51 10.36
8' deep, 75 LF/hr BD@.053 LF 0.65 1.77 0.76 3.17
10' deep, 59 LF/hr BD@.073 LF 0.89 2.43 1.05 4.37
12' deep, 43 LF/hr BD@.093 LF 1.14 3.10 1.35 5.59
14' deep, 35 LF/hr BD@.121 LF 1.48 4.03 1.73 7.25
16' deep, 27 LF/hr BD@.148 LF 1.81 4.93 2.13 8.87
18' deep, 23 LF/hr BD@.183 LF 2.27 6.10 2.66 11.03
20' deep, 18 LF/hr BD@.218 LF 2.70 7.26 3.19 13.15
6,000 pound excavator equipped with a 28 horsepower engine and a 20" wide, 2.3 cubic foot
bucket working a 50-minute hour under average conditions. The equipment rental cost is $1,860 per
month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants.
Prices do not include the cost of transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or the setup costs.
These prices can be used for waterline, trenches, or concrete footing trenches.
6,000 pound excavator with 2.3 cf bucket
Excavating loam or sandy clay

1.5' deep trench, 40 LF/hr OE@.101 LF 0.13 4.29 0.29 4.72
2' deep trench, 38 LF/hr OE@.106 LF 0.15 4.51 0.31 4.97
11,000 pound excavator equipped with a 48 horsepower engine and an 18" wide, 3.4 cubic
foot bucket working a 50-minute hour under average conditions. The equipment rental cost is $3,010
per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants.
Prices do not include the cost of transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or the setup costs.
These prices can be used for waterline, trenches, or concrete footing trenches.
11,000 pound excavator with 3.4 cf bucket
Excavating loam or sandy clay

13
Moving Vehicle
Performance
Excavation equipment, which I discussed in the last chapter, generally stays within the confined area of
a job site. If you'll be using other heavy equipment that needs to travel long distances, it'll be affected by
rolling resistance and grade resistance. These factors have a measurable effect on equipment travel
times and productivity, so it's important to know a little bit about them.
Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance is the amount of force that must be overcome to roll or pull a wheel over the travel
surface. It has nothing to do with grade steepness; rather, rolling resistance is dependent on the
condition of the travel surface, gross vehicle weight (G.V.W.) and the type of tires or tracks you're using.
For example, on hard road surfaces, a high-pressure tire with a narrow tread will experience less rolling
resistance than will a low-pressure tire with a wide tread.
The opposite is true on a soft road surface. That's because a high-pressure tire penetrates into the soft
material and essentially needs to climb out of the road. The tires constantly have to travel up grade as
well as forward. Since the road flexes under the load, rolling resistance increases. Internal tire friction
and tire flexing also contribute to rolling resistance.
Figure 13-1 shows approximate rolling resistance factors as a percentage of combined machine weight,
for a variety of road conditions. A machine traversing a level gravel road faces the same resistance as it
would climbing a paved road with a 10 percent grade. Tire sizes and inflation pressures can reduce or
increase rolling resistance. Ideally, you want to minimize rolling resistance by selecting the appropriate
equipment (track or wheel-mounted), tires (radial, bias or belted), and tire inflation pressures.
Grade Resistance and Assistance
Grade resistance must be overcome in order to move a vehicle up grade. Grade assistance is the
propelling force that assists a vehicle traveling down grade. These two forces are involved when you're on
an inclined travel surface, and affect both wheel- and track-mounted vehicles. Since grade resistance
and assistance act independently from rolling resistance, they're discussed separately.
Grades are normally measured in terms of slope or percent grade. Slope is the ratio of run to rise
(run:rise) of a surface. A surface that rises 10 feet vertically through a horizontal distance (run) of 20 feet
has a 2:1 slope. Percent grade is the ratio of rise to run, which is simply the opposite of the slope ratio.
This particular sloping surface has a 50 percent (10 / 20) grade.
Total resistance (or effective grade) is the combined effect of rolling and grade resistance, and is
expressed as percent grade. To calculate total resistance, add the rolling resistance percentage to the
percent grade. For example, if a vehicle is ascending a loose gravel (10 percent rolling resistance) hill
with 5 percent grade, the total resistance is 15 percent.
Vehicles traveling downhill are subject to grade assistance, so the downhill portion is called a favorable
grade. If the vehicle in the previous example was traveling down the loose gravel hill rather than up, you'd
subtract the percent grade from the rolling resistance to get the total net resistance. In that case, total
resistance would be 5 (10 minus 5) percent.
Travel Time Charts

Travel time charts provide approximate vehicle travel times for various distances, incorporating total
resistance into the equation. Caterpillar® Inc. provides two travel time charts for any given vehicle type:
one for a vehicle hauling its rated payload, and the other for the empty vehicle. Travel time charts also
take into account the vehicle's acceleration and deceleration at the loading and dumping areas.
The travel time chart in Figure 13-2 represents one-way travel time for an empty scraper. A horizontal
line, drawn from any given distance indicator on the vertical axis, intersects various diagonal lines that
represent total resistance. From the identified intersection, draw a line vertically to obtain the travel time
at the bottom of the chart. For example, assuming a 3,000-foot one-way haul distance and an effective
grade of 4 percent, the travel time is 1.3 minutes.
Altitude Derating
At high altitudes, internal combustion engines produce less power because of "thin" air. Two-cycle
engines suffer less power loss than four-cycle engines, because air to the two-cycle engine is supplied
under pressure with a blower, whereas the four-cycle engine relies on piston suction. Turbocharged
engines retain rated power up to altitudes of approximately 10,000 feet above sea level. Some
manufacturers publish altitude derating tables regarding the performance of their machinery at various
altitudes. Figure 13-3 shows derating factors for a sampling of Caterpillar® machines. The factors
indicate percentage of flywheel horsepower available at a particular altitude.
Now that I've covered some of the finer points of estimating earthwork equipment productivity, I'll get
back to discussing specific equipment types and their uses - starting with loaders, in Chapter 14.
14
Loaders
A loader, or tractor shovel as it's sometimes called, is basically a tractor with a bucket attached to its
front. Although mostly used for moving loose stockpiled material, loaders also come in handy for leveling
and stripping topsoil, backfilling, excavation, rock loading, heavy tool transport, demolition and cleanup
work. In this chapter, I'll discuss the various loader types and how to maximize their productivity.
Loaders can be equipped with either rubber tires or crawler tracks. Rubber-tired wheel loaders, like the
one shown in Figure 14-1, can travel faster than track loaders, and are ideal for projects requiring
extensive travel throughout the job site. Tires need a firm travel surface, so they aren't recommended in
wet situations. They're also vulnerable to sharp-edged rock. If you must work in this type of environment,
tire-protective mesh chains can help protect the tires, thereby extending their life. Wheel loaders are
capable of traversing side slopes with grades up to 15 percent, and can climb slopes with grades up to
30 percent.
Track loaders have a large ground contact area relative to wheel loaders, so they exert less pressure per
square inch (ground pressure) upon the working surface. Track loaders are best suited for projects
requiring good traction, or where the working surface is considered too abrasive for rubber tires. Track
loaders can traverse side slopes with grades up to 35 percent, and climb slopes with 60 percent grades.
There is a drawback to track loaders, though. They aren't permitted on paved roads, so generally need
to be transported by trailer. Be sure to keep that in mind when you're preparing an estimate.
As a general rule, loaders are most effective when the haul distance is less than 600 feet. This is called
the economic application zone, and is dependent on subsurface conditions, grades, material type,
loader size, and operator skill. A wheel loader is generally more efficient than either a wheel or track
dozer when the haul distance exceeds 400 feet, provided the material to be hauled is loose.
All track loaders are mounted on a rigid frame, but some wheel loaders are available with an articulated
frame. An articulated loader frame is hinged between the front and rear axles, allowing greater
maneuverability with a shorter turning radius than a rigid frame. Rigid frame wheel loaders generally
come with rear wheel steering.
Manufacturers normally publish machine specifications, such as shipping dimensions, digging ranges,
and clearances. Figure 14-2 illustrates the two most important dimensions to consider when dealing
with loaders. Maximum dump clearance (A) is the vertical distance from the ground to the lowest point
of the cutting edge, with the bucket hinge pin at maximum height and the bucket at a 45-degree angle.
Maximum hinge pin height (B) represents the maximum truck size that can be serviced by a loader.
There are two basic loader bucket styles: traditional solid (scoop) and multi-segment (multi-purpose).
Multi-segment buckets open up, allowing the loader to perform dozing functions. Optional bucket
accessories include bolt-on edges, bolt-on teeth, or weld-on flush-mounted teeth. A number of specialty
loader buckets are also available, including:
* A side-dump bucket, equipped with a special chute, can dump sideways by using a cross ram. (See
Figure 14-3)
* Reinforced spade nose bucket for loading rock
* Lightweight bucket for loading materials such as sawdust, snow or humus
* Slatted bucket for handling loose rock or wood
* Ejector bucket, with a back wall that moves forward to completely clear the bucket as it unloads
* Demolition (clamp or "thumb") bucket. Resembling a clam shell, this bucket has an
independently-controlled upper jaw, as shown in Figure 14-4.
Loader bucket payload is measured in loose cubic yards of heaped capacity. That's the struck volume
plus volume above the strike-off plane assuming a 2:1 angle of repose. You also need to account for the
bucket fill (or efficiency) factor, which is simply a percentage adjustment applied to a bucket's rated
heaped capacity. Fill factors vary depending on soil type, bucket penetration, breakout force, rollback
angle, bucket profile, bucket accessories, engine power, traction, and operator skill. I've included a set
of approximate bucket fill factors for loaders in Figure 14-5. Remember, to calculate bucket payload,
multiply the heaped volume in loose cubic yards by the appropriate bucket fill factor.
Never exceed a loader's lifting capacity. For a wheel loader, that means you can't exceed 50 percent of
the full-turn static tipping load. For a track loader, the operating load shouldn't exceed 35 percent of the
static tipping load. Static tipping load is the minimum weight at the center of gravity of the load in the
bucket which will lift the rear of the machine. Track loaders are considered lifted when the rear rollers
are clear of the track. Wheel loaders become lifted when the rear wheels are clear of the ground while
the machine is in its fully-articulated position. Counterweights or other rear end attachments can
increase a loader's tipping load. Adding water or a calcium chloride solution ballast to the tires
(hydroflating) has the same effect.
Keep in mind that traveling downhill shifts more weight to the front of the loader and increases the
chances for the machine to tip forward. Avoid loading a truck on a side slope or with a downhill
approach. When transporting a load, always position the bucket as low as possible.
Loader Productivity
To calculate ideal loader productivity, multiply the number of cycles-per-hour by the bucket payload.
Recall from earlier in this chapter that bucket payload equals its heaped volume times bucket fill factor.
To account for delays, equipment failure, small dump targets, obstacles, and other adverse conditions,
multiply ideal loader productivity by an efficiency factor, as discussed in Chapter 12.
Wheel Loader Cycle Time

To calculate total cycle time for wheel loaders, you need to take basic cycle time, cycle time correction
factors, and travel time into account. Basic cycle time includes time required for loading, dumping, four
reversals of direction, turning and a 15-foot haul/return distance while at full throttle with an experienced
operator. Basic cycle time depends mainly on loader size. Figure 14-6 shows basic cycle time
estimates for articulated loaders, as they load trucks under normal conditions.
The basic cycle time estimates are in minutes. To convert fractions of a minute into seconds, multiply
the decimals in the cycle time column by 60. To convert fractions of a minute into hours, divide the
cycle time by 60.
Based on the estimates in Figure 14-6, you can see that loader basic cycle times don't vary much from
one size loader to another. That's why it makes sense to use the largest loader available within a given
cycle-time range. The hauling units then become the limiting factor. Trucks should have a capacity of at
least four times that of the loader bucket. Also, try to use trucks that hold a whole number of bucket
loads. Ideally, you want to maximize usage of all your machinery.
Material type, pile characteristics, and other miscellaneous factors affect loader production. To improve
basic cycle-time estimates, apply the cycle-time correction factors from Figure 14-7 to your basic
cycle-time estimate to determine the "corrected" basic cycle time.
To ensure an even bucket load, both corners of the bucket should contact the pile simultaneously.
Placing the stockpile against an immovable structure (a back-up) will help with the loading. When
cleaning up a stockpile, pile size decreases as you load, so the amount of material going into the
bucket decreases too, until the final portion of material requires hand loading.
Truck-loading productivity increases if you approach stockpiles and trucks at a 90-degree rather an
oblique angle. Take care to load the truck evenly so it doesn't overturn while hauling the load. Because
of the loader's height and reach limitations, unless you push a portion of the pile across to the opposite
side, piles will be higher on the side of the truck bed from which it's being loaded. Rock or concrete
loading time can be reduced by spreading out the stockpile to keep it low, and making sure the
demolished pieces are relatively small. Keeping the pile low reduces the chance of concrete becoming
entangled with other debris. There can be rebar protruding from the pile, along with other rubble that can
obstruct loading. Conversely, smaller pieces are less likely to get tangled with other debris in the pile.
When your loader is used to haul material a significant distance, use the equipment manufacturer's
travel time charts for travel time estimates. Keep in mind that maneuvering, loading and dump times
must be added to the travel time for an accurate total cycle time. You can minimize travel time and
spillage by keeping the travel surface smooth. Loaders can actually perform their own travel-surface
maintenance. Lower the bucket to the surface to cut high spots on a forward pass, and fill low areas by
back-dragging, as shown in Figure 14-8.
While I'm on the subject, I should mention that back-dragging is useful for finish-grading and spreading
fill, too. By partially loading the bucket, you add enough weight to facilitate back-dragging. But
remember, if your loader is rear-wheel drive, you'll lose a bit of traction, since a loaded bucket transfers
weight to the front of the machine.
Before moving on to the track loader and its productivity, we'll work through a sample wheel loader
productivity problem. Let's say you're anticipating a 50-minute-hour efficiency rate with a 3 LCY loader
bucket, working with 3/8-inch gravel piled to 8 feet. For our example, the hauling trucks are small
targets, independently-owned, in constant operation, and the loader travel distance is 400 feet each
way.
The first step is to calculate the loader's cycle time. Using the data from Figure 14-6, the basic cycle
time for this loader size is roughly 0.50 minute. Using that as a starting point, you can add the
appropriate correction factors: material and size (-0.02), pile height (+0.01), independently-owned trucks
(+0.04), constant operation (-0.04) and small targets (+0.04). All the correction factors combined equal
a positive 0.03 minute, resulting in a corrected cycle time of 0.53 (0.50 + 0.03) minute.
Next, calculate the round-trip travel time per cycle, using the manufacturer's travel time chart. It
indicates 0.38 minute per 400-foot haul distance. Since a round trip is two 400-foot hauls, we're looking
at 0.76 (2 x 0.38) minute. Adding the travel time to the corrected cycle time, the total time equals 1.29
(0.53 + 0.76) minutes. At 100 percent efficiency (60-minute hours), that would be 47 (60 / 1.29) cycles
per hour. But with a 50-minute hour, that's reduced to 39 cycles.
All that's left now is to find the bucket payload. Referring back to Figure 14-5, you'll see that 3/8-inch
loose material roughly corresponds to a 95 percent fill factor. That means your bucket, rated at 3 LCY,
has a 2.85 (3 x 0.95) LCY payload. A 2.85 LCY payload at 39 cycles-per-hour results in 111 (2.85 x 39)
LCY per hour productivity rate.
Soil State Cubic Yard Conversions

Some equipment manufacturers express wheel loader production rates in terms of BCY (bank cubic
yards) per hour, as shown in Figure 14-9. However, since a loader normally excavates loose material,
you should use swell or shrinkage factors to convert the production rate to loose cubic yards. The loader
just discussed had a 2.85 LCY bucket payload. Excluding travel time, the cycle time would have been
0.53 minute, and assuming a 15 percent swell, it had a 2.48 (2.85 / 1.15) BCY payload. Looking at
Figure 14-9, those figures correspond to a production rate somewhere between 272 and 300 BCY per
hour. At this point, you could convert that bank figure back to loose units by multiplying it by 1.15.
Track Loader Productivity
Calculating track loader productivity isn't much different from that of wheel loaders, except you use four
cycle-time components rather than cycle correction factors. These components are maneuver time,
dump time, travel time and load time.
Maneuver time averages 0.20 minute and includes time required for four reversals in direction, turning,
and minimum travel while at full throttle with an experienced operator. Dump time varies from 0.02 to
0.10 minute, depending on the size and strength of the dump target. When dumping into trucks, the
typical dump time will be in the 0.04- to 0.07-minute range. If hauling is required, you can determine
travel time from a travel time chart, as discussed in Chapter 13. Travel time charts for track loaders don't
include total resistance, as they do for wheel loaders. Track loader load time is generally dependent on
the type of material being loaded. Figure 14-10 gives load time estimates for several types of material.
Excluding travel time, the average basic cycle time for a track loader usually ranges from 0.25 to 0.35
minute.
As I described in the context of wheel loaders, some track loader equipment manufacturers express
production rates in terms of bank cubic yards-per-hour. Again, since a loader normally excavates loose
material, you should use swell or shrinkage factors to convert the production rate to loose cubic yards.
Miniature (Skid-Steer) Loaders
Many earthwork machines have a miniature counterpart. Miniature skid-steer loaders, like the one in
Figure 14-11, are extremely versatile and can turn in their own footprint, making them useful for working
in confined spaces. The tradeoff with miniature machines is that they have relatively little power and
traction, and aren't as rugged as their larger counterparts. Generally speaking, miniature machines
should be limited to excavating and hauling loose material.
Up until this point in the book, the subject of trucks has come up quite often. But I was just warming up.
Chapter 15 is exclusively dedicated to hauling units.
Loader equipped with a 60 horsepower engine and a .78 struck CY bucket moving loose loam or
sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing, forward to dump the
load, reversing and returning forward for another load, so travel distance is negligible. The equipment
rental cost is $2,700 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel,
fluids and lubricants. Costs do not include transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or the
setup costs.
Site Grading
.78 CY bucket
Favorable conditions, 95 LCY/hr OE@.011 LCY 0.05 0.47 0.16 0.68
Average conditions, 85 LCY/hr OE@.012 LCY 0.07 0.51 0.18 0.76
Unfavorable conditions, 76 LCY/hr OE@.013 LCY 0.12 0.55 0.20 0.87
Loader equipped with an 81 horsepower engine and a 1.08 struck CY bucket moving loose loam
or sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing, forward to dump the
setup costs.
1.08 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 129 horsepower engine and a 2 or 2.2 struck CY bucket moving loose
loam or sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing, forward to
dump the load, reversing and returning forward for another load, so travel distance is negligible. The
equipment rental cost is $4,510 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost
of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Costs do not include transporting the excavator to and from the job site, or
the setup costs.
2 CY bucket
2.2 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 143 horsepower engine and a 2.25 or 2.5 struck CY bucket moving loose
the setup costs.
2.25 CY bucket
2.5 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 160 horsepower engine and a 2.67, 2.76 or 3.15 struck CY bucket
moving loose loam or sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing,
forward to dump the load, reversing and returning forward for another load, so travel distance is
negligible. The equipment rental cost is $5,330 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices
include the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Costs do not include transporting the excavator to and
2.67 CY bucket
2.76 CY bucket
3.15 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 183 horsepower engine and a 3.2 or 3.46 struck CY bucket moving loose
the setup costs.
3.2 CY bucket
3.46 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 204 horsepower engine and a 3.69 struck CY bucket moving loose loam
or sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing, forward to dump the
setup costs.
3.69 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 246 horsepower engine and a 3.85, 4.04, 4.25 or 4.46 struck CY bucket
3.85 CY bucket
4.04 CY bucket
4.25 CY bucket
4.46 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 280 horsepower engine and a 4.7, 4.94 or 5.14 struck CY bucket moving
loose loam or sandy clay working a 50-minute hour. Each cycle consists of loading, reversing, forward
to dump the load, reversing and returning forward for another load, so travel distance is negligible. The
equipment rental cost is $10,600 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Costs do not include transporting the excavator to and from the job
4.7 CY bucket
4.94 CY bucket
5.14 CY bucket
Loader equipped with a 311 horsepower engine and a 6.12, 6.34, 6.44, or 7.06 struck CY bucket
6.12 CY bucket
6.34 CY bucket
6.44 CY bucket
7.06 CY bucket
15
Trucks and Wagons
Trucks (hauling units) and scrapers are able to move excavated materials over moderate to long
distances. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. Trucks can haul almost any excavated
material, and are best suited to carry heavy payloads at higher speeds over longer distances. Most
trucks can be driven to a job site, whereas scrapers need to be hauled on a trailer. I'll focus on trucks
and their wagons (trailers) in this chapter, and discuss scrapers in more detail later in the book.
Truck and Wagon Varieties
Trucks come in a wide variety of sizes and designs, for highway or off-highway use. Most trucks fall into
a category of two-, four-, or six-wheel-drive with one, two or three rear axles powered by gasoline, diesel,
butane or propane engines. There are a number of dump styles within each truck category, but
rear-dump mechanisms are the most common. Figure 15-1 shows an articulated rear dump truck.
Articulated trucks are most productive when the haul distance is between 575 feet and 2 miles.
Standard rear-dump trucks' max-imum productivity range is up to 6 miles. Wagons are best suited when
the haul distance is between 4,900 feet and 7 miles. These haul distances are referred to as economic
application zones. The economic application zone varies, depending on surface conditions, grades,
material type, operator skill and the size and type of truck.
Not all truck bodies are appropriate for every soil type. Wet, cohesive soil such as clay will stick to any
sharp angles or corners. However, dry, non-cohesive materials will flow freely from any truck body. If
rocks need to be transported, you'll need a shallow truck body equipped with sloping sideboards.
A wagon is designed to haul excavated material, and can have any one of a variety of dumping
mechanisms. It's taken on and off site by a tractor. Figure 15-2 shows a dual dump wagon setup.
Payloads
Payload is defined as the load a vehicle can carry, exclusive of vehicle weight. Payload can be
expressed in terms of weight, struck volume or heaped volume. Regardless of the volume capacity, you
should never exceed the rated weight capacity. That only increases fuel consumption and maintenance
costs, while reducing tire life. Translate that into time and production lost while repairing and maintaining
the vehicle unnecessarily, and you see what I mean.
A truck's struck capacity is the volume of material that can be filled to the top of the sides of the rear
body. The struck capacity remains constant for any given truck or wagon. Struck capacity is the
appropriate payload rating to use when hauling fluid materials such as concrete, or when there's a limit
on the amount of spillage allowed. Heaped capacity varies, depending on the height the soil extends
above the sides of the rear body. Using sideboards to extend the effective height of the body walls
increases heaped capacity, provided you don't exceed the truck's weight limitations. Heaped capacity is
normally based on a 26.5-degree angle of repose, or a 2:1 slope (run:rise). Figure 15-3 gives the angle of
repose ranges for common materials. Under normal conditions, the angle of repose for most soils
ranges from 20 to 45 degrees.
Excavator and Hauling Unit Production Rates
Dump truck payloads are usually expressed in terms of loose cubic yards (LCY), because the soil is
considered to be in a disturbed condition by the time it's dropped into the truck body. But the equipment
loading the truck (draglines, backhoes, shovels, clamshells) is usually rated in bank cubic yard (BCY)
payload. Since production rate depends on both excavator and truck loads, we need to find a production
rate they have in common. The easiest way is to translate the truck payload into bank cubic yards.
Let's say you're using a 2 BCY power shovel to fill a 14 LCY dump truck. To convert from LCY to BCY,
you need to know the swell rate for the type of soil you're moving. For a detailed discussion of swell and
shrinkage, refer back to Chapter 7. But for the sake of this example, we'll use a 30 percent swell rate.
That means 1.3 LCY equals 1.0 BCY, so we'll divide 14 LCY by 1.3 to get the BCY equivalent, which is
10.8. With a 10.8 BCY truck and a 2 BCY shovel, we'll need 5.4 (10.8 / 2) cycles to fill the truck. Since
we don't use fractions of a cycle, we'll round up to 6 cycles for this operation.
Another important consideration regarding trucks is how many hauling units are needed to properly
service the shovel. For starters, try to have at least one or two standby units available to replace hauling
units that break down. If rented equipment isn't readily available, a rule of thumb is to have one standby
unit for every five hauling units in operation.
To calculate the actual truck requirement for a given excavator, divide haul unit cycle time by the load
time. Haul unit cycle time is the combined time it takes to load, turn, dump, spot and travel.
Since load time is a component of both the numerator (top) and denominator (bottom) of the truck
requirement division problem, I'll break it down into simpler terms. Load time depends on truck capacity,
bucket capacity and the excavator cycle time. There are two ways to calculate load time. Divide truck
capacity by bucket capacity, and multiply the outcome by excavator cycle time. Or divide haul unit
capacity by the excavator production rate at 100 percent efficiency (See Sidebar). The method you
choose will depend on what information is available to you. For example, if you're using a 350
BCY-per-hour power shovel to load a 20 LCY truck with soil that swells 25 percent, you'd use the
second method.
Convert the 20 LCY payload into its BCY equivalent. That's 16 (20 / 1.25) in this case. Once you have
the payload in terms of BCY (16), divide it by the excavator productivity (350 BCY/Hr.), which equals a
0.046-hour (2.76-minute) load time.
You can reduce load time by reducing the excavator swing angle. That means putting trucks close to
the excavation, in front of the excavator. There'll be times when soil conditions won't allow for optimal
truck placement. Weak soil may cave in if trucks are spotted too close to an excavation. Incidentally,
load time can also depend on whether the trucks are owned or leased. Company-owned equipment is
an investment, and generally treated with care. Leased trucks are often abused by overloading,
exceeding recommended bucket heights or other careless acts. Any of these factors can affect load
time.
Now that you're familiar with load time, I'll get back to how we determine the number of haul units for a
job. Let's say the 20 LCY truck from the previous example has a 0.5-hour haul unit cycle time. Since
you know it also has a 0.046-hour load time, you just divide 0.5 by 0.046 to obtain the truck fleet
requirement. That comes to 10.9. Rounding up, you'll need 11 trucks.
Turning and Dump Time

Turning and dump time involves maneuvering and off-loading at the dump site. Dump time varies,
depending on the hauling unit, soil conditions, total resistance, traction, operator skill, turning room, and
traffic at the fill. Some contractors allow trucks to drive over previously-dumped soil to help compact it.
This may increase dump time, but reduce compaction time. You can also minimize dump time by giving
trucks the right-of-way and providing adequate grader and compactor support to keep the fill smooth and
compacted. In the absence of field timing tests and previous job data, you can use the estimates in
Figure 15-4.
Spot Time
Spot, another component of haul unit cycle time, is the time required for a hauling unit to maneuver and
get into proper position at the loading area. Spot time depends on the type of hauling unit, operator skill,
total resistance, traffic at the loading site, turnaround room, and whether the trucks have a "straight
shot" through the site, or have to back up to be loaded. When trucks need to back into the loading
zone, spot time can be reduced by installing spotting bumpers to help the driver position the truck.
Positioning trucks on each side of the excavator enables one truck to be loaded while another is being
spotted. That improves productivity. It helps to have a spotting supervisor directing traffic at the loading
zone. In the absence of field timing tests and previous job data, you can use the estimates in Figure
15-5.
Travel Time
Travel time depends primarily on truck size, engine power, payload, total resistance and round-trip
distance. Equipment manufacturers' travel time charts provide approximate vehicle travel times for
various distances, taking into account vehicle acceleration and deceleration at the loading and dumping
areas. Refer back to Chapter 13 for more information on vehicle performance, and to see a sample travel
chart.
Drivers' skill, varying grades and road surface conditions along the haul road are also factors affecting
travel time. Rain and blowing dust can affect visibility, thus slowing production. Trucks need to slow
down for curves, not only for safety, but to preserve tire life. This is especially true in hot weather. Truck
traffic on narrow roads can bottleneck, particularly when graders, dozers and water trucks are
maintaining the haul road. One slow truck can have an effect on overall fleet production, when passing
becomes dangerous or impossible. Also, travel time in "civilian" areas is difficult to predict.
Truck Size
You'll minimize load time by using appropriately-sized haul units. Shovels require trucks with at least
four times their bucket capacity, while draglines should be paired with trucks that have at least five
times their bucket capacity. It also helps productivity to use trucks that hold a whole number of bucket
loads. Otherwise, one of the dipper cycles will be just partially loaded.
The best way to optimize an excavator and haul unit system and more precisely determine your
minimum fleet cost is to do a cost performance study. When deciding on truck size, take into
consideration the features each unit offers. Small trucks have the following advantages over large trucks:
* Greater maneuverability and speed

* Fewer travel restrictions
* Can travel through "civilian" areas
* Less productivity-loss when a single truck breaks down
* Easier to "fine-tune" the balance of truck output with excavator output
* Reduced loading time
* Less potential damage to the haul road
* Greater repair part availability
* On the other hand, large trucks have a few advantages of their own, including:
* Larger targets for the excavator, which means easier loading
* Overall reduction in the number of trucks and drivers for a given job
* Reduced spotting time, since fewer trucks are required
* Reduced likelihood of trucks "bunching up" at any given location

* Reduction in the number of repair parts that need to be stocked
* Reduced fuel cost, since large trucks usually burn cheaper fuels
I hope this chapter taught you a thing or two about hauling units, and making best use of their ability to
carry large payloads efficiently over long distances. In the next chapter, I'll focus on dozers, which are
on the other end of the haul distance spectrum.
Articulated truck equipped with a 280 horsepower engine and a 19 LCY bed working a 50-minute
hour under the given job conditions. Travel time is based on traveling over a flat surface. Spot time is 0.3
minutes and turning & dump time is 1.3 minutes, but no loading time is considered, since this depends
on the machine loading the truck and the digging and maneuvering environment of that machine. The
of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the truck to and from the job
Flat asphalt or maintained hard dirt road with no tire penetration or flexing
1,000' travel distance (one way),
310 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.18 0.32
230 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.07 0.12 0.25 0.44
183 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.10 0.16 0.33 0.59
152 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.12 0.22 0.40 0.74
130 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.13 0.25 0.46 0.84
113 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.15 0.28 0.52 0.95
101 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.17 0.31 0.58 1.06
90 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.21 0.34 0.65 1.20
82 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.22 0.37 0.72 1.31
75 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.25 0.40 0.78 1.44
Asphalt or hard dirt road with 2% actual grade, or flat dirt road with 1" tire penetration
288 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.19 0.33
206 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.10 0.12 0.30 0.53
161 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.12 0.19 0.38 0.69
132 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.13 0.25 0.45 0.83
112 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.17 0.28 0.53 0.98
97 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.20 0.31 0.60 1.11
86 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.21 0.37 0.69 1.27
77 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.22 0.40 0.76 1.39
69 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.27 0.43 0.87 1.58
63 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.28 0.50 0.94 1.72
262 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.12 0.12 0.21 0.46
181 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.15 0.19 0.34 0.68

138 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.21 0.22 0.43 0.86
112 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.25 0.28 0.53 1.06
94 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.30 0.34 0.62 1.26
81 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.35 0.37 0.73 1.46
71 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.40 0.43 0.84 1.68
63 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.46 0.50 0.94 1.90
57 BCY/hr TR@.018 BCY 0.51 0.56 1.04 2.10
52 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 0.55 0.59 1.14 2.27
235 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.50
157 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.17 0.19 0.38 0.74
117 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.25 0.28 0.51 1.04
94 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.30 0.34 0.62 1.26
78 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.36 0.40 0.75 1.52
67 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.42 0.47 0.89 1.78
59 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.47 0.53 1.00 2.00
52 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 0.55 0.59 1.14 2.27
47 BCY/hr TR@.021 BCY 0.61 0.65 1.25 2.51
43 BCY/hr TR@.023 BCY 0.66 0.71 1.38 2.75
Asphalt or hard dirt road with 8% actual grade, flat road with 6" tire penetration or flat loose sand or
gravel road
215 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.20 0.16 0.29 0.65
139 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.28 0.22 0.43 0.93
103 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.40 0.31 0.57 1.28
81 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.51 0.37 0.73 1.61
67 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.61 0.47 0.89 1.96
58 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.71 0.53 1.02 2.25
50 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 0.81 0.62 1.18 2.61
44 BCY/hr TR@.023 BCY 0.93 0.71 1.36 3.00
40 BCY/hr TR@.025 BCY 1.03 0.78 1.48 3.29
36 BCY/hr TR@.028 BCY 1.14 0.87 1.65 3.66
185 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.22 0.16 0.33 0.71
115 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.36 0.28 0.51 1.15
83 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.51 0.37 0.71 1.59
65 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.63 0.47 0.92 2.01
54 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 0.76 0.59 1.09 2.44
46 BCY/hr TR@.022 BCY 0.89 0.68 1.28 2.85
40 BCY/hr TR@.025 BCY 1.03 0.78 1.48 3.29
35 BCY/hr TR@.029 BCY 1.18 0.90 1.69 3.77
32 BCY/hr TR@.031 BCY 1.27 0.96 1.85 4.08
29 BCY/hr TR@.034 BCY 1.40 1.05 2.05 4.51
Asphalt or hard dirt road with 14% actual grade, or flat muddy road, 12" tire penetration
170 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.25 0.19 0.36 0.80
103 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.40 0.31 0.57 1.28
74 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.55 0.43 0.80 1.78
58 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.71 0.53 1.02 2.25
48 BCY/hr TR@.021 BCY 0.86 0.65 1.23 2.74
40 BCY/hr TR@.025 BCY 1.03 0.78 1.48 3.29

35 BCY/hr TR@.029 BCY 1.18 0.90 1.69 3.77
31 BCY/hr TR@.032 BCY 1.31 0.99 1.92 4.23
28 BCY/hr TR@.036 BCY 1.46 1.12 2.12 4.70
25 BCY/hr TR@.040 BCY 1.64 1.24 2.37 5.25
minute and turning & dump time is 1.3 minutes, but no loading time is considered, since this depends
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the truck to and from the
358 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.20 0.34
267 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.07 0.12 0.30 0.49
211 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.10 0.16 0.38 0.64
176 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.12 0.19 0.45 0.76
150 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.13 0.22 0.52 0.87
131 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.15 0.25 0.59 0.99
116 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.17 0.28 0.66 1.11
105 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.20 0.31 0.74 1.25
95 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.21 0.34 0.83 1.38
87 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.22 0.37 0.90 1.49
333 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.23 0.37
239 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.07 0.12 0.34 0.53
186 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.12 0.16 0.42 0.70
153 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.13 0.22 0.51 0.86
130 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.15 0.25 0.59 0.99
112 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.17 0.28 0.69 1.14
99 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.21 0.31 0.78 1.30
89 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.22 0.34 0.88 1.44
80 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.25 0.40 0.98 1.64
73 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.27 0.43 1.06 1.77
304 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.10 0.09 0.25 0.44
210 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.15 0.16 0.38 0.69
161 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.20 0.19 0.49 0.88
130 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.22 0.25 0.59 1.06
109 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.28 0.28 0.71 1.27
94 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.32 0.34 0.84 1.50
83 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.38 0.37 0.94 1.70
74 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.42 0.43 1.05 1.91
67 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.46 0.47 1.16 2.09
61 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.51 0.50 1.27 2.27
273 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.12 0.12 0.30 0.55
181 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.17 0.19 0.43 0.79
136 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.22 0.22 0.57 1.01
109 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.28 0.28 0.71 1.27
90 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.35 0.34 0.87 1.56
77 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.40 0.40 1.01 1.82
68 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.46 0.47 1.15 2.08

60 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.51 0.53 1.29 2.32
54 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 0.57 0.59 1.45 2.60
49 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 0.63 0.62 1.60 2.85
gravel road
242 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.20 0.12 0.33 0.66
155 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.28 0.19 0.50 0.97
114 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.40 0.28 0.68 1.36
90 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.51 0.34 0.87 1.72
75 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.58 0.40 1.04 2.02
64 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.71 0.50 1.22 2.42
55 BCY/hr TR@.018 BCY 0.81 0.56 1.42 2.79
49 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 0.91 0.62 1.60 3.13
44 BCY/hr TR@.023 BCY 1.01 0.71 1.77 3.49
40 BCY/hr TR@.025 BCY 1.12 0.78 1.95 3.85
208 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.21 0.16 0.38 0.75
128 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.35 0.25 0.60 1.20
93 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.47 0.34 0.85 1.67
72 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.63 0.43 1.08 2.14
60 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.73 0.53 1.29 2.54

51 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 0.88 0.62 1.53 3.03
44 BCY/hr TR@.023 BCY 1.01 0.71 1.77 3.49
39 BCY/hr TR@.026 BCY 1.14 0.81 2.01 3.96
35 BCY/hr TR@.029 BCY 1.27 0.90 2.22 4.39
32 BCY/hr TR@.031 BCY 1.39 0.96 2.44 4.79
188 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.22 0.16 0.42 0.80
113 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.40 0.28 0.69 1.37
81 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.55 0.37 0.96 1.88
63 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.71 0.50 1.23 2.43
52 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 0.86 0.59 1.50 2.95
44 BCY/hr TR@.023 BCY 1.01 0.71 1.77 3.49
38 BCY/hr TR@.026 BCY 1.18 0.81 2.06 4.05
34 BCY/hr TR@.029 BCY 1.31 0.90 2.29 4.50
30 BCY/hr TR@.033 BCY 1.48 1.02 2.60 5.11
27 BCY/hr TR@.037 BCY 1.64 1.15 2.88 5.66
minute and turning & dump time is 1.3 minutes, but no loading time is considered, since this depends
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the truck to and from the
502 BCY/hr TR@.002 BCY 0.04 0.06 0.16 0.26
366 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.21 0.35
288 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.30 0.46
237 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.10 0.12 0.36 0.59
202 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.12 0.16 0.42 0.70
175 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.13 0.19 0.48 0.80
155 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.15 0.19 0.54 0.88
139 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.17 0.22 0.59 0.98

126 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.20 0.25 0.65 1.10
115 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.21 0.28 0.72 1.21
474 BCY/hr TR@.002 BCY 0.05 0.06 0.17 0.28
336 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.24 0.40
261 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.10 0.12 0.33 0.56
213 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.12 0.16 0.40 0.68
180 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.13 0.19 0.47 0.79
156 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.15 0.19 0.53 0.87
138 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.17 0.22 0.60 0.99
123 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.20 0.25 0.68 1.13
111 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.21 0.28 0.75 1.24
102 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.22 0.31 0.83 1.36
429 BCY/hr TR@.002 BCY 0.10 0.06 0.18 0.34
294 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.30 0.52
223 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.17 0.12 0.38 0.68
180 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.21 0.19 0.47 0.87
151 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.25 0.22 0.55 1.02

130 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.28 0.25 0.63 1.16
114 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.32 0.28 0.73 1.33
102 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.36 0.31 0.83 1.50
92 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.40 0.34 0.91 1.66
83 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.43 0.37 1.00 1.81
372 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.10 0.09 0.21 0.40
242 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.15 0.12 0.35 0.63
180 BCY/hr TR@.006 BCY 0.21 0.19 0.47 0.87
143 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.27 0.22 0.58 1.07
119 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.30 0.25 0.70 1.25
101 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.36 0.31 0.84 1.51
89 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.42 0.34 0.94 1.71
79 BCY/hr TR@.013 BCY 0.47 0.40 1.05 1.93
71 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.51 0.43 1.17 2.11
64 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.57 0.50 1.31 2.37
gravel road
332 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.15 0.09 0.25 0.49
210 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.25 0.16 0.40 0.81
153 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.35 0.22 0.54 1.11
121 BCY/hr TR@.008 BCY 0.43 0.25 0.69 1.37
100 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.53 0.31 0.84 1.68
85 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.63 0.37 0.98 1.98
74 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.72 0.43 1.13 2.28
65 BCY/hr TR@.015 BCY 0.81 0.47 1.28 2.55
58 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.91 0.53 1.44 2.88
53 BCY/hr TR@.019 BCY 1.01 0.59 1.58 3.18
302 BCY/hr TR@.003 BCY 0.17 0.09 0.29 0.55

186 BCY/hr TR@.005 BCY 0.28 0.16 0.45 0.89
134 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.40 0.22 0.62 1.24
105 BCY/hr TR@.010 BCY 0.51 0.31 0.80 1.62
87 BCY/hr TR@.011 BCY 0.61 0.34 0.96 1.91
73 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.72 0.43 1.14 2.29
64 BCY/hr TR@.016 BCY 0.83 0.50 1.31 2.63
56 BCY/hr TR@.018 BCY 0.95 0.56 1.49 3.00
51 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 1.04 0.62 1.64 3.30
46 BCY/hr TR@.022 BCY 1.15 0.68 1.80 3.63
256 BCY/hr TR@.004 BCY 0.21 0.12 0.34 0.68
153 BCY/hr TR@.007 BCY 0.35 0.22 0.54 1.11
109 BCY/hr TR@.009 BCY 0.51 0.28 0.76 1.54
84 BCY/hr TR@.012 BCY 0.63 0.37 0.99 1.99
69 BCY/hr TR@.014 BCY 0.78 0.43 1.21 2.42
58 BCY/hr TR@.017 BCY 0.91 0.53 1.44 2.88
51 BCY/hr TR@.020 BCY 1.04 0.62 1.64 3.30
45 BCY/hr TR@.022 BCY 1.18 0.68 1.85 3.71
40 BCY/hr TR@.025 BCY 1.33 0.78 2.09 4.20
36 BCY/hr TR@.028 BCY 1.48 0.87 2.31 4.66
16
Tractors and
Bulldozers
Tractors are probably the most versatile and widely-used equipment in the earthmoving industry. They
can doze, compact, move logs, clear land, tow, scrape, and scarify (cultivate), among other jobs.
Tractors come with wheels (rubber tires), crawler tracks, or a combination of the two, like the one
pictured in Figure 16-1. Wheel-mounted tractors can travel faster than crawler tractors, and are better for
projects that require extensive travel throughout the job site. Tires need a firm travel surface, so they
aren't recommended when the surface is wet or rocky. If you must work in this type of environment,
protective mesh chains can help extend the life of your tires.
Crawler tractors have a larger ground contact area than wheel-mounted tractors, so they exert less
pressure per-square-inch (ground pressure) on the working surface. Crawler tractors can operate on side
slopes with 100 percent grade, so they're the best choice for projects requiring good traction, or where
the working surface is considered too abrasive for rubber tires. The drawback to crawlers is that they
aren't permitted to drive on paved roads, and generally need to be transported by trailer.
Dozers
A bulldozer, or dozer for short, is a tractor equipped with a front-mounted pusher blade that can be
raised and lowered. A dozer blade is a cutting edge (or knife) mounted to the bottom of a concave
moldboard. The cutting edge consists of a long center piece, with two corners mounted at the ends of
the blade. Many dozer blade styles are available, and I'll discuss several of them in more detail a little
later in this chapter. The size and type of blade to use depends on the type of material to be moved, and
the power and traction limitations of the tractor. Machine information, including dimensions, maximum
digging depth, blade tilt and pitch are normally published with the manufacturer's specifications.
As a general rule, wheel and track dozers are most effective when the haul distance is less than 500
feet. This range of dozer operation is referred to as the economic application zone, or power zone. The
economic application zone is dependent on underfoot conditions, grades, material type, operator skill
and the size and type of dozer. A track dozer is advantageous on short hauls over soft or muddy
ground, and a wheel dozer is generally more effective on long hauls over firm ground.
Dozing Techniques
As a dozer makes its first pass over the ground, most of the soil will spill to the sides of the blade. This
forms what's called a windrow (a longitudinal soil pile) on each side of the lane. As the dozer makes
subsequent passes over the lane, it forms a slot (or trench), reducing or preventing further side spillage.
This technique is called slot dozing. Additional slots, spaced at regular intervals, leave narrow uncut
sections between the slots which are eventually cut away. Slot dozing is considerably more efficient
than dozing without slots.
Blade-to-blade and side-by-side dozing are techniques that involve two dozers working adjacent to each
other. In the blade-to-blade method, two dozers are driven parallel to each other, with their blades
almost touching. The side-by-side method is similar, except that two mechanically-coupled dozers are
driven by a single operator. The side-by-side method is more efficient and less expensive because it
requires less maneuvering time, and you only need to pay one operator. When using either method, the
effective haul distance increases to roughly 1,000 feet, and production rates rise by at least 25 percent
over single-blade methods.
Dozer Blades
Push arms, normally moun-ted on the outside track frames, attach the dozer blade to the tractor. Pitch
arms run diagonally from the push arms to the top of the blade, and provide pitching (forward and
backward tipping) adjustments. Pitching the blade varies its angle against the ground, increasing or
decreasing blade penetration. Tipping the blade backward reduces penetration, so it's ideal for pushing
loose soil over a firm, level surface.
Dozers use cables or hoist rams to raise or lower the blade. These run from the top of the radiator guard
to the bottom of the blade. Two-way hydraulic hoist rams or adjustable pitch arms provide blade-tilting
capability, as shown in Figure 16-2. Tilting is useful for cutting ditches, penetrating soils with a hard
crust, crowning roads and prying out underground obstacles.
A dozer blade's potential performance is expressed as horsepower-per-foot of cutting edge, or

horsepower-per-LCY (loose cubic yard). The horsepower-per-foot rating indicates the ability to penetrate
material and obtain a full blade load. "Aggressive" blades will have higher horsepower-per-foot ratings.
The horsepower-per-LCY rating indicates the ability to push material, once the blade is loaded. A high
horsepower-per-LCY rating means the dozer can push loose material quickly.
Universal Blades
Universal ("U") blades have large wings on each end. These blades have a relatively low ratio of
horsepower-to-foot of cutting edge, so they aren't suited for moving heavy material or performing
high-penetration work. U-blades are best at moving large loads of easily-dozed materials over long
distances: projects such as land reclamation, stockpile work, coal handling, charging hoppers, and
trapping material for loaders.
Straight Blades
Straight ("S") blades are versatile and highly maneuverable. Although smaller than universal blades,
straight blades have a high horsepower-per-foot of cutting edge ratio, so they're aggressive when
penetrating and acquiring a blade load. Their high horsepower-to-LCY rating means straight blades can
move heavy materials with ease. Straight blades are best suited for dozing material over a short to
medium distance, and spreading materials in finish grading operations. Optional accessories include
push plates for pushing scrapers and tilt cylinders. Some S-blades are equipped with adjustable shanks
at each end, used to remove tree stumps or rip tough or frozen soil.
Semi-Universal Blades
The semi-universal ("SU") blade combines characteristics of both straight and universal blades. See
Figure 16-3. The SU-blade can penetrate and load materials quickly, and has short wings on each end
of the blade to help retain the load. The SU-blade can also be equipped with a tilt cylinder for better
versatility, or a push plate for pushing scrapers. Variable-radius SU-blades curve inward, helping move
the soil toward the center of the blade, thereby retaining the load with less side spillage.
Angle Blades
Angle ("A") blades can be manually or hydraulically angled as much as 25 degrees to either side of the
straight position. This adjustment is especially useful for sidecasting or windrowing. Other common
A-blade dozer applications include pioneering roads, backfilling, and cutting ditches.
Cushion Blades
Cushion ("C") blades are designed for push-loading scrapers. Equipped with rubber padding, this type of
blade minimizes impact with a scraper's push block. The C-blade can also be used for cleanup work
and other general dozing jobs. A fixed plate is sometimes used instead of a cushion blade. The fixed
plate is relatively inexpensive; however, it doesn't always maintain adequate contact with a scraper,
especially when the vehicles are moving over a rough travel surface.
Bowldozer Blades
A bowldozer blade, shown in Figure 16-4, is a bottomless high-capacity blade designed for moving
lightweight materials, like wood chips or coal. The side walls are reinforced by rigid cross beams,
adding strength to the blade.
Landfill Blades
Landfill blades, as the name implies, are designed to handle refuse. The top of the blade has an open
trash screen which provides good visibility for the operator, while still protecting the radiator.
Stinger Blades
A stinger blade is a tree-cutting angle blade with a specialized projection extending from the leading
edge. See Figure 16-5. The stinger cuts horizontal tree roots below grade, as the dozer circles the tree.
This type of blade is best-suited for removing tree stumps, piling vegetation, and cutting drainage
ditches. Since it's angled, the stinger blade is also useful for windrow piling.
V-Blades
V-blades consist of two angled cutting blades with a stinger projecting from the leading center edge of
the blade. This blade shears trees and brush at ground level, and casts the debris to each side.
V-blades are generally superior to stinger blades when it comes to splitting and removing tree stumps.
V-blades also cause less wear and tear on the tractor compared to the stinger blade, and require less
operator experience to maneuver the machine satisfactorily.
Rake Blades
A rake blade, like the one in Figure 16-6, is designed to do cleanup work behind stinger and V-blades.
Granular material, like sand and gravel, flows between the tines, leaving just the trees, rocks, roots,
brush and small stumps that need to be transported from the site.
Blade Capacity
Blade capacity depends on the size and type of blade, as well as the grade and the direction of dozing.
Blade capacity increases by about 5 percent for each percent grade while dozing downslope, with
maximum blade capacity occurring at about 20 to 25 percent favorable grade.
Dozer Productivity
Dozer performance depends on soil state, particle size and shape, water content, and temperature.
Well-graded soil or dry soil in the bank state will be dense, making it difficult to move. High moisture
content increases the soil weight, also making it difficult to move. If dry soil freezes, it won't be any
more difficult to move than if it weren't frozen. But if wet soil freezes, you can bet it'll be tougher to move.
A dozer's weight and horsepower are the main determinants of its ability to doze. The machine can't
exert more pounds of push than its engine can develop. Also, for any given travel surface, traction is
limited by the machine's weight. For more discussion on general vehicle performance, refer back to
Chapter 13.
Dozer production rates rely mainly on blade capacity and total cycle time. For our purposes here, total
cycle time includes dozing and return time. To calculate dozing and return (travel) times, you need to
know the machine's approximate speed in both (forward and return) directions. Figure 16-7 shows travel
speeds for a Caterpillar D9R dozer, which we'll use now to do some sample calculations.
To calculate the dozer's one-way travel time, first multiply 88 (the number of feet traveled in 1 minute, at
1 mph) by the average travel speed (in mph). Then divide the travel distance, in feet, by that number. For
example, a 100-foot forward (dozing) distance in first gear at 2.4 mph yields a 0.47-minute (100 / 211.2)
travel time. Returning at the maximum speed in third gear (9.1 mph) requires 0.125 minute. Adding the
forward and return travel times brings total cycle time to roughly 0.6 minute, or 0.01 (0.6 / 60) hour.
At this point in the calculation you could add spot and start load times to the cycle time, but for
simplicity's sake, I'll just stick with 0.01 hour as the cycle time. The next step toward calculating this
dozer's productivity rate is to divide its blade capacity by the cycle time. If blade capacity is 15.6 LCY,
then dividing it by 0.01 equals 1,560. All you need to do now is factor in job efficiency. Assuming a
50-minute hour, the efficiency factor is 0.83 (50 minutes / 60 minutes). By multiplying 1,560 by 0.83, we
get the probable hourly production rate of 1,295 LCY. If you need to refresh your memory on efficiency
factors, refer back to Chapter 12.
Dozer Production Curves

Another way to estimate dozer productivity is to use a production curve. Equipment manufacturers'
production curves, like the one from Caterpillar in Figure 16-8, are based on numerous field studies
conducted under simulated and actual job conditions. This set of curves represents ideal production
rates, in LCY-per-hour, for various Caterpillar dozers equipped with semi-universal blades.
Ideal production rates assume 100 percent efficiency, zero dump time, optimal traction, an experienced
operator, and several other criteria that aren't exactly realistic. To calculate probable dozer production
rates, you need to temper the ideal production rate with job condition correction factors.
Figure 16-9 contains job condition correction factor estimates. Let's say you're using a dozer with a 600
LCY-per-hour ideal production rate, but the operator isn't very experienced, the soil is sticky, and
visibility is low because of foggy conditions. To estimate actual production, you'd need to multiply ideal
production by 0.6, 0.8 and 0.8 to factor in the operator's lack of skill, soil state, and poor visibility,
respectively. That brings actual production down to 230 LCY-per-hour.
One other factor to consider is the percent grade. Obviously, productivity drops when you're fighting
gravity moving material uphill, and increases when moving downhill. I've included some percent grade
adjustment factors in Figure 16-10. To integrate the percent grade factors into your production rate
calculation, simply add the appropriate factor to the estimated actual production rate. For instance, in
the previous example, actual production came to 230 LCY-per-hour. To factor in a 10 percent downhill
grade, you'd multiply 230 by 1.22 (see Figure 16-10), for an adjusted production rate of 281
LCY-per-hour.
Now that we've made our way through tractors and bulldozers, we'll turn our attention to scrapers, in
Chapter 17.
Dozer equipped with a 70 horsepower engine and a 2 LCY angle blade with a 4" ground
penetration, working a 50-minute hour under the given job conditions. Travel time is based on loading in
first gear and pushing in 2nd gear. The dozer is using 2nd gear (reverse) for the return trip. The
of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the dozer to and from the job
Travel Distance
50' travel distance (one way)
Dry sand, gravel or common earth,
245 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.04 0.17 0.09 0.30
Wet sticky clay,
222 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.05 0.21 0.10 0.36
Ripped or blasted rock,
167 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.12 0.26 0.13 0.51
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.10 0.34 0.18 0.62
Wet sticky clay,
110 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.13 0.38 0.20 0.71
91 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.21 0.47 0.28 0.96
87 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.13 0.47 0.29 0.89
Wet sticky clay,
78 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.20 0.55 0.32 1.08
59 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.30 0.72 0.41 1.44
64 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.17 0.68 0.38 1.23
Wet sticky clay,
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.25 0.72 0.42 1.40
43 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.42 0.98 0.55 1.95
52 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.21 0.81 0.46 1.48
Wet sticky clay,
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 0.30 0.89 0.51 1.71
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 0.51 1.19 0.65 2.35
43 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.25 0.98 0.55 1.78
Wet sticky clay,
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.36 1.11 0.60 2.07
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 0.61 1.40 0.78 2.79
38 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.28 1.11 0.62 2.01
Wet sticky clay,
34 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 0.42 1.23 0.70 2.36

26 BCY/hr OE@.038 BCY 0.71 1.62 0.92 3.24
33 BCY/hr OE@.030 BCY 0.32 1.28 0.72 2.32
Wet sticky clay,
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 0.47 1.40 0.78 2.66
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 0.83 1.91 1.08 3.82
29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 0.38 1.45 0.83 2.66
Wet sticky clay,
26 BCY/hr OE@.038 BCY 0.55 1.62 0.92 3.08
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 0.91 2.13 1.19 4.23
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 0.40 1.57 0.89 2.87
Wet sticky clay,
24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 0.58 1.79 0.99 3.35
18 BCY/hr OE@.056 BCY 1.01 2.38 1.32 4.71
24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 0.46 1.79 0.99 3.24
Wet sticky clay,
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 0.65 1.91 1.08 3.64
16 BCY/hr OE@.063 BCY 1.14 2.68 1.49 5.31

22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 0.51 1.91 1.08 3.50
Wet sticky clay,
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 0.71 2.13 1.19 4.02
15 BCY/hr OE@.067 BCY 1.22 2.85 1.59 5.66
Dozer equipped with an 80 horsepower engine and a 2.4 LCY angle blade with a 4" ground
Travel Distance
294 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.04 0.13 0.09 0.26
Wet sticky clay,
266 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.05 0.17 0.10 0.32
200 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.10 0.21 0.13 0.44
147 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.07 0.30 0.17 0.54
Wet sticky clay,
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.12 0.34 0.19 0.65
109 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.20 0.38 0.24 0.83
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.12 0.43 0.28 0.83
Wet sticky clay,
94 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.17 0.47 0.30 0.94
70 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.30 0.60 0.40 1.30
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.17 0.55 0.36 1.08
Wet sticky clay,
70 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.22 0.60 0.40 1.22
52 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.40 0.81 0.52 1.73
63 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.20 0.68 0.44 1.32
Wet sticky clay,
57 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 0.28 0.77 0.48 1.53
43 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.47 0.98 0.62 2.07
52 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.25 0.81 0.52 1.58
Wet sticky clay,
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 0.35 0.89 0.57 1.82

36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 0.57 1.19 0.75 2.51
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.28 0.94 0.60 1.82
Wet sticky clay,
41 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 0.40 1.02 0.65 2.07
31 BCY/hr OE@.032 BCY 0.66 1.36 0.88 2.90
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.32 1.11 0.70 2.13
Wet sticky clay,
35 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 0.46 1.23 0.77 2.47
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 0.78 1.57 1.01 3.36
35 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 0.36 1.23 0.77 2.37
Wet sticky clay,
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 0.51 1.32 0.86 2.68
24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 0.88 1.79 1.14 3.80
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 0.40 1.32 0.86 2.58
Wet sticky clay,
29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 0.55 1.45 0.94 2.93
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 0.95 1.91 1.23 4.09

29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 0.43 1.45 0.94 2.82
Wet sticky clay,
26 BCY/hr OE@.038 BCY 0.63 1.62 1.04 3.28
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 1.04 2.13 1.37 4.54
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 0.46 1.57 1.01 3.05
Wet sticky clay,
24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 0.66 1.79 1.14 3.58
18 BCY/hr OE@.056 BCY 1.15 2.38 1.51 5.04
Dozer equipped with a 120 horsepower engine 3.4 LCY angle blade with a 4" ground penetration,
working a 50-minute hour under the given job conditions. Travel time is based on loading in first gear and
pushing in 2nd gear. The dozer is using 2nd gear (reverse) for the return trip. The equipment rental cost
is $5,540 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and
lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the dozer to and from the job site, or the setup
costs.
Travel Distance
416 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.21
Wet sticky clay,
376 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.05 0.13 0.08 0.26
283 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.12 0.17 0.11 0.40
227 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.07 0.17 0.14 0.38
Wet sticky clay,
206 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.12 0.21 0.15 0.48
155 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.21 0.26 0.20 0.67
147 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.13 0.30 0.21 0.64
Wet sticky clay,
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.20 0.34 0.24 0.78
106 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.30 0.38 0.32 1.01
113 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.17 0.38 0.31 0.86
Wet sticky clay,
102 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.25 0.43 0.34 1.02
81 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.38 0.51 0.42 1.31
93 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.21 0.47 0.37 1.05
Wet sticky clay,
84 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.28 0.51 0.40 1.19

63 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.51 0.68 0.53 1.72
78 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.25 0.55 0.43 1.24
Wet sticky clay,
70 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.35 0.60 0.48 1.43
53 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.58 0.81 0.62 2.00
67 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.28 0.64 0.50 1.42
Wet sticky clay,
61 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.40 0.68 0.54 1.62
46 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.68 0.94 0.72 2.33
59 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.32 0.72 0.56 1.61
Wet sticky clay,
54 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.46 0.81 0.61 1.88
40 BCY/hr OE@.025 BCY 0.78 1.06 0.84 2.68
52 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 0.36 0.81 0.63 1.80
Wet sticky clay,
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 0.51 0.89 0.70 2.10
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 0.88 1.19 0.93 3.00

47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 0.40 0.89 0.70 2.00
Wet sticky clay,
42 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 0.58 1.02 0.78 2.38
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 0.98 1.32 1.04 3.34
43 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.43 0.98 0.84 2.25
Wet sticky clay,
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.63 1.11 0.86 2.59
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 1.04 1.40 1.10 3.54
40 BCY/hr OE@.025 BCY 0.47 1.06 0.84 2.38
Wet sticky clay,
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 0.68 1.19 0.93 2.80
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 1.15 1.57 1.23 3.95
Dozer equipped with a 145 horsepower engine a 5.6 LCY semi-universal blade with a 4" ground
Travel Distance
662 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.13
Wet sticky clay,
617 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.20
464 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.23
372 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.27
Wet sticky clay,
336 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.10 0.13 0.10 0.33
253 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.15 0.17 0.13 0.45
256 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.10 0.17 0.13 0.40
Wet sticky clay,
231 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.13 0.17 0.15 0.45
174 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.21 0.26 0.20 0.67
195 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.12 0.21 0.17 0.50
Wet sticky clay,
176 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.17 0.26 0.19 0.62

133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.28 0.34 0.29 0.91
158 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.15 0.26 0.23 0.64
Wet sticky clay,
142 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.21 0.30 0.25 0.76
107 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.36 0.38 0.35 1.10
132 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.17 0.34 0.29 0.80
Wet sticky clay,
119 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.25 0.34 0.32 0.91
93 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.40 0.47 0.40 1.27
113 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.21 0.38 0.33 0.93
Wet sticky clay,
102 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.28 0.43 0.36 1.07
80 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.47 0.55 0.46 1.49
100 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.22 0.43 0.37 1.02
Wet sticky clay,
90 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.32 0.47 0.41 1.20
70 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.53 0.60 0.52 1.64

89 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.25 0.47 0.41 1.13
Wet sticky clay,
81 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.36 0.51 0.45 1.32
62 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.61 0.68 0.58 1.87
81 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.28 0.51 0.45 1.24
Wet sticky clay,
74 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.40 0.60 0.49 1.49
55 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 0.68 0.77 0.65 2.09
73 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.30 0.60 0.50 1.40
Wet sticky clay,
67 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.43 0.64 0.54 1.61
51 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.73 0.85 0.71 2.29
67 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.35 0.64 0.54 1.53
Wet sticky clay,
62 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.47 0.68 0.58 1.73
46 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.81 0.94 0.78 2.52
Dozer equipped with a 185 horsepower engine 7.3 LCY semi-universal blade with a 4" ground
Travel Distance
898 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.13
Wet sticky clay,
812 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.13
734 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.15
539 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.22
Wet sticky clay,
487 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.24
367 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.37
385 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.31
Wet sticky clay,
348 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.37

262 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.53
299 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.37
Wet sticky clay,
270 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.13 0.17 0.15 0.45
204 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.64
235 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.12 0.17 0.17 0.46
Wet sticky clay,
222 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.17 0.21 0.18 0.56
167 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.79
200 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.15 0.21 0.20 0.56
Wet sticky clay,
181 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.21 0.26 0.24 0.71
141 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.35 0.30 0.32 0.97
174 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.17 0.26 0.25 0.68
Wet sticky clay,
158 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.22 0.26 0.29 0.77
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.40 0.34 0.37 1.11

154 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.20 0.26 0.30 0.76
Wet sticky clay,
139 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.27 0.30 0.32 0.89
108 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.43 0.38 0.41 1.23
138 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.21 0.30 0.33 0.84
Wet sticky clay,
125 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.30 0.34 0.36 1.00
96 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.51 0.43 0.46 1.39
126 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.22 0.34 0.35 0.91
Wet sticky clay,
114 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.32 0.38 0.39 1.10
86 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.55 0.51 0.51 1.57
115 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.25 0.38 0.39 1.03
Wet sticky clay,
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.36 0.43 0.42 1.21
78 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.61 0.55 0.55 1.71
105 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.27 0.43 0.42 1.12
Wet sticky clay,
95 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.40 0.47 0.46 1.33
72 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.66 0.60 0.60 1.85
Dozer equipped with a 240 horsepower engine 9 LCY semi-universal blade with a 4" ground
Travel Distance
1099 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.13
Wet sticky clay,
994 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.14
748 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.18
600 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.23
Wet sticky clay,
596 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.25

449 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.12 0.34
440 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.28
Wet sticky clay,
398 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.39
320 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.20 0.13 0.17 0.50
347 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.41
Wet sticky clay,
314 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.45
236 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.27 0.17 0.24 0.68
287 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.45
Wet sticky clay,
259 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.20 0.17 0.21 0.58
195 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.32 0.21 0.31 0.85
235 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.15 0.17 0.24 0.56
Wet sticky clay,
213 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.22 0.21 0.28 0.72
166 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.38 0.26 0.36 1.00

206 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.20 0.21 0.29 0.71
Wet sticky clay,
186 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.27 0.21 0.32 0.81
145 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.43 0.30 0.40 1.13
183 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.21 0.21 0.32 0.75
Wet sticky clay,
166 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.28 0.26 0.36 0.90
125 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.51 0.34 0.46 1.31
161 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.22 0.26 0.37 0.85
Wet sticky clay,
149 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.32 0.30 0.39 1.01
112 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.55 0.38 0.51 1.44
147 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.95
Wet sticky clay,
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.36 0.34 0.44 1.14
102 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.61 0.43 0.56 1.59
135 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.28 0.30 0.43 1.01
Wet sticky clay,
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.40 0.34 0.47 1.21
92 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.68 0.47 0.62 1.76
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.30 0.34 0.47 1.11
Wet sticky clay,
113 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.43 0.38 0.51 1.33
85 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.73 0.51 0.68 1.92
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the dozer to and from
Travel Distance
1196 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.14
Wet sticky clay,
1082 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.16

950 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.08 0.19
698 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.11 0.22
Wet sticky clay,
688 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.10 0.04 0.11 0.25
518 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.15 0.09 0.15 0.39
528 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.10 0.09 0.15 0.34
Wet sticky clay,
473 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.16 0.38
380 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.21 0.13 0.20 0.54
419 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.12 0.09 0.18 0.39
Wet sticky clay,
378 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.17 0.13 0.20 0.50
300 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.27 0.13 0.29 0.69
335 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.15 0.13 0.24 0.52
Wet sticky clay,
302 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.21 0.13 0.28 0.62
237 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.35 0.17 0.35 0.87

288 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.17 0.13 0.30 0.60
Wet sticky clay,
261 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.25 0.17 0.32 0.74
204 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.40 0.21 0.41 1.03
246 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.20 0.17 0.34 0.71
Wet sticky clay,
230 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.27 0.17 0.36 0.80
173 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.47 0.26 0.47 1.20
220 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.22 0.21 0.38 0.82
Wet sticky clay,
199 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.32 0.21 0.42 0.96
154 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.53 0.26 0.53 1.31
199 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.25 0.21 0.42 0.89
Wet sticky clay,
180 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.35 0.26 0.46 1.07
139 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.58 0.30 0.58 1.45
178 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.27 0.26 0.46 0.99
Wet sticky clay,
161 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.38 0.26 0.51 1.15
124 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.65 0.34 0.65 1.64
165 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.28 0.26 0.49 1.03
Wet sticky clay,
149 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.42 0.30 0.54 1.26
114 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.71 0.38 0.71 1.80
152 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.32 0.30 0.53 1.15
Wet sticky clay,
138 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.46 0.30 0.59 1.35
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.78 0.43 0.78 1.98
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the dozer to and from
Travel Distance
1858 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.13
Wet sticky clay,
1679 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.14
1475 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.17
1182 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.16
Wet sticky clay,
1069 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.08 0.19
885 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.12 0.04 0.10 0.26
866 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.21
Wet sticky clay,
783 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.12 0.04 0.11 0.27
632 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.17 0.09 0.14 0.40
650 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.10 0.09 0.14 0.33
Wet sticky clay,
618 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.14 0.36
466 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.22 0.09 0.19 0.50

542 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.12 0.09 0.16 0.37
Wet sticky clay,
511 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.17 0.09 0.17 0.43
385 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.28 0.13 0.24 0.65
465 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.19 0.41
Wet sticky clay,
435 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.20 0.09 0.20 0.49
328 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.32 0.13 0.30 0.75
406 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.15 0.09 0.23 0.47
Wet sticky clay,
379 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.22 0.09 0.24 0.55
286 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.38 0.13 0.34 0.85
361 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.17 0.13 0.25 0.55
Wet sticky clay,
336 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.25 0.13 0.29 0.67
253 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.42 0.17 0.38 0.97
325 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.20 0.13 0.30 0.63
Wet sticky clay,
294 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.28 0.13 0.33 0.74
227 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.47 0.17 0.42 1.06
296 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.21 0.13 0.33 0.67
Wet sticky clay,
267 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.30 0.17 0.36 0.83
206 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.51 0.21 0.46 1.18
271 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.22 0.17 0.35 0.74
Wet sticky clay,
245 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.35 0.17 0.39 0.91
189 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.57 0.21 0.50 1.28
250 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.25 0.17 0.38 0.80
Wet sticky clay,
226 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.36 0.17 0.42 0.95
173 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.61 0.26 0.54 1.40

17
Scrapers
With the exception of extremely large excavators, a scraper (or pan) is the most cost-effective
earthmover available. As a general rule, a scraper's economic application zone is anywhere from 500
feet to 2 miles, depending on underfoot conditions, grades, material type, operator skill and scraper
size. A scraper is especially useful for alternating cut and fill, because it can excavate, haul and spread
fill in a single cycle, while simultaneously contributing to the soil's compaction.
Scraper Uses and Limitations
A scraper has many advantages that trucks and other earthmoving equipment don't have. A scraper can
dump its payload in uniformly thick layers which, in turn, increases compaction productivity later on. A
scraper can also be a precise finishing machine, helping maintain haul roads by filling in low areas
during the haul trip, and cutting down high spots during its return trip.
A scraper can do finish grading work, but needs its tires inflated properly. The machine can lean and
gouge the ground surface if the tire pressure is wrong. Also, keep on top of your blade's cutting edge
condition. A badly worn blade is inefficient and won't cut cleanly. Always remember to monitor your
soil's moisture content. If the soil's too wet, it'll stick to the blade, making a rough cutting surface when
it dries.
Scrapers can remove asphalt paving that's up to 4 inches thick. To remove thicker pavement than that,
scrapers need help from a tractor pusher. Installing ripper teeth on the scraper bowl blade improves
productivity. Be sure not to rip the asphalt with another ripper before scraping, because the asphalt will
stack up in front of the bowl. Also, ripped asphalt prevents you from using an elevating scraper, since
ripped asphalt can damage the paddles.
Even though scrapers can do a variety of tasks, you need to do some prep work before turning them
loose on a job site. If you're excavating a pit, you need both an entry and an exit ramp. Clear any trees
and boulders, fill in deep holes or gullies, and round off any sharp projections. This may seem like a lot
of preparation just to use a scraper, but you'll maximize production if you get the soil as ready as
possible before the scrapers enter the cut. You need to "diagnose" your material. Hard, cohesive soils
or rock need to be ripped prior to scraper operations. On the other hand, loose, non-cohesive soils load
more easily if they're pre-wetted. By pre-wetting, you won't need water trucks at the fill area, reducing
traffic at the fill. The short amount of time you spend in preparation means a lot of time saved in the long
run.
Scraper Components
A scraper's three main components are its bowl, apron and ejector. The bowl carries the loaded
material. The apron is the front wall of the bowl, which can be raised or lowered. The ejector (or tailgate)
is the rear wall of the bowl.
A scraper's cutting edge is usually comprised of several sections bolted to the bowl's front edge. There
are several cutting-edge options. The stinger arrangement is standard on most scrapers because its
center section extends beyond the outer sections, providing good penetration. Curved cutting edges are
a common alternative to the stinger edge. Level cutting edges, in which all sections extend an equal
distance beyond the bowl, are a popular choice for doing finish work. Some cutting edges have either
integral or separate cutting teeth.
To load the scraper, lower the bowl's front end until the cutting edge enters the ground. Simultaneously,
raise the front apron to provide an open slot for the soil to flow into the bowl. As the scraper moves
forward, soil is forced into the bowl. After the bowl is filled, the front of the bowl once again rises, and
the apron lowers to prevent spillage. The load is dumped by lowering the cutting edge to a desired
height above the fill. The apron is raised and the soil then forced out by the ejector.
Scraper Varieties
A trailer scraper, like the one in Figure 17-1, requires a tractor to pull it. Some larger trailer scrapers
require a second (front) axle to support their massive weight. On steep grades, poorly-maintained haul
roads, or slippery terrain, crawler tractors are your best option for pulling trailer scrapers. For longer haul
distances, pulling with a wheel tractor is more economical.
When a two-axle wheel tractor pulls a trailer tractor, the combination is known as a tractor-pulled
scraper or a three-axle scraper. There are also single-axle tractors designed specifically for towing
scrapers. When teamed with a single-axle scraper, the combination is usually called a tractor-scraper.
The tractor shoulders the weight at the front, since the scraper in this case has only a single rear axle.
The increased weight over the tractor's drive wheels, in turn, improves traction. This tractor-scraper
combination is often referred to as an overhung or two-axle scraper.
Overhung scrapers come in several drive combinations. Standard overhung scrapers have a single motor
at the tractor. All-wheel-drive scrapers are equipped with drive wheels on the scraper as well as the
tractor. The all-wheel-drive unit in Figure 17-2 has two engines -- one at the tractor and the other at the
rear of the scraper. This type of tractor-scraper combination is known as a tandem-powered, twin-engine
or four-wheel-drive scraper. The second engine doubles the power, and more than doubles the traction of
a single-engine scraper.
An elevating (or paddle wheel) scraper has a ladder-like elevator mechanism that facilitates loading by
lifting material into the bowl and distributing it evenly. The ladder, which is visible near the center of
Figure 17-2, consists of flights or paddles (horizontal slats) with the ends connected to power-driven
chains. The flights may cut in front of or above the cutting edge of the bowl. Soil is thrown into the bowl
as the flights travel upward. The flights can be reversed to dislodge obstacles and sticky soil, or to
prevent material from entering the bowl during finish grading operations. Some elevators have adjustable
speeds, so their movement can be adjusted to work in specific soil conditions.
Elevating scrapers are self-loading, and usually don't require loading assistance. If you're using a pusher
to assist a self-loading unit, push carefully to avoid damaging the elevator. Elevating scrapers shouldn't
be used to load rock, large objects, sticky soil, or extremely hard material. An elevating scraper isn't
effective in a small cut area, because it can't cut deep enough to get a full load in a single pass. In that
case, you need an open-bowl scraper, pushed by a tractor.
An auger scraper is equipped with a power-driven auger located at the center of the scraper bowl. The
auger lifts and distributes material evenly after it passes over the scraper's cutting edge. Auger scrapers
can usually load without pusher assistance.
A scraper that doesn't have the benefit of a loading mechanism may require assistance. Most scrapers
have a sturdy push block at the rear, which allows a pusher tractor (equipped with a reinforced cushion
blade or push plate) to assist. If a scraper has a 15.4 BCY payload, but pushing assistance increases it
by 10 percent, the resulting payload is 16.9 (15.4 x 1.10) BCY.
Push-pull scrapers come equipped with hooks at the rear and hinged loops (bails) at the front of the
tractors so that they can be attached and assist each other while loading. In push-pull loading, the first
scraper loads with the pushing assistance of the second scraper. Then the second scraper loads with
the pulling assistance of the first scraper. The scrapers then separate and haul their loads individually.
Push-pull loading eliminates the need for tractor pushers, although production is more efficient using the
pushers.
Scraper Payload
Weight capacity of scraper payloads is expressed in terms of pounds or tons. Both struck and heaped
volume capacities are given in LCY. Regardless of volume capacity, the rated weight capacity should
never be exceeded. Not only would that be dangerous, but it increases overall operating costs due to
higher fuel consumption, mechanical failures, reduced tire life, and higher maintenance costs. These
items also equate to lost time and productivity while the vehicle is being repaired.
A scraper's struck capacity is the volume of material that can be filled evenly to the top edges of the
bowl. Struck capacity remains constant for any given scraper. Struck capacity ratings are important
when there's a limit on the amount of spillage allowed, when heaping isn't an option.
Heaped capacity varies, depending on the height that the soil can extend above the sides of the bowl.
Capacity is generally based on the heap having a 26.57-degree angle of repose, or a slope (run:rise) of 2
to 1 (2:1). You'll find a table containing angles of repose for common materials in Chapter 15. As a rule
of thumb under normal conditions, you can estimate heaped capacity as midway between the
manufacturer's struck and heaped capacity ratings. For example, the estimated heaped capacity of a
scraper with a rated 14-LCY struck capacity and 20-LCY heaped capacity would be 17 LCY.
Scraper Cycle Time
Total scraper cycle time is the sum of the load, maneuver, dump, and travel (haul and return) times. I'll
detail each of these components, starting with load time.
Load Time
A scraper's load time depends on many variables: scraper size and power, pusher assistance, soil
condition, total resistance, traction, traffic and operator experience. The cost estimates at the end of
this chapter assume a 0.9-minute load time.
There are several ways to increase scraper loading productivity. Perhaps the simplest method is to load
down-grade, letting gravity assist the cutting. Straddle loading is another practical method to consider.
Straddle loading involves spacing cutting at intervals, leaving ridges between the cuts. Eventually, the
ridges are cut away and removed. Ripping hard, cohesive soil prior to scraper excavation also reduces
load time.
Load at a rate slow enough that the tires don't spin, since that causes excessive and expensive tire
wear. Lifting the bowl slightly from the surface makes a more shallow cut. Sometimes you'll find it more
productive to make a shallow cut in a faster, higher gear than a deep cut in a low gear.
Push Loading
Pusher assistance, as mentioned earlier in the chapter, is a good way to increase the loading rate.
Pushers are normally crawler tractors weighing at least 20 tons. Four-wheel-drive wheel-mounted tractor
pushers will increase production if they have adequate traction, since the speed of both vehicles is
limited by the speed of the pusher. The pusher normally pushes in first gear, limiting track-mounted
pushers to about 1 1/2 mph and wheel-mounted pushers to about 2 1/2 mph. Use pushers powerful and
heavy enough to push the scrapers through the cut and boost (accelerate) the scrapers as they leave
the cut. Adequate boosting helps a scraper retain the soil remaining in front of the bowl as it's lifted.
Pushers are often used in tandem to increase the loading rate. As a general rule, each pound of push
(including the scraper's effort) loads one pound of soil into the bowl per minute of load time. Always use
an adequate number of pushers to service all the scrapers. If congestion occurs, reduce the load time of
some of the scrapers so that they're more evenly-spaced.
There are three basic push-loading methods, as illustrated in Figure 17-3: back-track, chain and shuttle
loading. When back-track loading, the pusher assists a scraper and then returns to assist another
scraper. The chain loading technique involves the pusher transferring from one scraper to another
without having to return to its original position, since the second scraper is waiting in front of the first
scraper. Finally, the shuttle loading technique involves the pusher transferring from one scraper to
another that's moving in the opposite direction. To shuttle loads effectively, the site needs to be laid out
so that the scrapers can leave the cut through two exits.
Push loading inevitably adds spot and delay times to the overall cycle time. As I said earlier, to
minimize spot and delay times, provide an adequate number of pushers to service the scrapers. The
number of pushers you'll need depends on pusher cycle time and the cycle time of the scrapers they're
assisting. To calculate the pusher requirement, divide scraper cycle time by pusher cycle time. Pusher
cycle time is the sum of the pusher's load, boost, return and transfer times. So, if your scrapers have
5-minute cycle times, and your pushers have 1.5-minute cycle times, you'll need 3.3 (5 / 1.5) scrapers
for every one pusher. To calculate total pusher requirement for your fleet, divide the number of scrapers
by the number of scrapers served by one pusher. For example, if you have a fleet of 12 scrapers, you'll
need 3.6 (12 / 3.3) pushers, which rounds up to four. It's better to err on the high side when deciding on
the number of pushers you'll use. Pushers can be put to use back-ripping or doing cleanup work while
they wait for their next pushing task.
Maneuver and Dump Time

After load time, the next components to consider are maneuver and dump time. Maneuver and dump
time is the time required to position the scraper appropriately, and then off-load at the fill area. Some
contractors allow scrapers to drive over previously-dumped soil to help compact it. This increases overall
dump time, but reduces compaction time. Dumping down-grade (again letting gravity be your friend)
reduces dump time. By keeping the cutting edge of the bowl high enough off the ground, wet, cohesive
soil can't clog the bowl as it passes through. Pushers provide the additional power that some scrapers
need to dump their loads and be boosted out of the fill.
Generally, scrapers place fill in the lowest spots first. This produces a more level surface which helps
increase production. You'll also maximize scraper productivity by using graders and compactors to keep
the fill smooth and compacted, and by giving scrapers the right-of-way on the job site.
Scraper Travel Time

In the absence of field timing tests and previous job data, one way to estimate scraper travel time is to
use travel time charts. These charts provide approximate vehicle travel times for various distances,
incor-porating total resistance into the equation. Caterpillar Inc. provides two travel time charts for any
given vehicle type: one for a vehicle hauling its rated payload, and the other for the empty vehicle. Travel
time charts also take into consideration the vehicle's acceleration and deceleration at the loading and
dumping areas.
The travel time chart in Figure 17-4 represents one-way travel time for a loaded scraper. A horizontal
line, drawn from any given distance indicator on the vertical axis, intersects various diagonal lines that
represent total resistance. From the identified intersection, draw a line vertically to obtain the travel time
at the bottom of the chart. For example, assuming a 3,000-foot one-way haul distance and an effective
grade of 4 percent, the travel time is about 1.85 minutes.
Even if you have these travel time charts for reference, you also need to consider variables like road
surface conditions, curves, other equipment traffic, operator skill, and weather. You'll improve scraper
productivity by hauling from two cuts to a single fill, or hauling from a single cut to two fills. As illustrated
in Figure 17-5, these two methods require just one turn per cycle. Either procedure eliminates one turn
from each cycle, as compared to the normal method of a round-trip haul from a single cut to a single fill.
Once you have estimates for all the cycle time components -- load (including spot and delay),
maneuver, dump, haul and travel times -- add them together to determine total cycle time. Then
calculate cycles-per-hour by dividing 60 minutes by the cycle time in minutes. For example, a
4.2-minute cycle time equals 14 (60 / 4.2) cycles-per-hour. A machine's productivity equals its payload
multiplied by the number of cycles-per-hour. The ideal productivity rate for a scraper with a 16.8 BCY
payload is 235 (16.8 x 14) BCY-per-hour. However, you need to factor in less-than-perfect job efficiency.
Using a 50-minute work hour, multiply your productivity rate by 0.83 (50 / 60) to get the actual
productivity rate.
As an alternative to this productivity calculation method, some equipment manufacturers provide

production curves from which to estimate scraper productivity. Production curves typically illustrate a
bank-volume-per-hour figure in relation to one-way travel distance, assuming a given payload and cycle
time.
To this point in the book, we've discussed the most common types of earthmoving equipment. Now let's
look at another important topic -- soil compaction testing and equipment, the subject of Chapter 18.
Scraper equipped with a 175 horsepower and an 11 LCY bowl, self-loading common earth and
working a 50-minute hour under the given job conditions. Travel time is based on traveling over a flat
surface. Loading time is 0.9 minute and maneuver & dump time is 0.7 minute. The equipment rental
cost is $7,280 per month and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel, fluids and
lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the scraper to and from the job site, or the
setup costs.
167 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.12 0.26 0.25 0.63
121 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.17 0.34 0.37 0.88
94 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.21 0.47 0.47 1.15
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.27 0.55 0.56 1.39
65 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.32 0.64 0.66 1.62
57 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 0.36 0.77 0.76 1.89
50 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.42 0.85 0.88 2.15
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.46 0.94 0.97 2.37
41 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 0.51 1.02 1.06 2.59
37 BCY/hr OE@.027 BCY 0.55 1.15 1.18 2.87
155 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.13 0.26 0.29 0.68
109 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.20 0.38 0.41 1.00
83 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.25 0.51 0.52 1.28
68 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.30 0.64 0.63 1.57
57 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 0.36 0.77 0.76 1.89
49 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.42 0.85 0.89 2.16
43 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.47 0.98 1.01 2.46
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.53 1.11 1.12 2.75
35 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 0.58 1.23 1.24 3.05
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 0.65 1.32 1.37 3.33
142 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.20 0.30 0.32 0.82
97 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.28 0.43 0.45 1.16
73 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.38 0.60 0.59 1.57

58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.47 0.72 0.75 1.95
49 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.57 0.85 0.89 2.31
42 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 0.66 1.02 1.03 2.71
37 BCY/hr OE@.027 BCY 0.76 1.15 1.18 3.09
33 BCY/hr OE@.030 BCY 0.83 1.28 1.32 3.42
29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 0.95 1.45 1.50 3.89
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 1.03 1.57 1.62 4.22
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.22 0.34 0.37 0.93
79 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.36 0.55 0.55 1.47
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.47 0.72 0.75 1.95
46 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.61 0.94 0.95 2.49
38 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 0.73 1.11 1.15 2.98
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 0.88 1.32 1.37 3.57
28 BCY/hr OE@.036 BCY 0.98 1.53 1.55 4.06
25 BCY/hr OE@.040 BCY 1.12 1.70 1.74 4.56
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 1.27 1.91 1.98 5.17
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 1.39 2.13 2.18 5.70
gravel road
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.36 0.43 0.42 1.21
64 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.57 0.68 0.68 1.93
46 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.80 0.94 0.95 2.68
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 1.03 1.19 1.21 3.43
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 1.23 1.40 1.45 4.09
25 BCY/hr OE@.040 BCY 1.48 1.70 1.74 4.92
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 1.66 1.91 1.98 5.55
19 BCY/hr OE@.053 BCY 1.94 2.25 2.28 6.47
17 BCY/hr OE@.059 BCY 2.16 2.51 2.57 7.24
16 BCY/hr OE@.063 BCY 2.32 2.68 2.72 7.72
86 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.43 0.51 0.51 1.45
51 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.72 0.85 0.86 2.43
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 1.03 1.19 1.21 3.43
28 BCY/hr OE@.036 BCY 1.31 1.53 1.55 4.39
23 BCY/hr OE@.043 BCY 1.61 1.83 1.90 5.33
19 BCY/hr OE@.053 BCY 1.94 2.25 2.28 6.47
17 BCY/hr OE@.059 BCY 2.16 2.51 2.57 7.24
15 BCY/hr OE@.067 BCY 2.47 2.85 2.91 8.23
13 BCY/hr OE@.077 BCY 2.84 3.27 3.35 9.46
12 BCY/hr OE@.083 BCY 3.08 3.53 3.63 10.24
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.47 0.55 0.56 1.59
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.81 0.94 0.97 2.71
31 BCY/hr OE@.032 BCY 1.19 1.36 1.41 3.96
24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 1.54 1.79 1.80 5.12
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 1.84 2.13 2.18 6.14

17 BCY/hr OE@.059 BCY 2.16 2.51 2.57 7.24
14 BCY/hr OE@.071 BCY 2.63 3.02 3.11 8.75
13 BCY/hr OE@.077 BCY 2.84 3.27 3.35 9.46
11 BCY/hr OE@.091 BCY 3.35 3.87 3.96 11.18
10 BCY/hr OE@.100 BCY 3.67 4.25 4.35 12.27
Elevating scraper equipped with a 265 horsepower engine and a 17 LCY bowl, self-loading
common earth and working a 50-minute hour under the given job conditions. Travel time is based on
traveling over a flat surface. Loading time is 0.9 minute and maneuver & dump time is 0.7 minute. The
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include the cost of transporting the scraper to and from
265 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.12 0.17 0.25 0.54
193 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.15 0.21 0.35 0.71
151 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.21 0.30 0.44 0.95
124 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.25 0.34 0.53 1.12
106 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.28 0.38 0.62 1.29
92 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.35 0.47 0.72 1.54
81 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.38 0.51 0.83 1.72
73 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.42 0.60 0.92 1.94
66 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.47 0.64 1.01 2.12
60 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.51 0.72 1.10 2.33
243 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.13 0.17 0.29 0.59
170 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.20 0.26 0.40 0.86
131 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.22 0.34 0.51 1.07
106 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.28 0.38 0.62 1.29
89 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.35 0.47 0.74 1.56
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.40 0.55 0.87 1.83
68 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.46 0.64 0.98 2.08
61 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.51 0.68 1.08 2.27
55 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 0.57 0.77 1.21 2.54
50 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.63 0.85 1.34 2.82
223 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.20 0.17 0.31 0.68
151 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.28 0.30 0.44 1.02
114 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.36 0.38 0.58 1.33
92 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.46 0.47 0.72 1.65
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.55 0.55 0.87 1.97
66 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 0.65 0.64 1.01 2.29
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.72 0.72 1.15 2.59
51 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.81 0.85 1.31 2.97
46 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 0.91 0.94 1.45 3.29
42 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 1.01 1.02 1.59 3.62
189 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.22 0.21 0.36 0.80
121 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.35 0.34 0.55 1.24
89 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.47 0.47 0.74 1.68
71 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.58 0.60 0.94 2.11
59 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.72 0.72 1.13 2.57
50 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 0.83 0.85 1.34 3.02

44 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 0.95 0.98 1.51 3.44
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 1.08 1.11 1.70 3.89
35 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 1.19 1.23 1.91 4.33
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 1.31 1.32 2.08 4.71
gravel road
176 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.32 0.26 0.39 0.97
111 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.51 0.38 0.59 1.48
81 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.68 0.51 0.83 2.02
64 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.88 0.68 1.04 2.60
53 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 1.06 0.81 1.25 3.12
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 1.23 0.94 1.48 3.65
39 BCY/hr OE@.026 BCY 1.44 1.11 1.70 4.25
34 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 1.64 1.23 1.96 4.83
31 BCY/hr OE@.032 BCY 1.80 1.36 2.15 5.31
28 BCY/hr OE@.036 BCY 1.99 1.53 2.37 5.89
137 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.42 0.30 0.49 1.21
82 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.68 0.51 0.82 2.01
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 0.97 0.72 1.15 2.84
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 1.23 0.94 1.48 3.65
37 BCY/hr OE@.027 BCY 1.50 1.15 1.79 4.44
31 BCY/hr OE@.032 BCY 1.80 1.36 2.15 5.31
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 2.07 1.57 2.47 6.11

24 BCY/hr OE@.042 BCY 2.32 1.79 2.76 6.87
21 BCY/hr OE@.048 BCY 2.65 2.04 3.17 7.86
19 BCY/hr OE@.053 BCY 2.93 2.25 3.51 8.69
130 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.43 0.34 0.51 1.28
77 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.72 0.55 0.87 2.14
54 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 1.04 0.81 1.23 3.08
42 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 1.33 1.02 1.59 3.94
34 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 1.64 1.23 1.96 4.83
29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 1.94 1.45 2.29 5.67
25 BCY/hr OE@.040 BCY 2.24 1.70 2.66 6.60
22 BCY/hr OE@.045 BCY 2.54 1.91 3.03 7.48
20 BCY/hr OE@.050 BCY 2.78 2.13 3.32 8.22
18 BCY/hr OE@.056 BCY 3.10 2.38 3.69 9.17
Elevating scraper equipped with a 365 horsepower engine and a 23 LCY bowl, self-loading
370 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.12 0.13 0.28 0.53
274 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.15 0.17 0.36 0.68
217 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.20 0.21 0.45 0.87
179 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.25 0.26 0.54 1.05
153 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.28 0.30 0.62 1.20
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.32 0.34 0.72 1.38
116 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.36 0.34 0.83 1.53
106 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.40 0.38 0.92 1.71
96 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.43 0.43 1.01 1.87
88 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.51 0.47 1.09 2.06

347 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.12 0.13 0.29 0.54
249 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.17 0.17 0.40 0.74
194 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.22 0.21 0.50 0.94
159 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.27 0.26 0.60 1.13
134 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.32 0.30 0.72 1.34
116 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.36 0.38 0.84 1.59
103 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.42 0.43 0.94 1.79
92 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.46 0.47 1.05 1.98
83 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.51 0.51 1.17 2.19
76 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.57 0.55 1.27 2.39
306 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.20 0.13 0.33 0.66
207 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.28 0.21 0.47 0.97
157 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.36 0.26 0.61 1.23
127 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.46 0.34 0.76 1.56
106 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.55 0.38 0.92 1.85
91 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.65 0.47 1.06 2.17
80 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 0.72 0.55 1.21 2.48
71 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.81 0.60 1.37 2.77
64 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.91 0.68 1.82 3.41
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 1.01 0.72 1.67 3.40
270 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.21 0.17 0.37 0.75
176 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.32 0.26 0.55 1.13
130 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.43 0.34 0.74 1.51
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.55 0.43 0.93 1.90
86 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.66 0.51 1.13 2.30
74 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 0.78 0.60 1.31 2.68
64 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 0.91 0.68 1.51 3.10
57 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 1.03 0.77 1.69 3.49
51 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 1.14 0.85 1.90 3.89
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 1.23 0.89 2.06 4.19
gravel road
245 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.32 0.17 0.40 0.89
155 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.51 0.26 0.62 1.38
114 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.68 0.38 0.86 1.92
90 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.86 0.47 1.07 2.40
74 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.04 0.60 1.31 2.95
63 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 1.22 0.68 1.53 3.43
55 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 1.40 0.77 1.75 3.92
49 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 1.56 0.85 1.98 4.39
44 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 1.74 0.98 2.20 4.92
40 BCY/hr OE@.025 BCY 1.91 1.06 2.42 5.39
203 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.38 0.21 0.48 1.08
124 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.63 0.34 0.77 1.74
89 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.88 0.47 1.08 2.43
69 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.12 0.60 1.41 3.13
57 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 1.34 0.77 1.69 3.80

48 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 1.61 0.89 2.02 4.52
42 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 1.84 1.02 2.29 5.15
37 BCY/hr OE@.027 BCY 2.09 1.15 2.62 5.86
33 BCY/hr OE@.030 BCY 2.32 1.28 2.93 6.53
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 2.56 1.40 3.22 7.18
178 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.43 0.26 0.54 1.23
105 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.73 0.43 0.93 2.08
74 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.04 0.60 1.31 2.95
58 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 1.33 0.72 1.67 3.73
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 1.64 0.89 2.06 4.59
40 BCY/hr OE@.025 BCY 1.91 1.06 2.42 5.39
35 BCY/hr OE@.029 BCY 2.20 1.23 2.76 6.19
30 BCY/hr OE@.033 BCY 2.56 1.40 3.22 7.18
27 BCY/hr OE@.037 BCY 2.84 1.57 3.59 8.00
25 BCY/hr OE@.040 BCY 3.08 1.70 3.87 8.65
Auger scraper equipped with a total of 490 horsepower engines and a 31 LCY bowl, self-loading
504 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.12 0.09 0.21 0.42
373 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.15 0.13 0.31 0.59

297 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.20 0.13 0.38 0.71
247 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.22 0.17 0.46 0.85
210 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.27 0.21 0.53 1.02
184 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.30 0.21 0.60 1.12
163 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.36 0.26 0.68 1.30
146 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.40 0.30 0.76 1.46
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.43 0.34 0.85 1.62
122 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.47 0.34 0.92 1.73
458 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.13 0.09 0.24 0.46
326 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.17 0.13 0.35 0.65
253 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.22 0.17 0.45 0.84
206 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.28 0.21 0.54 1.04
174 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.32 0.26 0.63 1.21
151 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.38 0.30 0.74 1.42
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.43 0.34 0.85 1.62
119 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.47 0.34 0.94 1.75
107 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.53 0.38 1.04 1.95
98 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.58 0.43 1.14 2.14
403 BCY/hr OE@.002 BCY 0.20 0.09 0.29 0.58
272 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.28 0.17 0.42 0.87
205 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.38 0.21 0.54 1.14
165 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.47 0.26 0.68 1.41
138 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.57 0.30 0.82 1.68
118 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.66 0.34 0.95 1.95
104 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 0.73 0.43 1.07 2.22
92 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.86 0.47 1.21 2.54

83 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.93 0.51 1.36 2.80
76 BCY/hr OE@.013 BCY 1.03 0.55 1.47 3.05
350 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.22 0.13 0.33 0.68
227 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.35 0.17 0.49 1.01
167 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.47 0.26 0.66 1.39
133 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.58 0.34 0.85 1.77
110 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.71 0.38 1.02 2.11
94 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 0.83 0.47 1.19 2.49
82 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 0.95 0.51 1.37 2.83
73 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.06 0.60 1.53 3.19
65 BCY/hr OE@.015 BCY 1.19 0.64 1.72 3.55
59 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 1.31 0.72 1.90 3.94
gravel road
292 BCY/hr OE@.003 BCY 0.36 0.13 0.39 0.88
180 BCY/hr OE@.006 BCY 0.57 0.26 0.61 1.43
130 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.80 0.34 0.87 2.01
102 BCY/hr OE@.010 BCY 1.01 0.43 1.09 2.53
84 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 1.23 0.51 1.34 3.08
71 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.46 0.60 1.58 3.64
62 BCY/hr OE@.016 BCY 1.66 0.68 1.80 4.14
54 BCY/hr OE@.019 BCY 1.91 0.81 2.08 4.80
49 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 2.10 0.85 2.28 5.23
44 BCY/hr OE@.023 BCY 2.35 0.98 2.55 5.88
256 BCY/hr OE@.004 BCY 0.40 0.17 0.44 1.01
153 BCY/hr OE@.007 BCY 0.68 0.30 0.73 1.70
109 BCY/hr OE@.009 BCY 0.95 0.38 1.02 2.35
85 BCY/hr OE@.012 BCY 1.22 0.51 1.32 3.05
69 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.49 0.60 1.62 3.71
59 BCY/hr OE@.017 BCY 1.74 0.72 1.90 4.36
51 BCY/hr OE@.020 BCY 2.02 0.85 2.19 5.06
45 BCY/hr OE@.022 BCY 2.30 0.94 2.50 5.74
40 BCY/hr OE@.025 BCY 2.57 1.06 2.79 6.42
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 2.85 1.19 3.11 7.15
216 BCY/hr OE@.005 BCY 0.47 0.21 0.52 1.21
126 BCY/hr OE@.008 BCY 0.81 0.34 0.89 2.04
89 BCY/hr OE@.011 BCY 1.15 0.47 1.25 2.87
69 BCY/hr OE@.014 BCY 1.49 0.60 1.62 3.71
56 BCY/hr OE@.018 BCY 1.84 0.77 2.01 4.61
47 BCY/hr OE@.021 BCY 2.20 0.89 2.38 5.47
41 BCY/hr OE@.024 BCY 2.51 1.02 2.72 6.25
36 BCY/hr OE@.028 BCY 2.85 1.19 3.11 7.15
32 BCY/hr OE@.031 BCY 3.23 1.32 3.50 8.05
29 BCY/hr OE@.034 BCY 3.56 1.45 3.85 8.85
18
Soil Compaction
Proper soil compaction (consolidation or compression) expels excess air and water while forcing soil
particles closer together, all of which leads to greater soil stability and load-bearing capacity. Road
builders of the Roman Empire understood the value of soil compaction, and some of their roads are still
in use today. In this chapter, I'll discuss soil compaction fundamentals and terminology, soil testing,
compaction equipment and its productivity.
Compaction Fundamentals
Compacted soil reduces water penetration, thereby controlling water flow and drainage. Without
compaction, voids (pockets of air) between soil particles allow moisture to enter and exit, which causes
soil swelling and shrinkage -- a problem that's compounded if the water freezes. Over time,
poorly-compacted soil tends to settle, along with any structure built on it. A settling foundation or slab
will eventually cause walls, ceilings and floors to crack and doors to become out-of-plumb, and bind. In
extreme cases, settling can lead to structural failure. Sometimes, the only remedy is to demolish the
entire structure, replace the fill, and rebuild. It's imperative that the soil be compacted properly the first
time around. To thoroughly understand compaction, you need to grasp three concepts: material
gradation, moisture content, and compaction effort.
Material Gradation
Material gradation refers to the distribution of different particle sizes within the soil. Gradation is
normally expressed as a percentage, by weight. A well-graded sample contains an even distribution of
particle sizes. Well-graded soil is better suited for compaction than poorly-graded soil. On the other
hand, soil composed predominantly of uniformly-sized particles, or lacking a particular particle size is
said to be poorly-graded. See Figure 18-1.
Moisture Content
Soil moisture content also determines the extent to which soil can be compacted. Moisture lubricates
soil so that particles can slide into a more compacted condition. Moisture also fills voids which would
otherwise contain only air. But too much moisture causes soil particles to float freely out of the voids,
resulting in decreased soil density. Therefore, too little or too much water makes proper compaction
impossible.
Optimum moisture content is the point at which you can achieve maximum soil density for a given
compaction effort. You can't achieve optimum moisture content if there's too much or not enough
moisture. The curve in Figure 18-2, known as a compaction, control, moisture density or Proctor curve,
shows the relationship between moisture content and dry density. You'll notice the term dry density
used in discussions relating to soil tests (the vertical axis of Figure 18-2). Dry density is a better
measure, because any given soil's dry weight is constant, while its weight when wet is variable,
depending on the amount of moisture in the soil.
Compaction Effort
Compaction effort refers to the compaction method used to impart energy into the soil to achieve
compaction. Compactors use one, or a combination, of the following types of compaction efforts:
* Static weight (pressure)

* Kneading (manipulation)
* Impact (sharp blow)
* Vibration (shaking)
Greater compaction effort results in greater soil density. It's also important to know that as the
compaction effort increases, the soil's optimum moisture content decreases.
Soil Testing
Soil testing is a quantitative quality control method for compacted fill materials. It's the designer's job to
prescribe and monitor soil testing. There are too many soil tests and analyses to mention here, but the
most commonly-specified soil tests for commercial building construction are:
* Liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index

* Unified soil classification
* Moisture-density relations
* In-place (field) density tests
Fine-grained soils are classified based on their compressibility or plasticity, and fall into one of four
"limit" categories: liquid, plastic, semi-solid, and solid.
Liquid Limit
A soil's liquid limit refers to the moisture content level at which soil changes from a plastic to a liquid
state. One way to determine the liquid limit is with a liquid limit test cup, shown in Figure 18-3. First, a
moistened soil cake is placed in the cup, and split into two pieces with a grooving tool. The cup is then
dropped a distance of 1 centimeter repeatedly, until the two halves of the soil cake flow back together
along the groove. Through trial and error, by adding or removing moisture, liquid limit is achieved when
25 blows to the cup (at two blows per second) cause the soil to run back together. At that point, the
sample is immediately weighed, dried, and re-weighed. To put liquid limit into percentage terms, divide
the moisture weight at the liquid limit by the dry sample weight, and then multiply that outcome by 100
percent. In this case, the moisture weight at the liquid limit equals the wet sample weight minus the dry
sample weight.
Plastic Limit
The plastic limit (also known as the worm test) refers to the moisture content level at which soil
changes from a plastic to semi-solid state. Basically, that's when a soil sample begins to crumble as
it's rolled into a 1/8-inch-diameter thread (resembling a worm). Calculating plastic limits in percentage
terms is the same as calculating the liquid limit: divide moisture weight at its plastic limit by the dry
sample weight, and multiply the result by 100 percent.
Plasticity Index
The plasticity index (P/I) of a given soil is the difference between the soil's plastic and liquid limits. The
plasticity index is an indication of the clay content and the soil's moisture-retaining capabilities. A large
plasticity index indicates high clay content, resulting in an increased ability to retain water. High clay
content implies a greater tendency for the soil to swell when wet, and shrink when dry. As a general
rule, soils with a plasticity index greater than 15 are considered "troublemakers."
The Unified Soil Classification System

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is the method most widely used for construction and
engineering purposes. Each soil is given a two-letter designation, with the first letter describing the
major soil constituents and the second letter describing the soil's gradation or plasticity
(compressibility). The five basic soil constituents and their abbreviations are: gravel (G), sand (S), silt
(M), clay ©, and organic matter (O). Gravel is rock-like material whose particle sizes range from 3
inches (76.2 mm) to 0.08 inches (2.03 mm). Sand ranges from 0.08 inches to 0.0029 inches (0.076
mm), and silt ranges from 0.0029 inches to 0.00024 inches (0.006 mm). Clay particles are 0.00024
inches and smaller.
Clay is a term used to define both mineral-type and particle size. In terms of mineralogy, clay is a
hydrated aluminum silicate mineral. There are roughly a dozen distinct clay minerals. Clay minerals are
composed of flat layers of molecules arranged like pages in a book. Water can get between these
molecular layers, increasing the distance between them, which is why clay expands when it gets wet. If
a small quantity of water gets between the layers, the water molecules chemically bond to the atoms in
the clay mineral. This causes soils containing clay to stick together. However, excessive moisture
causes more than one layer of water molecules to form between each clay layer, making the layers
prone to sliding past each another. That's why clay (and soil containing clay) is "slimy" when fully
saturated with water.
In terms of particle size, any material composed of particles less than 0.006 mm is referred to as clay.
Calcite, quartz, garnet, dolomite, feldspar, pyrite, mica, wood chips, spores, and volcanic ash (all
non-clay materials) have been found to be within the clay-size dimension. These relatively inert
clay-sized particles are not actually expansive clay minerals. Consequently, knowing the percentage of
clay-sized particles alone is of little value when determining the expansiveness of the soil. Also, since
the smallest sieve available in a soil testing lab is a No. 200 (0.0029 inches, or 0.075 mm net opening),
the clays cannot be separated from silts in a soil analysis. That's why you need to know the soil's
plasticity index when determining its expansive behavior.
Here's a quick and (literally) dirty way to determine if a soil has high clay content: Roll a moist sample
of the soil into a ball approximately one inch in diameter, and throw it against a wall. If the soil has high
clay content, the soil ball will stick to the wall like a paper spit wad. Highly scientific.
The second letter in the USCS two-letter naming system generally relates to a soil's gradation or
plasticity (compressibility). Abbrev-iations used to describe gradation and plasticity include: well-graded
(W), poorly-graded (P), low plasticity (L), and high plasticity (H).
Organic matter, represented by the prefix (O), is partially-decomposed vegetable matter which will
continue to decompose with time. The decomposition will create troublesome voids in the soil, so
organic matter must be removed from soil prior to compaction. Organic material can be identified by
color and odor, or by a radical reduction in the plastic and liquid limits after drying. Soil containing a
large percentage of fibrous organic matter is classified as peat, and given the symbol (PT).
Grading Soil Particles

The purpose of soil grading is to determine grain-size distribution in the soil. To determine how
well-graded a soil sample is, all cobbles (particles greater than 3 inches in diameter) are removed and
the material is washed to remove organic matter. Then the sample is dried and passed through a series
of sieves, starting with a 3/4-inch sieve, and ending with a No. 200 (much finer) sieve. The sieves are
linked together (racked) with the 3/4-inch sieve on top, the No. 200 at the bottom, and intermediate
sizes in between. A catch pan, placed below the No. 200 sieve, collects particles small enough to pass
all the way through. After pouring the sample into the rack, the unit is placed into a shaker for between
12 to 15 minutes. See Figure 18-4.
After shaking, the sieves are removed, one at a time, from top to bottom, starting with the 3/4-inch
sieve. The contents of each sieve is weighed and recorded.
To calculate grain-size distribution, divide the weight of the soil retained in any given sieve by the total
dry sample weight.
Coarse-Grained Soils
If less than 50 percent of the total sample passes through the No. 200 sieve, the soil is said to be
coarse-grained. If 50 percent or more of a coarse-grained sample passes the No. 4 sieve (4 net
openings per square inch), it's classified as sand, and will be given the prefix S. If less than 50 percent
passes the No. 4 sieve, the soil is classified as gravel, and is given the prefix G.
If less than 5 percent of the total coarse-grained sample passes the No. 200 sieve, it's classified as
well-graded (suffix W) or poorly-graded (suffix P), depending on grain-size distribution. If more than 12
percent of the total coarse-grained sample passes the No. 200 sieve, the soil is classified as silty, or
clay-like. If the portion of the coarse-grained sample passing the No. 200 sieve falls between 5 and 12
percent, it requires dual classification, such as GW-GM or SP-SC.
If the portion of the sample passing the No. 40 sieve exhibits little or no plasticity (or compressibility), it
will be classified as silty and will be given the suffix M. If it exhibits plasticity, it will be classified as
clay-like and will be given the suffix C.
Notice that the words "prefix" and "suffix" have been used in conjunction with the classifications. These
are important differentiations.
At this point in the discussion, the soil classification symbols in Figure 18-5 should be making sense to
you.
Fine-Grained Soils
If more than 50 percent of the total sample passes through the No. 200 sieve, the soil is said to be
fine-grained. Fine-grained soil ratings, with regard to silty or clay-like classification, are the same as
those for coarse-grained soil.
If the liquid limit of the sample passing the No. 40 sieve is less than 50 percent, the sample is
considered to have low compressibility, and is given the suffix L. If the liquid limit is 50 percent or
greater, the soil is considered highly- compressible, and is given the suffix H.
Granular soils are generally sands and gravels that are held in position by friction between the contact
surfaces of the particles. When they're wet, granular soils can be formed into different shapes, but
crumble into separate, easily-identified particles when dry. Granular soils are considered by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) to be Type G or S soils.
Cohesive soils consist primarily of silts and clays held together by molecular attraction (the same force
that causes water to adhere to your skin). Cohesive forces are strong, even when the soil is dry.
Cohesive soils are considered by the AASHTO to be Type A soils.
Laboratory Compaction Tests

Compaction tests help determine the maximum obtainable dry soil density, which is important for all
in-place (field) soil density tests. A Proctor test is the most widely-used method for determining the
maximum laboratory dry soil density.
The Standard Proctor Test

The Standard Proctor test (also known as a "T-99" test, AASHTO test designation T 99-70, or ASTM
test designation D 698) was developed in the early 1930s by R.R. Proctor, a field engineer for the City of
Los Angeles. The Standard Proctor test is usually prescribed for fill material designated for use under
building slabs and sidewalks, and in utility trenches under grassy areas.
When undergoing a Standard Proctor test, the fill material sample is crushed finely enough to pass
through a 3/4-inch sieve. Then a steel cylinder mold, approximately 4 inches in diameter and 4.5 inches
deep, is filled with the sample, poured in three layers. Each layer is struck 25 times with a 5.5-pound,
2-inch-diameter hammer from a height of 12 inches. The hammer may be hand-operated or
mechanically controlled, as shown in Figure 18-6.
When all is said and done, the energy imparted to each cubic foot of soil during the Standard Proctor
test is 12,375 foot-pounds.
The Modified Proctor Test

The Modified Proctor test is also known as Modified AASHTO T 180-70, or ASTM D 1557. Soil labs
normally refer to this test as a "T-180." The Modified Proctor test is usually specified when the fill
material is designated for use under nuclear power plants, airport runways, paved areas, concrete
drives, and other areas with high design loads. The testing procedure is similar to that of the Standard
Proctor test, except that the sample is placed in the steel cylinder mold in five layers. Each layer is
struck 25 times with a 10-pound hammer that's mechanically dropped from a height of 18 inches. The
energy imparted to each cubic foot of soil during the Modified Proctor test is 56,250 foot-pounds.
Calculating Dry Density

When performing either version of the Proctor test, a non-compacted portion of the moistened soil
sample is set aside and weighed, and then oven-dried and re-weighed to obtain the wet and dry sample
weights, respectively. Subtracting the dry sample weight from the wet, you'll get the water weight, which
is then used to calculate moisture content. Moisture content is the sample's water weight divided by the
dry sample weight. To convert the moisture content figure into a percentage, multiply it by 100.
The next step toward calculating dry density is to determine the compacted sample's dry weight. To do
that, the compacted sample's wet weight is divided by the moisture content percentage plus 1. When
the dry weight is established, it's then divided by the compacted soil volume. The result is dry density in
pounds per cubic foot (pcf).
Let's use real numbers to help illustrate how the whole calculation works. Assume the non-compacted
wet sample and dry sample weights are 300 grams and 280 grams respectively, and the compacted wet
sample is 4.3 pounds with a 0.033 cubic-foot volume. The water weight is 20 (300 - 280) grams. Dividing
the water weight by the dry sample weight yields 0.071 (7.1 percent) for the moisture content. That
means that the compacted sample dry weight is 4 (4.3 / 1.071) pounds. Therefore, dry density equals
121 (4 pounds / 0.033 cubic feet of compacted soil volume) pounds pcf.
This procedure for determining dry density is performed with at least three samples with varying
moisture levels. The results are then plotted on a moisture density curve, as dry density (in pounds per
cubic foot) versus moisture content (as a percentage of dry sample weight). The optimum moisture
content is the moisture content expressed as a percentage of dry sample weight that produces the
greatest density under standard laboratory conditions.
For any given soil type, the optimum moisture content decreases and the maximum dry density
increases as compaction effort increases. Also, each soil behaves differently with respect to maximum
dry density and optimum moisture content. Therefore, each soil type will exhibit a unique control curve.
Too little or too much water reduces soil density. Too little water creates friction between soil particles
and prevents them from sliding into a more compacted condition. Too much water causes soil particles
to float out of the voids. That's why quicksand can't be compacted. Quicksand is fine sand or silt
through which water is moving upward with enough pressure to prevent the grains from settling into firm
contact with one another.
Specifications require that in-place soil density (density of fill material in the field) be within a certain
percentage of the maximum dry density obtained in the testing laboratory. The percentage requirement
depends on soil-type, location, and intended use. Soil placed as fill in a grassy area is usually specified
at 85 percent of maximum dry density. Soils under building slabs and sidewalks are usually specified at
90 percent of maximum dry density for cohesive soils or 95 percent of maximum dry density for
non-cohesive soils.
Let's say the soil represented by Figure 18-2 requires compaction to within 95 percent of Standard
Proctor range. If you wanted to determine the soil density required, you'd multiply the 100 percent of
maximum dry density figure (115 pcf) by 0.95, which equals 109.25 pounds per cubic foot.
If you know the in-place soil density, you can work the problem in reverse to calculate the degree of
compaction, using the soil's maximum dry density. Simply divide the in-place density by the maximum
density. Using figures from the previous example, this would be 109.25 divided by 115, which equals 95
percent.
Field (In-Place) Soil Density Testing

The most accurate (and convenient) way to determine in-place soil density and moisture content is with
a nuclear density gauge (nuclear meter, ASTM 2922). See Figure 18-7. To perform this test, a steel
stake approximately 5/8-inch in diameter is driven into the compacted soil with a hammer, and then
removed. The gauge's probe is then placed into the hole, where it emits gamma radiation. The radiation
is partially absorbed by the soil, while the remainder is transmitted to the gauge, where it's measured.
Denser soil absorbs a higher percentage of the radiation. Another counter on the gauge determines soil
moisture content. An advantage to using nuclear testing gauges is that they leave the soil undisturbed.
Nuclear testers can also be used to determine the density of asphalt paving.
Soil Testing Costs

Soil testing costs will vary from project to project, but here are the major cost factors to consider:
* Number of tests required per soil layer (lift): Testing compacted fill is usually specified on a
per-square-footage-of-fill basis, with a minimum number of tests required per lift. Therefore, testing costs
will depend on the surface area of the fill, and the number of lifts placed.
* Types of tests required: Different types of tests require different methods, equipment, and time to
perform, so costs vary accordingly. For example, a sand cone test costs more to perform than a nuclear
gauge test.
* Distance from the testing lab to the site: Most testing labs charge for mileage to and from the site.
Also, if the trip requires overnight travel, expect to be billed for overnight expenses.
* The testing lab's minimum number of tests-per-trip policy: Most testing labs will charge for a minimum
number of tests per trip, regardless of whether or not the additional tests are required or performed.
* Variation in fill material-types, or the number of distinct borrow sources: A soil analysis and laboratory
compaction test is normally required for each type of soil placed.
* Overtime: Most testing labs charge time-and-a-half for labor required beyond normal working hours, on
holidays, and on weekends.
* Special report preparation: Any test report or engineering analysis preparation requiring the expertise
or stamp of a registered professional engineer is normally billed on an hourly basis.
Compaction Forces and Compaction Equipment
A compactor's (static) weight applies pressure, which squeezes the soil particles together. To achieve
compaction, all compactors use static weight in combination with kneading, impact, or vibration.
Kneading (manipulation) is especially effective for compacting plastic soils. Impact involves applying
sharp blows to the soil. Vibration (shaking) is similar to impact, except that impact is delivered at a low
frequency (usually less than 10 cycles per second), while vibration is delivered at a high frequency (up
to and beyond 80 cycles per second). Vibration is effective for compacting non-cohesive soils such as
sand or gravel. When vibrated, soil particles become momentarily separated from one another, allowing
them to twist and turn until they reach positions that limit their movement. Cohesive soils don't settle
under vibration, because of the molecular attraction of the tiny soil particles to each other. Vibration is
also ineffective on clay because clay particles are flat, preventing them from dropping into voids under
vibration. The shearing force of impact is the preferred way to squeeze clay particles together.
To make comparison easier, I've included several compactor-types and their optimal application ranges
in Figure 18-8. However, because material conditions are variable, it's not uncommon to see equipment
working beyond these application ranges.
Regardless of the type of compaction technique that's used, the soil must be placed in layers (lifts) thin
enough so that water and air can be expelled during the compaction process. Lift thickness will vary,
depending on the type of compactor used and the soil-type. Coarse-grained soils allow air and water to
escape more easily than will fine-grained, clay-type soils, which tend to retain air and water.
Padfoot Rollers
Padfoot roller models include the sheepsfoot, tamping-foot, segmented-pad, and grid rollers. These
rollers mix by kneading the soil and eliminating excessively wet or dry pockets, making them the ideal
equipment for an initial compaction pass. The static weight and impact force help crush rock chips and
hard soil lumps. Padfoot rollers are also good for drying saturated soil, because they create multiple
indentations in the soil, increasing the exposed surface area, which helps speed drying. Some padfoot
rollers come equipped with vibrators to help compact non-cohesive soils.
Padfoot rollers can be used in single drum or multiple drum configurations, connected in tandem and
towed by a tractor. Self-propelled roller units are also available, and more popular than the towed variety.
Padfoot rollers with "drum drive" for added traction can ascend 60-plus percent grades. Self-propelled
units can travel in excess of 20 mph in both forward and reverse. Some self-propelled units are available
with an articulated frame and can be equipped with an optional dozer blade. See Figure 18-9. The foot
patterns on the front and rear drums are usually offset to prevent the rear feet from overprinting the front
feet. Optional cleaner (or scraper) bars, mounted over the drums, prevent soil from building up between
the feet. Some padfoot drums are interchangeable with smooth drums.
The speed at which a padfoot roller can operate depends on the size and type of equipment, the soil
type, and the depth of foot penetration. Speed has little effect on the resulting soil density as long as
soil shearing and displacement are minimized. In other words, you can roll as fast as you want, as long
as the soil's cohesive enough for the padfoot to compact (rather than tear up) the soil.
Sheepsfoot Rollers
A sheepsfoot roller consists of a hollow steel drum that's 4 to 5 feet long, and 36 to 60 inches in
diameter. Protruding tapered shanks (7 to 9 1/2 inches long) with round, square or angular feet (lugs)
cover the outside surface of the drum. Sheepsfoot rollers exert pressures ranging from 150 to 750
pounds per-square-inch (psi), depending on the size of the roller and the amount of ballast it's carrying.
Some rollers have closed hollow drums where weight can be increased by pouring in water or damp
sand ballast. Other rollers require supplemental weighting (such as concrete blocks) placed on their
frames. Tests have shown that ground contact pressure has little effect on the resulting soil density;
however, larger roller feet do produce greater soil density.
As the sheepsfoot roller makes its initial pass, the feet penetrate full-depth into the soil. With repeated
passes, penetration decreases until the feet rise to the surface, or "walk out" of the soil, as it becomes
more compacted. Failure to walk out indicates extreme soil moisture or soil shearing caused by
excessive ground contact pressure.
Sheepsfoot rollers are very effective at compacting plastic soils, but are all but useless for compacting
non-cohesive soils, such as sand or gravel, unless the roller is equipped with a vibrator. Soil depth, to be
effectively compacted, is limited to the length of the shanks. The maximum loose lift thickness shouldn't
exceed 2 inches beyond the combined length of the shanks and feet.
Tamping-Foot Rollers
Tamping-foot rollers are self-propelled, with roller feet that are more closely spaced than those on a
sheepsfoot. The feet are tapered (no shank) with chevron- or rectangular-shaped ends. Tamping-foot
rollers are more versatile than sheepsfoot rollers since they can compact a wider variety of soils --
especially when equipped with a vibrator. They're also effective at crushing lumpy soils or softer
materials, like limestone or caliche.
Segmented-Pad Rollers
Rollers equipped with rectangular pads (soles) are called segmented-pad rollers. See Figure 18-10.
Segmented-pad rollers create less surface disturbance than sheepsfoot rollers. With a given contact
pressure and equal number of passes, the segmented-pad roller will produce greater compaction than
the sheepsfoot. Sole pressures for this roller group range from 250 to 750 pounds per-square-inch.
Grid (Mesh) Rollers

A grid roller has an open-ended cylinder with a woven grid or mesh-patterned surface. When ballasted
with concrete blocks, grid rollers produce high soil pressures, and are especially useful for breaking
down lumps of cohesive soil and crushing softer materials. Since they don't scatter the soil, grid rollers
may be operated at higher speeds.
Smooth-Wheel Rollers
Smooth-wheel rollers are used primarily for smoothing and finishing base courses, gravel roads and
bituminous pavements. They're also effective at compacting non-cohesive soils and small rock. Traveling
at speeds between 2 and 10 miles per hour, smooth-wheel rollers have minimal traction, and aren't
suitable for working over rough travel surfaces. One exception is the "combi-roller," which has pneumatic
tires mounted on the rear axle, and a smooth steel drum mounted on the front. See Figure 18-11.
Smooth-wheel rollers tend to form a crust over a cohesive soil surface, which hinders compaction at the
lower portion of the lift. Therefore, the lift should be compacted initially by a tamping-foot roller or similar
equipment, and the remaining loose lift thickness shouldn't exceed 6 inches. The sealed, crusted
surface also prevents water penetration, so add moisture prior to rolling the surface with a smooth-wheel
roller.
Static (non-vibrating) smooth-wheel rollers rely on static weight to compact the soil, so they're often
classified according to their weight. For example, a particular roller will be labeled "15-20 tons," which
means that its minimum weight is 15 tons, and that ballast may be added to increase the weight to a
maximum of 20 tons. Because smooth-wheel rollers require so much weight just compacting moderate
lift thicknesses, they're losing popularity in favor of the more efficient vibrating rollers. However, since
static rollers are still the best at producing a smooth surface, there will always be a need for them in
asphalt-rolling.
Pneumatic-Tired Rollers
Pneumatic-tired rollers are basically just ballast boxes on smooth-tread wheels. Multi-tired rollers are
usually self-propelled, and have two tandem axles with up to five tires mounted on each axle. See Figure
18-12. The rear wheels are offset so they travel over the surface the front wheels miss. Some multi-tired
rollers have been designed with oscillating wobble-wheels to knead the soil, while others are equipped
with vibrators to help compact non-cohesive soils. Multi-tired roller speeds vary between 2.5 and 16
mph, depending on the size and power of the machine, gear range, total resistance, traction and traffic
conditions at the fill.
Multi-tired rollers are used primarily for smoothing and finishing base courses and bituminous
pavements. They're also effective at compacting granular soils. When it comes to finishing sticky soils
or wet rock, multi-tired rollers are better than smooth-wheel rollers because the tires have less tendency
to pull the soil up. As with smooth-wheel rollers, multi-tired rollers create a crust over cohesive soil
surfaces. The lift should initially be compacted by a tamping-foot roller or similar equipment, and the
remaining loose lift thickness shouldn't exceed 6 inches. Add moisture prior to using a multi-tired roller.
Heavy pneumatic (large-tired) rollers are towed behind a tractor and usually have a single row of two or
four tires beneath the center of the weight box. Heavy pneumatic rollers travel between 2 and 5 miles per
hour, and can compact thick layers of soil to a high density -- loose lifts can be more than 24 inches
thick, and compacted lifts can exceed 12 inches.
A pneumatic-tired roller primarily uses its static weight to compact soil. Heavy pneumatic rollers weigh
between 15 and 200 tons, depending on how much water, soil, sand, gravel, stone, concrete block
and/or steel ballast they're carrying. Adjusting tire pressure will vary the ground contact pressure. With
any given machine weight, increasing the tire pressure reduces the ground contact area, while
increasing ground contact pressure and penetration. Depending on the type of tire, inflation pressures
can vary between 35 and 150 pounds per-square-inch. Make initial passes over the fill using lower tire
pressures to maximize ground coverage and prevent excessive rutting. As the soil begins to compact,
increase tire pressure gradually, until it's at the maximum during the final pass. An "air-on-the-go"
system is a good option because it allows the operator to vary tire inflation without stopping the
machine.
Vibrating Compactors
As I mentioned, many compactors can be equipped with vibrators. Vibration is usually activated by a
separate motor mounted in the frame or roller drum. This motor is mechanically attached to an
unbalanced eccentric weight (exciter unit) which spins, causing the device to vibrate forcefully. Vibration
combined with static weight is especially useful for compacting non-cohesive soils, like sand, gravel and
stone; however, it has little effect on silt or clay.
For most compaction tasks, a vibrating compactor needs about half as much weight as a non-vibrating
compactor. Vibration penetrates deep into the soil, making it effective for compacting thick lifts.
Centrifugal force, generated by the vibration mechanism, also adds to the effective static machine
weight. With all these advantages, vibrating compactors can compact non-cohesive soils to the required
density after only two or three passes. The only down-side is that the compactor must be run at a
relatively slow speed -- generally between 1.5 and 2.5 miles-per-hour, depending on soil-type, lift
thickness and the type of machine. Maximum allowable lift thickness for vibrating rollers varies, but
aggregate layers shouldn't exceed 6 inches.
Vibrators typically operate between 500 to 14,000 cycles-per-minute. Optimum speed depends on the
natural resonant frequency of the soil. In other words, smaller soil particles have higher natural
frequency. Cohesive soils can sometimes be effectively compacted through vibration by running the
machine at a low frequency and high amplitude.
Estimating Compactor Productivity
Some manufacturers produce soil compactor production tables for their equipment. However, to
manually calculate compactor productivity, you need to know the compacted width-per-pass, average
machine speed, lift thickness, the number of passes required and the job efficiency factor. The equation
would look something like this:
W x S x L x 16.3 x E
P
First, multiply compacted width in feet (W) x average speed in mph (S) x lift thickness in inches (L) x
16.3 (a constant, which helps convert to the cubic yards unit of measurement) ) x job efficiency (E).
Then divide by the required number of compaction passes (P). The resulting productivity rate is in terms
of compacted cubic yards per hour.
Let's try an example. We have a 7-foot compacted width-per-pass, 6 mph average speed, 6-inch lift
thickness, 0.83 job efficiency factor, and a 5-pass requirement. The calculation is: (7 x 6 x 6 x 16.3 x
0.83) = 3,409 divided by five (passes), which equals 682 CCY per hour.
It's important that your compaction equipment keeps up with the rate at which fill material arrives. If
you're using 12 scrapers with a combined hourly production rate of 1,700 CCY per hour, and your
compactor production is 682 CCY per hour, you'll need three compactors (1,700 / 682= 2.49, rounded
up to the nearest whole number, which is 3) in the rotation.
Maximize compactor productivity by dividing the site into several parts, beginning with the subgrade. To
achieve proper subgrade com-paction, it should be ripped to a depth of 6 inches, watered and mixed,
and then compacted. After a predetermined portion of the subgrade has been compacted, haul in and
spread the first lift of fill material over it. At the same time, begin preparing a second subgrade area. As
the first lift of fill material is being spread over the second area, the first lift of fill in area 1 can be watered
and compacted. Then, the first lift is compacted in the second area as the second lift is spread in the
first area. Proceed in this manner until all fill is brought up to final grade. This procedure minimizes
delays and conflicts between hauling and compaction equipment. And ALWAYS give trucks and
scrapers the right of way at the fill.
Compactor Pass Requirement

Soil continues to compact until resistance within the soil reaches equilibrium with the compaction
pressure. The required number of machine passes is difficult to determine because each job depends
upon soil-type, moisture content, machine weight and type, and the overall compaction requirement.
Figure 18-13 shows estimated performance and pass requirements for a tamping-foot roller compacting
a variety of soil types. Each curve represents the soil-type indicated. The vertical axis represents dry
unit weight, and the horizontal axis represents the number of passes. For example, if a tamping-foot
roller is required to compact sandy clay to a dry density of 110 pounds per cubic foot, you'd draw a
horizontal line from the 110 mark until it intersects the sandy clay curve. In this particular case, the
roller will need 14 passes.
Adjusting Moisture Content

If the soil's too wet, it can be loosened and aerated with rippers or a disk harrow, then re-rolled.
Sometimes, when the soil fails a compaction test because it's too wet, it can be left in place to dry,
then re-rolled and re-tested. But if it fails the compaction test because it's too dry, you must rip it, add
water from a water truck and re-roll it with a sheepsfoot or tamping-type roller that's designed to work
the water into the soil.
When adding water, keep in mind that different soils require specific amounts of water to change the
moisture content. A given volume of sandy soil or poorly-graded soil requires more water than clay-like
or well-graded soil, because sandy or poorly-graded soils contain voids that need more water.
To prevent the uppermost, exposed soil from drying out, try to compact a lift as soon as possible after
water's been added. Just remember that rolling a dry top layer over a wetter bottom layer will cause the
top layer to crumble, leaving a scaly surface.
Manual Compaction in Tight Areas

It's not always practical or possible to use large compaction equipment. Narrow trenches, curbs and
gutters, bridge supports, graves, against walls or near manholes require manually-operated hand
compactors. Manually-operated compactors include vibrating plate compactors, vibrating roller
compactors and impact rammer compactors (pictured in Figure 18-14). These units can be powered by
gasoline, diesel, air or electricity. Electric motors are best in situations where noise or fumes must be
minimized. Gasoline engines for hand-compactors are normally two-cycle (up to 10 horsepower). A
two-cycle engine is advantageous because it mixes oil with the fuel, which helps lubricate moving parts.
Also, the engine is lightweight, since it has no valves. In general, hand-compactors weigh between 75
and 300 pounds, delivering 50 to 9000 cycles per minute.
Compacting trench backfill and other troublesome areas may require jetting. Jetting involves injecting
water into the soil with a solid pipe screwed onto the end of a hose. Jetting is especially effective in
sand or gravel, both of which allow the water to escape after it lubricates and shifts the soil particles into
a more compacted position.
You can effectively compact backfill near the top of a trench by rolling over the backfill with the tires of a
heavy machine. Wheel loaders and backhoe loaders are best, since their tires are large enough to span
most trenches, and their weight can be increased by adding soil to their buckets.
Disk Harrows
In addition to loosening soil for aeration, disk harrows mix and pulverize the soil, which improves
scraper-loading productivity. See Figure 18-15. Many disk harrow frames have rubber tires that can be
adjusted to control disk penetration depth.
Soil Stabilization
Soil stabilization reduces expansion and contraction, prevents physical displacement, and increases
bearing strength and resistance to moisture. Simply mixing different soil types will stabilize the soil
somewhat, in regard to physical movement.
Other stabilization techniques involve blending asphalt (to create asphalt soil, or black base) or portland
cement with the soil (to create soil cement, cement-treated base, or cement-stabilized base). Asphalt
soil is produced by mixing MC-3 or RC-3 asphalt into granular soil, at the rate of 5 to 7 percent of the
soil volume. Soil cement is produced by adding portland cement at the rate of 3 to 16 percent of the soil
weight.
Generally speaking, as clay content increases, the cement requirements also increase. Soils with high
clay content are prone to expansion and contraction. Blending hydrated lime with the soil (lime-treated
soil) at the rate of 2 1/2 to 5 percent of the soil volume will stabilize it. Lime-treated soil should be
placed in 6-inch lifts and compacted to 95 percent of optimum density using a sheepsfoot roller. Lift
thickness shouldn't vary by more than 0.1 foot, and lime content shouldn't vary by more than 10 percent
from lift to lift. Lime-treated soil must have around 18 percent water content to initiate the proper lime
reaction, and each lift should be kept moist until another lift is placed over it. After all the lifts are in
place, they should be given a final compaction within 36 hours. After final compaction, give the top lift an
oil-curing seal as soon as possible. Allow the curing seal to dry for three days before machinery or other
vehicles are allowed onto the surface.
With any soil stabilization process, the soil should first be ripped or scarified with a motor grader, disk
harrow or reclaimer prior to adding the stabilizing agent. Reclaimers are useful for removing old asphalt
paving and mixing soils, and can add water to the soil while mixing.
Now that we've studied soil compaction, let's move on to the next chapter and discuss grading and
trimming the soil.
CS-323C single-drum smooth compactor with an 83 horsepower engine and 50" drum traveling 4
mph compacting 4" lifts working a 50-minute hour. Machine monthly rental cost is $2,580 and fuel costs
$3.76 per gallon. The prices do not include the cost of transporting the machine to or from the site, or
setup costs.
Standard Proctor compaction,

225 CCY/hr OE@.004 CCY 0.04 0.17 0.07 0.28
Modified Proctor compaction,
150 CCY/hr OE@.007 CCY 0.04 0.30 0.10 0.44
CS-433E single-drum smooth compactor with a 100 horsepower engine and 66" drum traveling 4
setup costs.

298 CCY/hr OE@.003 CCY 0.04 0.13 0.07 0.24
198 CCY/hr OE@.005 CCY 0.04 0.21 0.10 0.35
CS-533E single-drum smooth compactor with a 103 horsepower engine and 84" drum traveling 4
setup costs.

379 CCY/hr OE@.003 CCY 0.02 0.13 0.06 0.21
284 CCY/hr OE@.004 CCY 0.04 0.17 0.07 0.28
CP-433E single-drum padded compactor with a 100 horsepower engine and 66" drum traveling 4
setup costs.

298 CCY/hr OE@.003 CCY 0.04 0.13 0.07 0.24
223 CCY/hr OE@.004 CCY 0.04 0.17 0.10 0.31
CP-563E single-drum padded compactor with a 150 horsepower engine and 84" drum traveling 4
mph compacting 12" lifts working a 50-minute hour. Machine monthly rental cost is $4,210 and fuel
costs $3.76 per gallon. The prices do not include the cost of transporting the machine to or from the
site, or setup costs.

758 CCY/hr OE@.001 CCY 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.09
568 CCY/hr OE@.002 CCY 0.02 0.09 0.04 0.15
19
Motor Graders
Motor (road) graders are used for surface finishing, shaping, bank sloping, road maintenance, material
blending and spreading, ditching, backfilling, scarifying (loosening) and ripping. Most graders are
self-propelled, but a few types are towed behind a tractor. To achieve a precise grade, some motor
graders have automated blade control systems that raise and lower the blade, based on an established
surface line.
Finishing
Grader finishing operations include balancing and trimming. Balancing refers to cutting down high spots
and filling in low areas, while trimming involves shaping the road surface to a particular elevation. All
road surfaces are limited by precise elevation requirements, and any deviation is limited to a set amount
per road section. For example, a road project's subgrade (basement soil or foundation soil) elevation
tolerance may be 1 inch in 10 feet. Sub-base tolerances are usually 1/4- to 1/2-inch in 10 feet, and base
tolerances 1/8-inch in 10 feet. Some projects such as airport runways and federal highways have more
restrictive grade tolerances.
It's important to control the soil's moisture content. If it's too wet, the soil will stick to the blade and
leave a rough road surface. Another cause of a rough surface can be a badly-worn blade. Always
inspect your blade before each job to ensure that it's clean and sharp. If there's even a hint of dulling or
damage, replace the blade.
Finish grading is seldom designated as a pay item in a unit-price contract, so don't forget to include the
finishing cost in your estimate. The easiest way to include that cost is to incorporate it into the cost for
installing a lift (layer) of fill material. Since the surface area to be finish-graded remains constant
(regardless of the lift thickness), simply convert cubic yards of installed lift material into finish grading
cost. If you know the square yard cost for finish grading, the surface area to cubic yard conversion
factors in Figure 19-1 will help you determine the cost in terms of cubic yards. For example, if the
compacted lift thickness is 12 inches, then the square yard to cubic yard conversion factor is 3.00. If
finish grading costs $0.10 per square yard, then the cubic yard cost is $0.30 (3.00 x $0.10).
Haul Road Maintenance

Motor graders can significantly reduce a haul road's effective grade. That translates into reduced travel,
load, maneuver and dump times. Depending on the nature of the haul road surface and the amount of
traffic, it's often worthwhile to maintain the road with motor graders and, occasionally, with water trucks.
For example, a reduction in rolling resistance from 80 to 60 pounds per ton of gross vehicle weight
reduces effective grade from 4 (80 / 20 pounds of resistance per gross ton) percent to 3 (60 / 20)
percent.
Using the scraper productivity estimating techniques I described in Chapter 17, you can determine how
much cost savings, if any, you'd realize by performing haul road maintenance. Keep in mind that haul
road maintenance might do more than just decrease per-unit costs in terms of a machine's productivity.
A reduction in project duration means reduced overhead (supervision, job trailer, insurance) costs.
Smoother roads can also help reduce the expense associated with your equipment tire wear.
Material Blending and Spreading

A motor grader is one of the most versatile earthmoving machines, thanks in part to its adjustable blade
(moldboard). Common grader tasks include sidecasting, backfilling, bank slope trimming, scarifying,
ripping, and even ditching (up to a 3-foot depth). A forward-tilted pitch position causes dragging on the
blade that's ideal for blending soils, while a backward pitch position increases cutting action, and is best
suited for fine grading.
The moldboard's concave shape rolls the soil, helping spread and mix the material. Wet, unstable areas
can be bladed and mixed with dry soil, then bladed back in place as suitable material. When spreading
aggregate, it's important not to overwork the material. Too much blading separates the fine material from
larger aggregate, resulting in aggregate at the surface that won't hold in place. Large aggregate that's
been overworked is often referred to as bones.
Sidecasting and Backfilling

Sidecasting refers to setting the grader blade at an angle relative to the direction of travel, and moving
soil laterally to one side. The resulting windrow (longitudinal soil pile) should extend beyond the rear
wheels' path, to avoid increased rolling resistance and/or decreased traction. Sidecasting is useful for
backfilling ditches and trenches, or for creating windrows of ripped asphalt, to be crushed eventually by
a compactor. If clay-type soil needs lime for stabilization, the lime is often added to windrows of
sidecast soil, and mixed by rolling the soil several times with a grader blade.
Even when the blade is set perpendicular to the direction of travel, material will spill beyond the ends of
the blade, forming windrows on each side of the grader. Attaching wings to the ends of the blades will
keep more material in front of the blade and reduce spillage.
Motor grader traction depends on the amount of weight imposed over the grader's drive wheels. It's often
beneficial to move the blade laterally (wide side reach) or offset the front and rear wheels (crab mode --
see Figure 19-2) in order to keep the grader's drive wheels on firm ground. Keeping one set of rear
wheels on firm ground will also prevent the motor grader from sliding downslope as it cuts a ditch. In
addition, a grader's front wheels can be leaned in either direction to help prevent sliding downslope.
Bank Slope Trimming

A grader's blade can be oriented to an almost vertical position to cut and trim bank slopes. The bank
slope must be trimmed as the road cut descends. Generally speaking, the subgrade can be taken down
no more than 5 feet before the side slopes must be trimmed by a grader.
A sloper attachment mounts to the side of a grader for dressing road shoulders, cleaning ditches and
shaping banks. See Figure 19-3. The 16-foot blade allows the grader to remain on a level, firm footing
while sloping banks from 60 degrees above to 60 degrees below horizontal.
Scarifying and Ripping

Optional scarifier teeth, mounted behind and between the front wheels, help the motor grader loosen
tough or frozen soil and break up asphalt paving. Rear-mounted ripper attachments make light-duty
ripping possible, too. This kind of versatility comes in handy, since subgrade material is normally
trimmed to 0.10 feet above final subgrade elevation, then ripped prior to compaction.
Motor Grader Productivity

Motor-grader productivity is a function of (effective) blade length, average speed, overall job efficiency
and the number of required passes. Effective blade length is the blade's footprint as measured
perpendicularly with respect to the direction of travel. See Figure 19-4. To calculate productivity on a
square-foot-per-hour basis:
Effective blade length (in feet) x Average speed (in mph) x 5,280 x Job efficiency
Number of passes
Multiply effective blade length by average speed (in mph) times 5,280 (feet in a mile) times job
efficiency. Then divide the result by the number of required passes. To convert to square yards per hour,
divide the square foot figure by 9.
Motor grader productivity can also be expressed in terms of linear feet per hour. Use the same math you
use to calculate square foot production, except divide the final figure by road width (in feet).
Average motor grader travel speeds vary, depending on the type of work they're doing. If you don't have
travel speed data from previous jobs, the estimates in Figure 19-5 will help.
Let's work a productivity calculation using a 30,000 square-yard site, to be finish-graded with a 12-foot
effective blade length in five passes. The first two passes will be at 3 mph; the next two at 4 mph, and
the last pass at 6 mph. The job efficiency factor is 0.75.
First, calculate the only unknown component: average travel speed for the five passes. Multiply the
number of passes by their three respective speeds, add them together, and divide by 5 (the number of
passes). The average speed is 4 mph. Now multiply blade width (12) x average speed (4) x 5,280 x job
efficiency (0.75), which equals 190,080. Divide that by the required number of passes (5) to get 38,016
square feet per hour, or 4,224 square yards per hour. Since this is a 30,000 square-yard project, it
requires 7.1 (30,000 / 4,224) hours to complete.
Now that we've discussed grading the soil, let's look at paving itself. That's the subject of Chapter 20.
Motor grader equipped with a 165 horsepower engine and a 12' moldboard set at a 30- or
45-degree angle while working a 50-minute hour. For the road grading data, the grader is working a
single lane of the road, 11' or 12' wide. The grader is finish grading at 2.5 mph and heavy blading at 6
mph. The monthly machine rental cost is $6,400 and fuel costs $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the
cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. The crew consists of an equipment operator and a grade checker. The
prices do not include the cost of transporting the machine to or from the site, or setup costs.
Site Grading
2 passes
30 degree blade angle, finish grading,
1.31 AC/hr B8@.760 AC 7.23 27.65 30.10 64.98
1.07 AC/hr B8@.930 AC 8.86 33.83 36.70 79.39
30 degree blade angle, heavy blading,
3.14 AC/hr B8@.320 AC 7.64 11.64 12.50 31.78
2.57 AC/hr B8@.390 AC 9.39 14.19 15.30 38.88
3 passes
.87 AC/hr B8@1.15 AC 10.91 41.84 45.30 98.05
.71 AC/hr B8@1.41 AC 13.43 51.30 55.30 120.03
2.09 AC/hr B8@.480 AC 11.41 17.46 18.90 47.77
1.71 AC/hr B8@.580 AC 14.04 21.10 22.90 58.04
4 passes
.65 AC/hr B8@1.54 AC 14.65 56.03 60.50 131.18
.53 AC/hr B8@1.89 AC 17.88 68.76 74.20 160.84
1.57 AC/hr B8@.640 AC 15.25 23.28 25.10 63.63
1.28 AC/hr B8@.780 AC 18.69 28.38 30.80 77.87
5 passes
1.26 AC/hr B8@.790 AC 18.99 28.74 31.20 78.93
1.03 AC/hr B8@.970 AC 23.33 35.29 38.20 96.82
6 passes
1.05 AC/hr B8@.950 AC 23.03 34.56 37.40 94.99
.86 AC/hr B8@1.16 AC 27.88 42.20 45.70 115.78
7 passes
.90 AC/hr B8@1.11 AC 26.66 40.38 43.60 110.64
.73 AC/hr B8@1.37 AC 32.93 49.84 53.80 136.57
8 passes
.78 AC/hr B8@1.28 AC 30.81 46.57 50.40 127.78
.64 AC/hr B8@1.56 AC 37.47 56.75 61.50 155.72

9 passes
.70 AC/hr B8@1.43 AC 34.34 52.02 56.30 142.66
.57 AC/hr B8@1.75 AC 42.22 63.67 69.00 174.89
10 passes
.63 AC/hr B8@1.59 AC 38.18 57.84 62.40 158.42
.51 AC/hr B8@1.96 AC 46.97 71.30 77.00 195.27
Road Grading, 11' wide lane
2 passes
.98 MI/hr B8@1.02 MI 9.66 37.11 40.20 86.97
.80 MI/hr B8@1.25 MI 11.92 45.48 49.10 106.50
2.35 MI/hr B8@.430 MI 10.30 15.64 16.70 42.64
1.92 MI/hr B8@.520 MI 12.52 18.92 20.50 51.94
3 passes
.65 MI/hr B8@1.54 MI 14.65 56.03 60.50 131.18
.53 MI/hr B8@1.89 MI 17.88 68.76 74.20 160.84
1.57 MI/hr B8@.640 MI 15.25 23.28 25.10 63.63
1.28 MI/hr B8@.780 MI 18.69 28.38 30.80 77.87
4 passes
.49 MI/hr B8@2.04 MI 19.39 74.22 80.20 173.81
.40 MI/hr B8@2.50 MI 23.74 90.95 98.20 212.89
1.18 MI/hr B8@.850 MI 20.30 30.92 33.20 84.42
.96 MI/hr B8@1.04 MI 25.05 37.84 41.00 103.89
5 passes
.94 MI/hr B8@1.06 MI 25.55 38.56 41.80 105.91
.77 MI/hr B8@1.30 MI 31.11 47.29 51.20 129.60
6 passes
.78 MI/hr B8@1.28 MI 30.81 46.57 50.40 127.78
.64 MI/hr B8@1.56 MI 37.47 56.75 61.50 155.72
7 passes
.67 MI/hr B8@1.49 MI 35.86 54.21 58.60 148.67
.55 MI/hr B8@1.82 MI 43.73 66.21 71.50 181.44
8 passes
.59 MI/hr B8@1.69 MI 40.70 61.48 66.70 168.88
.48 MI/hr B8@2.08 MI 50.10 75.67 81.80 207.57
9 passes
.52 MI/hr B8@1.92 MI 46.16 69.85 75.50 191.51
.43 MI/hr B8@2.33 MI 55.75 84.77 91.50 232.02
10 passes
.47 MI/hr B8@2.13 MI 51.11 77.49 83.70 212.30
.38 MI/hr B8@2.63 MI 63.23 95.68 103.00 261.91
2 passes
.90 MI/hr B8@1.11 MI 10.61 40.38 43.60 94.59
.73 MI/hr B8@1.37 MI 13.03 49.84 53.80 116.67
2.16 MI/hr B8@.460 MI 11.21 16.73 18.10 46.04
1.76 MI/hr B8@.570 MI 13.64 20.74 22.30 56.68
3 passes
.60 MI/hr B8@1.67 MI 15.76 60.75 65.60 142.11
.49 MI/hr B8@2.04 MI 19.39 74.22 80.20 173.81

1.44 MI/hr B8@.690 MI 16.56 25.10 27.30 68.96
1.18 MI/hr B8@.850 MI 20.30 30.92 33.20 84.42
4 passes
.45 MI/hr B8@2.22 MI 21.11 80.76 87.40 189.27
.37 MI/hr B8@2.70 MI 25.65 98.23 106.00 229.88
1.08 MI/hr B8@.930 MI 22.32 33.83 36.40 92.55
0.88 MI/hr B8@1.14 MI 27.27 41.47 44.70 113.44
5 passes
.86 MI/hr B8@1.16 MI 27.88 42.20 45.70 115.78
.71 MI/hr B8@1.41 MI 33.94 51.30 55.30 140.54
6 passes
.72 MI/hr B8@1.39 MI 33.43 50.57 54.50 138.50
.59 MI/hr B8@1.69 MI 40.70 61.48 66.70 168.88
7 passes
.62 MI/hr B8@1.61 MI 38.68 58.57 63.40 160.65
.50 MI/hr B8@2.00 MI 47.98 72.76 78.70 199.44
8 passes
.54 MI/hr B8@1.85 MI 44.44 67.30 72.80 184.54
.44 MI/hr B8@2.27 MI 54.64 82.58 89.30 226.52
9 passes
.48 MI/hr B8@2.08 MI 50.10 75.67 81.80 207.57
.39 MI/hr B8@2.56 MI 61.71 93.13 101.00 255.84
10 passes
.43 MI/hr B8@2.33 MI 55.75 84.77 91.50 232.02
.35 MI/hr B8@2.86 MI 68.68 104.00 113.00 285.68
mph. The monthly machine rental cost is $10,800 and fuel costs $3.76/gallon. Material prices include
the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. The crew consists of an equipment operator and a grade checker.
The prices do not include the cost of transporting the machine to or from the site, or setup costs.
Site Grading
2 passes
1.52 AC/hr B8@.660 AC 9.12 24.01 43.70 76.83
1.25 AC/hr B8@.800 AC 11.01 29.10 53.20 93.31
3.65 AC/hr B8@.270 AC 9.56 9.82 18.10 37.49
2.99 AC/hr B8@.330 AC 11.72 12.01 22.20 45.93
3 passes
1.01 AC/hr B8@.990 AC 13.84 36.02 65.90 115.76
.83 AC/hr B8@1.20 AC 16.56 43.66 80.10 140.32
2.43 AC/hr B8@.410 AC 14.44 14.92 27.30 56.66
1.99 AC/hr B8@.500 AC 17.57 18.19 33.30 69.06
4 passes
.76 AC/hr B8@1.32 AC 18.08 48.02 87.50 153.60
.62 AC/hr B8@1.61 AC 22.32 58.57 107.00 187.89
1.83 AC/hr B8@.550 AC 19.09 20.01 36.40 75.50
1.49 AC/hr B8@.670 AC 23.53 24.37 44.70 92.60
5 passes
1.46 AC/hr B8@.680 AC 24.04 24.74 45.60 94.38
1.20 AC/hr B8@.830 AC 29.19 30.20 55.40 114.79
6 passes
1.22 AC/hr B8@.820 AC 28.68 29.83 54.40 112.91

1.00 AC/hr B8@1.00 AC 34.95 36.38 66.60 137.93
7 passes
1.04 AC/hr B8@.960 AC 33.63 34.92 63.90 132.45
.85 AC/hr B8@1.18 AC 41.21 42.93 78.30 162.44
8 passes
.91 AC/hr B8@1.10 AC 38.38 40.02 73.10 151.50
.75 AC/hr B8@1.33 AC 46.66 48.39 88.70 183.75
9 passes
.81 AC/hr B8@1.23 AC 43.23 44.75 82.10 170.08
.66 AC/hr B8@1.52 AC 53.03 55.30 101.00 209.33
10 passes
.73 AC/hr B8@1.37 AC 47.87 49.84 91.00 188.71
.60 AC/hr B8@1.67 AC 58.28 60.75 110.00 229.03
2 passes
1.14 MI/hr B8@.880 MI 12.22 32.01 58.30 102.53
.93 MI/hr B8@1.08 MI 11.01 39.29 71.50 121.80
2.74 MI/hr B8@.360 MI 12.83 13.10 24.30 50.23
2.24 MI/hr B8@.450 MI 15.55 16.37 29.80 61.72
3 passes
.76 MI/hr B8@1.32 MI 18.08 48.02 87.50 153.60
.62 MI/hr B8@1.61 MI 22.32 58.57 107.00 187.89
1.83 MI/hr B8@.550 MI 19.09 20.01 36.40 75.50
1.49 MI/hr B8@.670 MI 23.53 24.37 44.70 92.60
4 passes
.57 MI/hr B8@1.75 MI 24.24 63.67 117.00 204.91
.47 MI/hr B8@2.13 MI 29.39 77.49 142.00 248.88
1.37 MI/hr B8@.730 MI 25.55 26.56 48.50 100.61
1.12 MI/hr B8@.890 MI 31.31 32.38 59.30 122.99
5 passes
1.10 MI/hr B8@.910 MI 31.82 33.11 60.50 125.43
.90 MI/hr B8@1.11 MI 38.78 40.38 73.90 153.06
6 passes
.91 MI/hr B8@1.10 MI 38.38 40.02 73.10 151.50
.75 MI/hr B8@1.33 MI 46.66 48.39 88.70 183.75
7 passes
.78 MI/hr B8@1.28 MI 44.95 46.57 85.20 176.72
.64 MI/hr B8@1.56 MI 54.64 56.75 104.00 215.39
8 passes
.68 MI/hr B8@1.47 MI 51.51 53.48 97.80 202.79
.56 MI/hr B8@1.79 MI 62.52 65.12 119.00 246.64
9 passes
.61 MI/hr B8@1.64 MI 57.27 59.66 109.00 225.93
.50 MI/hr B8@2.00 MI 69.99 72.76 134.00 276.75
10 passes
.55 MI/hr B8@1.82 MI 63.63 66.21 121.00 250.84
.45 MI/hr B8@2.22 MI 77.77 80.76 148.00 306.53
2 passes
1.05 MI/hr B8@.950 MI 13.23 34.56 63.30 111.09
.86 MI/hr B8@1.16 MI 16.06 42.20 77.40 135.66
2.51 MI/hr B8@.400 MI 13.94 14.55 26.50 54.99
2.05 MI/hr B8@.490 MI 17.07 17.83 32.40 67.30
3 passes
.70 MI/hr B8@1.43 MI 19.80 52.02 95.00 166.82
.57 MI/hr B8@1.75 MI 24.24 63.67 117.00 204.91
1.67 MI/hr B8@.600 MI 21.01 21.83 39.80 82.64
1.37 MI/hr B8@.730 MI 25.55 26.56 48.50 100.61
4 passes
.52 MI/hr B8@1.92 MI 26.56 69.85 127.00 223.41
.43 MI/hr B8@2.33 MI 32.32 84.77 154.00 271.09
1.26 MI/hr B8@.790 MI 27.78 28.74 52.80 109.32
1.03 MI/hr B8@.970 MI 34.04 35.29 64.60 133.93
5 passes
1.00 MI/hr B8@1.00 MI 34.95 36.38 66.60 137.93
.82 MI/hr B8@1.22 MI 42.72 44.38 81.10 168.20
6 passes
.84 MI/hr B8@1.19 MI 41.71 43.29 79.20 164.20
.68 MI/hr B8@1.47 MI 51.51 53.48 97.80 202.79
7 passes
.72 MI/hr B8@1.39 MI 48.48 50.57 92.40 191.45
.59 MI/hr B8@1.69 MI 59.29 61.48 113.00 233.77
8 passes
.63 MI/hr B8@1.59 MI 55.45 57.84 105.00 218.29
.51 MI/hr B8@1.96 MI 68.58 71.30 131.00 270.88
9 passes
.56 MI/hr B8@1.79 MI 62.52 65.12 119.00 246.64
.46 MI/hr B8@2.17 MI 76.05 78.94 145.00 299.99
10 passes
.50 MI/hr B8@2.00 MI 69.99 72.76 134.00 276.75
.41 MI/hr B8@2.44 MI 85.35 88.77 162.00 336.12
mph. The monthly machine rental cost is $14,200 and fuel costs $3.76/gallon. Material prices include
the cost of fuel, fluids and lubricants. The crew consists of an equipment operator and a grade checker.
The prices do not include the cost of transporting the machine to or from the site, or setup costs.
Site Grading
2 passes
1.75 AC/hr B8@.570 AC 9.39 20.74 50.10 80.23
1.42 AC/hr B8@.700 AC 11.51 25.47 61.80 98.78
4.20 AC/hr B8@.240 AC 9.92 8.73 20.90 39.55
3.41 AC/hr B8@.290 AC 12.22 10.55 25.80 48.57
3 passes
1.17 AC/hr B8@.850 AC 14.04 30.92 74.90 119.86
.95 AC/hr B8@1.05 AC 17.27 38.20 92.30 147.77
2.80 AC/hr B8@.360 AC 14.85 13.10 31.30 59.25

2.27 AC/hr B8@.440 AC 18.18 16.01 38.60 72.79
4 passes
.87 AC/hr B8@1.15 AC 18.99 41.84 101.00 161.83
.71 AC/hr B8@1.41 AC 23.23 51.30 123.00 197.53
2.10 AC/hr B8@.480 AC 19.80 17.46 41.70 78.96
1.71 AC/hr B8@.580 AC 24.24 21.10 51.40 96.74
5 passes
1.68 AC/hr B8@.600 AC 24.75 21.83 52.20 98.78
1.36 AC/hr B8@.740 AC 30.50 26.92 64.40 121.82
6 passes
1.40 AC/hr B8@.710 AC 29.69 25.83 62.70 118.22
1.14 AC/hr B8@.880 AC 36.46 32.01 76.90 145.37
7 passes
1.20 AC/hr B8@.830 AC 34.64 30.20 73.10 137.94
.97 AC/hr B8@1.03 AC 42.82 37.47 90.30 170.59
8 passes
1.05 AC/hr B8@.950 AC 39.59 34.56 83.60 157.75
.85 AC/hr B8@1.18 AC 48.88 42.93 103.00 194.81
9 passes
.93 AC/hr B8@1.08 AC 44.74 39.29 94.30 178.33
.76 AC/hr B8@1.32 AC 54.64 48.02 115.00 217.66
10 passes
.84 AC/hr B8@1.19 AC 49.39 43.29 104.00 196.68
.68 AC/hr B8@1.47 AC 61.00 53.48 128.00 242.48
2 passes
1.31 MI/hr B8@.760 MI 12.52 27.65 67.00 107.17
1.07 MI/hr B8@.930 MI 15.35 33.83 81.90 131.08
3.15 MI/hr B8@.320 MI 13.23 11.64 27.80 52.67
2.56 MI/hr B8@.390 MI 16.26 14.19 34.30 64.75
3 passes
.87 MI/hr B8@1.15 MI 18.99 41.84 101.00 161.83
.71 MI/hr B8@1.41 MI 23.23 51.30 123.00 197.53
2.10 MI/hr B8@.480 MI 19.80 17.46 41.70 78.96
1.71 MI/hr B8@.580 MI 24.24 21.10 51.40 96.74
4 passes
.66 MI/hr B8@1.52 MI 24.95 55.30 134.00 214.25
.53 MI/hr B8@1.89 MI 30.91 68.76 166.00 265.67
1.57 MI/hr B8@.640 MI 26.46 23.28 56.00 105.74
1.28 MI/hr B8@.780 MI 32.52 28.38 68.50 129.40
5 passes
1.26 MI/hr B8@.790 MI 33.03 28.74 69.60 131.37
1.02 MI/hr B8@.980 MI 40.70 35.65 85.90 162.25
6 passes
1.05 MI/hr B8@.950 MI 39.59 34.56 83.60 157.75
.85 MI/hr B8@1.18 MI 48.88 42.93 103.00 194.81
7 passes
.90 MI/hr B8@1.11 MI 34.64 40.38 97.40 172.42
.73 MI/hr B8@1.37 MI 42.82 49.84 120.00 212.66
8 passes
.79 MI/hr B8@1.27 MI 52.62 46.20 110.00 208.82
.64 MI/hr B8@1.56 MI 64.94 56.75 138.00 259.69
9 passes
.70 MI/hr B8@1.43 MI 59.29 52.02 125.00 236.31
.57 MI/hr B8@1.75 MI 72.82 63.67 154.00 290.49
10 passes
.63 MI/hr B8@1.59 MI 65.85 57.84 140.00 263.69
.51 MI/hr B8@1.96 MI 81.41 71.30 172.00 324.71
2 passes
1.20 MI/hr B8@.830 MI 13.84 30.20 73.10 117.14
.98 MI/hr B8@1.02 MI 16.77 37.11 89.50 143.38
2.88 MI/hr B8@.350 MI 14.44 12.73 30.50 57.67
2.34 MI/hr B8@.430 MI 17.68 15.64 37.40 70.72
3 passes
.80 MI/hr B8@1.25 MI 20.60 45.48 109.00 175.08
.65 MI/hr B8@1.54 MI 25.25 56.03 136.00 217.28
1.92 MI/hr B8@.520 MI 21.61 18.92 45.70 86.23
1.56 MI/hr B8@.640 MI 26.56 23.28 56.30 106.14
4 passes
.60 MI/hr B8@1.67 MI 27.37 60.75 146.00 234.12
.49 MI/hr B8@2.04 MI 33.53 74.22 178.00 285.75
1.44 MI/hr B8@.690 MI 28.89 25.10 60.90 114.89
1.17 MI/hr B8@.850 MI 35.45 30.92 74.90 141.27
5 passes
1.15 MI/hr B8@.870 MI 36.06 31.65 76.20 143.91
.94 MI/hr B8@1.06 MI 44.24 38.56 93.40 176.20
6 passes
.96 MI/hr B8@1.04 MI 43.33 37.84 91.30 172.47
.78 MI/hr B8@1.28 MI 53.23 46.57 113.00 212.80
7 passes
.82 MI/hr B8@1.22 MI 28.89 44.38 106.00 179.27
.67 MI/hr B8@1.49 MI 62.01 54.21 131.00 247.22
8 passes
.72 MI/hr B8@1.39 MI 57.67 50.57 121.00 229.24
.59 MI/hr B8@1.69 MI 70.40 61.48 149.00 280.88
9 passes
.64 MI/hr B8@1.56 MI 64.94 56.75 138.00 259.69
.52 MI/hr B8@1.92 MI 79.79 69.85 168.00 317.64
10 passes
.58 MI/hr B8@1.72 MI 71.61 62.57 151.00 285.18
.47 MI/hr B8@2.13 MI 88.38 77.49 186.00 351.87
20
Paving
In this chapter, I'll discuss bituminous paving components and the equipment used to lay them.
Bituminous paving consists of aggregate and a binding material, usually asphalt. Consequently,
bituminous paving is often referred to as asphalt paving. Compared to concrete paving, bituminous
paving is more flexible and less susceptible to the effects of temperature changes. Bituminous
pavement is generally less expensive to place, and additional layers and surface treatments can be
applied as traffic loads increase (and/or more building funds become available). This is sometimes
called stage construction. In stage construction, it's possible to correct design and construction
deficiencies, while simultaneously making repairs due to normal wear and settling.
Aggregate
Aggregates strengthen the finished pavement and help transfer traffic loads to the road's base course.
Aggregate is usually 90 percent of a paving mix by weight, and 80 percent of its volume. Aggregates
consist of crushed or natural stone, slag or gravel, along with sand, and mineral filler. One exception is
Glasphalt, an alternative paving mix, containing a small percentage of crushed glass. Slag is a
byproduct of blast furnace operations that contains silicates. Being quite porous, slag absorbs more
asphalt than gravel does. Its lightweight nature means lower transportation costs to and from job sites,
and that alone can offset the cost of the additional asphalt. To take further advantage of bituminous
paving (and its transport savings), use local aggregate materials, if they're acceptable.
Ideally, aggregate should be angular to provide maximum internal friction, which helps prevent any
movement (creep). Aggregates should be properly graded, clean, dry, resistant to absorbing moisture,
durable, weather-resistant and stripping-resistant. Stripping refers to separation of asphalt film from the
aggregate, in the presence of water. When the moisture content exceeds 11/2 to 2 percent, most
asphalt materials will strip away from the aggregate. Immersion-compression tests measure an
aggregate's stripping resistance. Additives, or mineral fillers such as hydrated lime, increase stripping
resistance.
Coarse aggregate is retained by a No. 10 sieve, while fine aggregate is retained by a No. 200 sieve.
Mineral fillers (fines or granular dust) pass through a No. 200 sieve and may consist of rock dust,
portland cement, hydrated lime, or other inert non-plastic materials, such as fly ash, a byproduct of
burning pulverized coal.
Aggregate Gradation
Aggregate is typically blended to achieve the desired gradation. The two basic categories of aggregate
gradation are dense and open. Dense graded aggregate provides a more stable and water-resistant
paving mix that requires less asphalt, since there are fewer voids to fill. However, it also requires more
sophisticated plant equipment to produce. This type of aggregate shouldn't be stockpiled, since it tends
to absorb moisture.
Open graded aggregate lacks the fines that help hold the binder to larger aggregates. Excessive heat
creates voids in the binder. Be sure the aggregate isn't overheated before mixing it with the binder, or
moisture can penetrate the pavement, and ultimately destroy it. Only a small percentage of aggregate is
in physical contact with the base. Consequently, a tack coat is usually applied to maintain the bond
between open graded asphalt paving and any existing pavement or rigid base.
Open graded asphalt concrete base courses can be placed over cracked concrete paving to reduce the
possibility of cracking in the overlying material. This is called crack-relief pavement. A second course
(optional) seals the open graded pavement surface. Without the sealing course (known as a porous
friction course, plant-mix seal, or popcorn mix), water can pass through the pavement into the base,
instead of remaining on the surface. That can result in improved skid resistance and reduced tire splash,
but also exposes the underlying pavement to moisture damage.
Some open graded aggregate mixes are considered harsh: they contain a high percentage of coarse
aggregate and not enough filler. That makes the mix difficult to compact, with little or no lateral flow
during the final stages of compaction.
Tender mixes lack sufficient mineral filler, and have an excess of medium-sized sand, smooth and
rounded aggregate, and/or too much moisture in the mix. Tender mixes are gummy, difficult to compact,
and don't readily support the weight of the paver screed.
Binder
Binder material (asphalt) prevents the aggregate and road surface from loosening (raveling) and breaking
up (spalling). Asphalt doesn't so much contribute strength to the surface, as provide a cushion to absorb
the grinding and kneading action of traffic. Asphalt also protects the sub-base material from moisture,
where it doesn't easily evaporate. That can undermine the road itself, causing subsidence and/or
heaving.
Binders can be any of a variety of bituminous materials, but the primary ingredients are either asphalt or
tar. Asphalt occurs naturally, but can also be distilled during petroleum processing. Incidentally, using
natural asphalt as a building material dates back to 3,000 B.C.
Coal tar bitumen (coal tar pitch) is a distillation byproduct of coke manufacturing. Coal tar pitch is softer
than asphalt and, after cooling, exhibits excellent self-healing properties. It's ideal for use in highly
corrosive environments, or where fuel spills are expected, since coal tar is not petroleum-soluble. That
quality makes asphalt and coal tar pitch incompatible. Coal tar is impervious to water due to its tight
molecular structure. Drawbacks to coal tar are its higher cost and its susceptibility to temperature
changes, which can cause fluctuations in consistency.
Road tars are often graded by viscosity at room temperature. Tars are available in 12 viscosities, from
RT-1 (very fluid) to RT-12 (solid).
Because of its flammable nature, use caution when working with heated bitumen. Spark-producing
equipment and open flames must be kept away from the material. Always have a fire extinguisher
nearby, and in plain sight. Train personnel to safely handle bitumen, using only approved equipment for
storing, heating, mixing and distributing bituminous materials.
Bitumen hardens rapidly in cold weather. But don't overheat it to compensate for conditions, since
excessive heat reduces waterproofing capabilities. Protect stored bituminous materials from the
elements, since exposure to moisture can cause heating and application problems.
Emulsified asphalts have fine water droplets dispersed into asphalt with the help of an emulsifier, such
as silicate, vegetable oil, soap, or bentonite clay. Emulsions can contain glass fibers or other additives.
A distinct advantage to using an emulsified asphalt binder is that it can be applied over wet aggregate.
Liquid emulsions solidify as water evaporates, leaving the bitumen as residue. Since emulsions contain
water, they're non-flammable. However, don't let them freeze, and don't heat them above 212 degrees F.
Emulsified asphalts are classified as rapid-set (RS), medium-set (MS), or slow-set (SS). The rapid-set
classification is followed by the numeral 1 (thin), or 2 (thick). Some emulsions designed for use in slurry
seals have a quick-set (QS) classification. There's also a high-float (HF) grade, containing chemical
additives that allow for a thicker film coating, thereby lessening the possibility of runoff.
Cutback bitumens are asphalt cements thinned with organic solvents and light oils to help them flow
freely. Since cutbacks contain flammable solvents, never expose them to an open flame. Cutbacks
solidify as the solvent evaporates, leaving the bitumen as residue.
Cutbacks are classified as rapid-curing (RC) (cut with naphtha or gasoline), medium-curing (MC) (cut
with kerosene), or slow-curing (SC) (cut with residual oil). They're also classified according to viscosity,
ranging from 30 (similar to water) to 3,000 (very thick). An MC-70 classification indicates a
medium-curing cutback with a viscosity of 70. The higher the viscosity number, the greater the asphalt
content.
Powdered asphalts are low-penetration-grade asphalts pulverized into fine powder, all of which passes
through a No. 10 sieve, and at least 50 percent of which passes through a No. 100 sieve. The powder is
mixed with road oil (SC-250 or SC-800) and aggregate, to produce a cold mix. Under the normal heat
and pressure that a road experiences, this particular mixture combines with the road oil, producing a
consistency similar to asphalt cement.
Modified asphalts are a mixture of asphalt and polymer, such as synthetic rubber (rubberized asphalt) or
plastic. Modified asphalts produce resilient pavements. They help prevent surface liquefaction in
extreme heat and brittleness in extreme cold. Modified asphalts don't add substantially to the cost of
production. However, storage can be a problem since some mixes require constant agitation, while
others solidify if over-mixed. Experts predict that modified asphalts will keep gaining in popularity.
Bituminous Surface Treatments

Bituminous surface treatments (overlays) include dust palliatives, road oiling, tack coats, and seal
coats. A dust palliative (used for dust abatement) is sprayed onto the surface of unpaved roads to
reduce dust and provide minimal waterproofing. Slow- to medium-curing asphalt cutbacks or
slow-setting diluted emulsions are frequently used as dust palliatives. Cutbacks are applied at the rate
of 0.1 to 0.5 gallons per square yard, depending on the texture and dryness of the existing road surface.
You'll need to apply several layers of emulsion to achieve maximum effectiveness.
Road oiling, usually with cutback asphalt (SC-70, SC-250, MC-70, or MC-250), is similar to applying a
dust palliative, except that its application extends over a period of three years or more. The road surface
should be compacted and dampened before oiling, since a dry or dusty surface won't absorb oil. After
oiling, the surface should be compacted and allowed to cure for at least 24 hours before being opened to
traffic.
Usually after three or more years of oiling treatments, an earthen road is stable. The first year's
treatment requires three applications, applied at the total combined rate of one gallon per square yard.
The first application should be one half the total (0.5 gallons per square yard) and the second and third
applications should each be one fourth of the total material (0.25 gallons per square yard, per
application). The treatments should be spaced several weeks apart.
Preliminary treatments such as prime coats and tack coats (binder courses) provide a bond between an
existing road and a new bituminous surface. Prime coats are applied to untreated base material to
harden and seal the surface, fill voids, and bond loose mineral particles. Commonly-used prime coats
include low-viscosity asphalts or tars, diluted asphalt emulsions, and cutbacks (MC-30 and heavier, or
SC-70 and heavier). Apply an MC-250 grade over open-graded aggregate if it lacks fine sand. Typical
prime coat application rate is 0.20 to 0.60 gallons per square yard. When applied over dense-graded
aggregate, the application rate can be on the low end of that range. It's best to apply prime coats when
the temperature is 60 degrees F or higher.
A preliminary treatment applied to a granular base is normally a prime coat followed by one or more seal
coats (Type B surface treatment). If the prime coat isn't completely absorbed by the aggregate within 24
hours, spread sand to blot the excess asphalt.
The double surface treatment is another preliminary technique, consisting of a prime coat to hold the
aggregate coating, followed by a seal coat. The depth of a double surface treatment is approximately
that of maximum-sized aggregate, applied over the prime coat.
Tack coats are applied to paved road surfaces to bond existing pavement with the overlying course. A
tack coat usually consists of rapid-curing asphalt cutbacks (RC-70 through RC-250), low-viscosity road
tars (RT-7 or RT-8), asphalt cements, or diluted emulsions (SS-1 or RS-1). Emulsified asphalts are
generally the most effective option. Apply tack coats at the rate of 0.05 to 0.15 gallons per square yard.
Never apply a tack coat when the road surface temperature is below 80 degrees F. Always allow the
tack coat to cure and become tacky, or it'll become more a lubricant than an adhesive, causing the
overlying course to creep or push. Blot the excess tack coat with sand or screenings before placing the
subsequent pavement course.
Seal Coats
Seal coats, applied over existing surface treatment or pavement, rejuvenate, seal and skid-proof the
surface. There are several types of seal coats, including fog seal, slurry seal, sand seal, hot mix seal,
and standard seal coat.
Fog seal consists of a diluted, slow-setting asphalt emulsion without aggregate cover (Type A surface
treatment). Apply fog seal at 0.1 to 0.15 gallons per square yard, depending on the texture and dryness
of the existing pavement. Fog seal should be applied to an area that's clean and dry (with holes
patched), with a surface temperature of at least 60 degrees F. No traffic should be permitted on the road
until the emulsion has set (which is when the brown surface turns black). Don't apply more emulsion
than can be absorbed by the existing surface. If the surface bleeds (flushes), apply sand as a blotter
course.
Slurry seal is an economical way to rejuvenate existing asphalt surfaces. It's used as a preventive and
corrective maintenance mate-rial, not intended to increase structural strength. All holes, bumps, weak
areas, cracks and drainage problems should be corrected prior to placing. A slurry seal mix normally
consists of sand, mineral filler and a lightly-diluted asphalt emulsion (SS-1). A tack coat may be
required prior to placing a slurry seal, if the original surface is too smooth or has an excess of loose
material. The tack coat is the same type and grade as the diluted emulsified asphalt used in the slurry.
A slurry seal surface doesn't contain loose stones, so it's windshield-friendly. Slurry is usually applied in
a minimum air temperature of 50 degrees F, in 1/8- to 1/4-inch-thick coats.
Sand seals (anti-skid coat, or sand asphalt) provide waterproof and skid-resistant road surfaces. They're
used on city streets, but more often used on runway aprons where any large stones could damage
airplane engines. A sand seal is a bituminous coating covered with fine angular aggregate. The bitumen
used is usually an emulsified asphalt (RS-1 or MS-1) applied at 0.15 to 0.20 gallons per square yard.
The sand seal is subsequently compacted, using a pneumatic tired roller. The minimum air temperature
for sand seal application is 50 degrees F.
A standard seal coat is an asphalt material layer, topped with a single layer of uniform-sized aggregate.
A hot mix seal coat is a 1-inch layer of aggregate "hot mixed" with asphalt. This is also referred to as a
friction course, carpet coat, plant-mixed seal, plant-mixed surface treatment, light asphalt resurfacing,
or thin overlay. Hot mix seal coats are useful in high traffic areas, where there are wide temperature
variations, or any situation where standard seal coats might be impractical. The aggregate can be either
dense- or open-graded. The asphalt cement used in the mix is nor-mally AC-20. A tack coat should be
applied to the existing surface prior to placing the hot mix, in an air temperature of at least 60 degrees
F.
Aggregate Surface Treatments

Aggregate surface treatments consist of alternating bitumen and aggregate applications. A single
surface treatment (Type C) is bitumen covered by an aggregate layer. A double surface treatment (Type
D) has an additional layer of bitumen and aggregate applied over the first application, and a triple surface
treatment has a third layer of bitumen and aggregate. The maximum aggregate size used in a given
layer should be about half the size used in the previous layer.
Prior to placing aggregate surface treatments, the existing road is swept and a prime coat is used, if
necessary. After a curing period of at least 24 hours, a binder is applied, with aggregate immediately
rolled into the binder material. Bonding decreases as the asphalt cools, so timely aggregate application
is essential. Each additional treatment requires a new binder and aggregate application. Following
treatment, the finished surface should be swept to remove any loose stones. Road cleaning options
include self-propelled (towed rotary) brooms, blowers, flush trucks, or hand brooms.
There are a variety of aggregate spreader options, including whirl-type, vane (gravity), hopper and
self-propelled spreaders. Single-pass surface-treatment machines that apply the binder and aggregate in
a continuous operation are also available.
Macadams
Macadams (penetration macadams) are base or pavement courses containing a layer of compacted
coarse aggregate followed by an application of bitumen, into which fine aggregate is compacted. The
coarse aggregate layer is normally 3 to 4 inches thick, while the fine aggregate course (choker) is
usually 2 1/2 to 3 inches thick. Fine aggregate is sometimes applied in small quantities to fill surface
voids, and doesn't add much to the overall course thickness. Macadam's coarse aggregate should be
about 1/2 inch less than the total course thickness, with smaller aggregate usually 3/8 inch crushed
rock. The bitumen binder is a hot, viscosity-graded asphalt cement (AC-10), a cutback (RC-800, or
RC-3000), or an emulsion (RS-1, or RS-2). Binder application rate varies between 1.2 to 2 gallons per
square yard, depending on the amount of surface voids. Macadam work should be done when air
temperature is 60 degrees F, or higher.
If macadam is used as a base, it needs a tack coat, followed by paving material. If the macadam is
intended to function as pavement, it needs a single- or multiple-surface treatment laid on top of it.
Bituminous Pavements
Bituminous pavements are composed of a pre-mixed aggregate and binder, more than one inch thick.
Also known as blacktop, asphalt concrete paving, or bituminous concrete paving, bituminous pavement
has between a 4 and 9 percent asphalt cement content. It's a good choice for roadways with high traffic
volumes and heavy axle loads.
Bituminous pavement mixing can be done with stationary mixing plants (plant mixes) or with portable
mixing plants (road mixes). Plant mixes are higher quality, but need to be transported to the site. That
can be critical when installing hot mix asphalt (HMA), since the mix can't be applied if it cools beyond
the specified temperature. Sometimes hot mix is temporarily stored in insulated storage tanks on the
site. Special trucks, built with double bottoms and sides to help provide insulation, haul the hot mix to
the work site. Road mixes are more economical than plant mixes, but the quality can differ between
batches, due to variations in moisture volume and mixing ingredients.
Sheet asphalt is a hot mixture of asphalt cement and clean, angular, well-graded sand and mineral filler.
In new construction, sheet asphalt roads are usually made of a 1 1/2-inch binder course and a 1
1/2-inch sheet surface course. The binder is usually viscosity-graded asphalt cement (AC-10, AC-20, or
AC-40), and is normally 8 to 12 percent of the total mix. The aggregate should pass through a No. 8
sieve. Sheet asphalt produces a dense, smooth and quiet surface, popular for city streets. Due to its
relatively high cost and the lack of skid resistance, though, sheet asphalt is seldom used on highways.
Additionally, sheet asphalt is difficult to handle, and must be laid with a paving machine.
Stone-filled sheet asphalt is sheet asphalt with coarser aggregates mixed in with the sand. The
aggregate-sand mix is usually around 25 percent aggregate and 75 percent sand. The binder is 6 to 9
percent of the overall mix.
Cold mix asphalt is aggregate mixed with an emulsion or cutback asphalt binder. Cold mixes can be
transported and stockpiled until needed. They produce no smoke, little dust emission, and no fumes or
odors, when used with an emulsified asphalt binder. However, cold mixes have a few drawbacks when
compared to hot. They have less moisture and frost resistance, and are difficult to mix, place and
compact at temperatures below 60 degrees F. Also, cold mixes need time to cure, with low initial
stability, while hot mix pavement can support traffic as soon as it's cooled.
Bituminous Distribution
Bituminous material is usually applied by a bituminous distributor, commonly known as an asphalt tank
truck, asphalt distributor, pitch truck, or boot truck.
To get uniform asphalt application, you need the proper asphalt spraying temperature, correct pressure
throughout the full length of the spraying bar, correct nozzle angle, correct nozzle height above the
surface and a constant distributor speed. Application rate is usually expressed in terms of gallons per
square yard, and depends on pump output, vehicle speed, and spray bar length.
Equipment manufacturers generally provide a tachometer chart indicating appropriate vehicle speed for
any desired application rate. If you have no chart, you can calculate vehicle speed using a three-step
formula. First, multiply the pump output (in gallons per minute) by 9. Then multiply the spray bar width
(in feet) by the desired application rate (in gallons per square yard). Divide the outcome of the first step
by that of the second step, and you'll get the vehicle speed (in feet per minute). For example, let's say
the pump output is 220 gallons per minute, and the spray bar width is 20 feet. To achieve a 0.40 gallon
per square yard application rate, the vehicle speed should be 248 (220 x 9, divided by 20 x 0.40) feet per
minute.
Using a given bituminous tank capacity, spray bar width and application rate, you can determine the
spread length (in linear feet) using a similar three-step formula. First, multiply the tank capacity (in
gallons) by 9. Then multiply the spray bar width (in feet) by the desired application rate (in gallons per
square yard). Divide the outcome of the first step by that of the second step, and you'll have the spread
length. For example, if the distributor in the previous example has a 2,000-gallon tank capacity, the
spread length would be 2,250 [(2,000 x 9) divided by (20 x 0.40)] linear feet. This example assumes the
distributor is equipped with a sump pump, which allows the entire 2,000 gallons to be spread evenly.
Distributors without sump pumps need a certain amount of bitumen (about 50 gallons for a 2,000-gallon
distributor) in the tank at all times. In that case, you'd subtract 50 from 2,000, and then do your
calculation, using 1,950 for tank capacity.
Installing Asphalt Paving

Asphalt is applied using a crawler, wheel- or track-mounted paving machine. Self-propelled paving
machines (pavers, or finishers) push the dump truck that provides the mix. See Figure 20-1. Twin
drag-slat conveyors carry the mix to the rear of the machine, through a set of adjustable metering gates.
From there, the material is deposited on the road surface directly in front of the paver screed. The
material then goes across the width of the surface to be paved, via a pair of screw conveyors (spreading
screws), or variable-speed augers.
Paving thickness is controlled by adjusting the thickness-control screw. An automatic feeder control in
the screw chamber maintains a constant level (or head) of asphalt mix, ahead of the screed. The screed
floats on the mix, determining both mat thickness and texture. A floating screed allows the paver to lay
a uniformly thick mat (paved strip), regardless of base irregularities. Combination screeds compact the
mix, using a vibrating and tamping motion. Optional high-density screeds are designed to achieve
greater compaction. Some screeds are equipped with heaters to prevent the mix from sticking to the
screed plate.
Standard pavers are equipped with automatic screed-height (leveler) and screed-slope controls. The
screed height control senses the road surface slope, and is available in 30- to 40-foot lengths. The
automatic control can override the self-leveling action in order to pave to a predetermined grade or slope,
using a mobile or rigid grade reference like a string line, curb, gutter, or adjacent mat. When setting the
screed-height control, keep in mind that the paving mix will shrink while being rolled and compacted.
Most paving machines pave a mat between 10 and 12 feet wide, and have hydraulically-controlled
extensions (self-extending screeds, or variable width strike-off screeds) to widen the paved area to 20
feet. Standard screed extensions (hard extensions) come in 6-inch, 1-, 2-, and 5-foot lengths, which can
be placed on one or both sides of the main screed. Some extensions provide heat and vibration, but not
much compaction. Cut-off shoes can be installed to decrease the paving width, by cutting off material
flow at a desired width. The narrowest possible paving width with cut-off shoes is normally about 3 feet.
A gate attached to the end of the screed prevents material from spilling beyond the paving width, and
creates a smooth mat edge.
A paver's operating speed depends on mat width and thickness, and the workability of the paving mix.
Crawler pavers mat out at about 2 mph, and wheel pavers at around 3.5 mph.
Towed pavers (spreader boxes) are similar to self-propelled pavers, but lack a vibrating screed and the
compaction it produces. To compensate, lay out the paving mix 1/4-inch thicker than you would with a
self-propelled paving machine.
It's important to spray emulsified asphalt on every surface that'll be paved. The emulsion should be given
sufficient time to dry (it'll turn from brown to black) before applying the paving material.
Asphalt concrete pavement is made of one or multiple lifts (courses). When using multiple courses, the
base course can be subgrade or sub-base material, stabilized with asphalt or portland cement.
When resurfacing, a leveling (scratch) course can be applied that will smooth any irregularities in the old
pavement. This can be accomplished with "leveling wedges," to spot-patch depressions, or can be a
complete pavement layer. A 2- to 3-inch binder course can be substituted for a leveling course.
Binder-course mix is designed for stability, so it usually has larger aggregate than what's used in the
surface course. A 1- to 2-inch surface course is the last one installed in a multi-course pavement, or the
only course installed if you're applying a single-layer. The surface course should be smooth yet
skid-resistant, durable, water-, and weather-resistant.
If two or more lifts of asphalt paving are required, stagger the joints, so that if the top joint cracks, the
lower lift remains intact. When placing a second strip of paving alongside a previously installed strip,
allow the screed to overlap the first strip slightly to prevent a gap at the joint. Another technique (known
as echelon paving) involves the use of two pavers -- one ahead of the other -- to create a hot joint
between the mats.
Open-graded asphalt paving is usually spread at temperatures ranging from 200 to 250 degrees F, and
regular asphalt paving is spread at 250 to 325 degrees F. Neither should be spread when the air
temperature is below 60 degrees F.
Surface variation tolerances for paving typically don't exceed 1/8-inch in 10 feet parallel to the centerline
of the road, or 1/4-inch in 10 feet at right angles to the centerline.
Pavement Compaction
New paving must be allowed to cool before it's rolled. Some mixes are safe to roll at about 250 degrees
F, while others should be below 200 degrees F. Finding the ideal rolling temperature is often a matter of
experimentation and experience. Generally speaking, most material needs to be warmer than 175
degrees F. If the mix flows ahead of -- or to the sides of -- the roller, it's too hot. Other signs that your
mix is too hot include cracking at the roller edges, or seeing blisters form behind the roller. Conversely,
if the mix is too cool, it becomes stiff and will be difficult, if not impossible, to compact adequately.
A typical asphalt compaction job requires three rollings (modes). The initial (breakdown) rolling is
intended to produce a passing density in the shortest amount of time. Intermediate rolling improves
smoothness and eliminates surface blemishes. Finish rolling removes any surface marks left by
previous rollers.
Transverse (crosswise) joints are rolled first, shown in Figure 20-2, followed by longitudinal joints, in
Figure 20-3. Two-axle tandem smooth-wheel rollers are ideal for compacting joints. Next, the outside
edges of the mat are rolled, followed by breakdown, intermediate, and finish rolling. Pneumatic-tired
8-ton rollers are commonly used for rolling outside edges, because of their ability to seal the pavement
surface. Three-wheel or tandem 12-ton smooth-wheel rollers are good for breakdown rolling. Vibratory
tandem steel rollers are a popular choice for intermediate rolling on lifts greater than 1 1/2 inches thick.
Static tandem 8- to 12-ton smooth-wheel rollers or 8- to 10-ton vibratory rollers work well for finish rolling
because of their leveling capabilities.
Smooth-wheel rollers should be equipped with a roller-wetting system to prevent any mix from sticking
to the steel drums. The steel roller drum can leave roller marks at the edges and tension cracks toward
the center of the surface. A pneumatic-tired roller can usually erase such imperfections.
Estimating Asphalt Compactor Productivity

To calculate asphalt compactor productivity in cubic yards per hour, multiply 16.3 by the compacted
width per pass (in feet), the compactor's average speed (in mph), the lift thickness (in inches) and the
job efficiency factor. Then divide the outcome by the number of required compactor passes. In case
you're wondering where the constant, 16.3, comes from -- it's mile to cubic yard ratio.
Let's determine the productivity of an asphalt compactor with a 5-foot compaction width, a 4 mph
average speed, and a 0.83 efficiency rating, assuming a 6-inch lift thickness and a 5-pass requirement.
Using the formula, divide 1,623 (16.3 x 5 x 4 x 0.83 x 6) by 5 (passes) to get a 325 cubic yard per hour
productivity rate. To convert cubic yard rate to square yard rate, multiply the cubic yard rate by 3, and
divide the outcome by the lift thickness (in feet). In our example, that comes to 1,950 (325 x 3, divided
by 0.5).
Pavement Patching
To prevent uneven surfaces when patching a pavement, paving over a utility trench or any small area, the
edge of the new paving must be tapered (feathered) to the existing pavement's edge. To feather properly,
prime the existing pavement with an emulsion before you begin any patching. Cold pavement should be
heated with a blow torch prior to priming. After spreading the new paving, use a lute to rake out any
large aggregates at the feathered edge. Next, use a small roller to smooth the surface, before the mix
cools. Since the edges along concrete curbs can't be rolled, use a plate tamper or sledge hammer to
compact that area. Put a layer of sand on any other areas that can't be properly compacted, to prevent
traffic from loosening pieces of the new pavement. This allows the material to stay in place, and
eventually harden.
Pavement Recycling
The best machines to demolish asphalt pavement are open-bowl scrapers or loaders. However,
deteriorated asphalt or concrete paving can also be removed and reused as sub-base material, or mixed
with asphalt and recycled as paving material. Asphalt material removed from a roadway for recycling is
referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). The original asphalt binder can be rejuvenated by
heating, adding softening agents or adding new asphalt. RAP can be used to produce recycled hot mix
asphalt (RHM). Normally, RHM is about 50 percent RAP if it's manufactured in batch plants, and 70
percent RAP if it's produced in drum mix plants. RHM usually ages more slowly than conventional hot
mix asphalt, and it's more water resistant. Concrete materials can be recycled to provide new
aggregate, but the original cement binder becomes a part of the new aggregate. It must be replaced with
asphalt or new portland cement. This removed pavement material (containing no reusable binding agent)
is called reclaimed aggregate material (RAM).
There are two methods used for reclaiming pavement: cold planing and hot mix recycling. Cold planing
(grinding, profiling, or milling) removes all or part of the pavement without adding any heat. Profilers,
milling machines, and grinders are cold planers. They have rotating drums equipped with replaceable
tungsten-carbide cutting teeth. A water spraying system cools the teeth and controls dust. The removed
material can be left on the surface to be picked up later, or transferred to trucks by on-board conveyors.
Material that's left in place can be mixed with a binder (and additional aggregate, if necessary), spread,
compacted, and sealed with either a surface treatment or an overlay. This type of pavement is referred
to as in-place recycled pavement.
Cold planer cutters (mandrels) are generally between 4 and 12 1/2 feet wide. Large planers can be
equipped with optional 12-, 18- or 30-inch mandrel extensions.
Cold planers can be adjusted to remove a specific pavement thickness -- up to 10 inches in a single
pass, using the larger machines. Overall, productivity increases with increased cut depth. As a cut
increases beyond the machine's peak production depth, the reduced forward speed begins to offset
production gains of the deeper cut. Optimal cutting depth for asphalt concrete is usually 3 to 4 inches,
and 1/2 to 1 1/2 inches for portland cement concrete. Beyond that, it's generally more efficient to make
two passes. Some contractors use two cold planers, one ahead of the other. Each removes a portion of
the total depth. This is referred to as a recycling train.
Since the cutting teeth simply break the bonds between binder and aggregate, they don't actually
fracture the aggregate itself. That means that pavement with high asphalt content and small aggregate
is harder to mill than one with a high coarse aggregate content. Forward travel speed can vary from 8 to
10 feet per minute when reclaiming several inches of high-quality asphalt concrete, and 100 to 150 feet
per minute when removing less than one inch of deteriorated asphalt concrete. Caterpillar Inc. publishes
cold planer productivity rate charts like the one in Figure 20-4 This particular chart's figures are based on
a 1-inch cut depth and 115 pounds per square yard asphalt density.
To calculate your own cold planer productivity in terms of square yards per minute, multiply forward
speed (in feet per minute, fpm) by the cutting edge width (in feet). Divide the outcome by 9 (the number
of square feet in a square yard). Multiply the result by the efficiency factor. Remember, the efficiency
factor is largely based on productive time per clock hour.
Let's put this formula to work using actual numbers. Assume you have a cold planer with a 10-foot
cutting drum, and an average forward speed of 20 feet per minute. You have a 50-minute working hour,
equating to a 0.83 (50 / 60) efficiency factor. The ideal productivity rate comes to 22.2 (20 x 10, divided
by 9). Multiply by the efficiency factor to get 18.5 cubic yards per minute.
To convert a square yard productivity rate to cubic yards, divide the cutting depth (in inches) by 36 (the
number of inches in a yard), and multiply the result by the square yard productivity rate. In our example,
if the cutting depth was 2 inches, you'd have a 1.03 (2 / 36, multiplied by 18.5) cubic yard per minute
productivity rate.
At some point, you may need to calculate productivity rates in terms of tons per minute. Your first step
is to divide pavement density (in pounds per cubic yard) by 2,000 (the number of pounds in a U.S. ton).
Then multiply by the cubic yard per minute productivity rate. When you have pavement density in
pounds per square yard, multiply the figure by 36 to convert it to pounds per cubic yard. For example,
Figure 20-4 has density figures based on 115 pounds per square yard, which equates to 4,140 (115 x
36) pounds per cubic yard. Referring back to the tons per minute calculation, divide 4,140 by 2,000 to
get 2.07. Now simply multiply that figure by the cubic yard per minute productivity rate. Our example's
1.03 cubic yard per minute productivity rate converts to 2.13 (2.07 x 1.03) tons per minute.
In addition to their reclaiming abilities, cold planers can also restore specified grades or slopes,
removing bumps, potholes, ruts and other surface imperfections, and providing a textured, skid-resistant
surface with reduced hydroplaning characteristics.
In contrast to cold planing, hot mix recycling usually involves transporting the pavement materials to a
central plant where they're reheated and mixed with new asphalt, recycling agents, and/or new
aggregate. One exception is hot in-place recycling (HIPR), in which the scarified asphalt is mixed with
new asphalt onsite, then replaced in 2-inch layers.
Another hot mix recycling technique is surface recycling. Surface recycling involves heating the asphalt
road surface with an open flame or infrared heater, then scarifying and removing only 3/4 to 1 inch of the
asphalt road surface. After the material is mixed with an emulsion, it's re-laid on the surface, to be rolled
and compacted.
Concrete Paving
Most concrete paving is finished by specialized concrete spreaders that strike off, vibrate, and finish the
concrete as the machine moves forward over steel forms. See Figure 20-5. A form-riding curing machine
follows the spreader, applying curing compound, allowing for hand finishing where necessary. Concrete
spreaders can typically lay and finish slabs up to 10 inches thick and 24 feet wide, at the rate of 20 feet
per minute.
Concrete testing requirements vary, but generally, engineers require a test for every 150 cubic yards
placed, or for each 5,000 square feet of surface area poured. And many require that at least five tests be
conducted for each concrete type that's poured.
Having discussed the finer points of paving, I'll turn to blasting and ripping -- the subjects of Chapter 21.
21
Rock Blasting and
Ripping
You'll probably agree that the statement "Don't try this at home," could apply to rock blasting. There are
several books dedicated to this technical and dangerous discipline. Although blasting should only be
performed by a contractor who specializes in the field, it's good for you to know the basic principles of
blasting. I'll cover the subject here, along with ripping.
Rock Blasting
Ammonium nitrate is the main ingredient in most commercial explosives. One reason why ammonium
nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) is so popular is that it's relatively inexpensive. ANFO, although not water
resistant, is packed in water-resistant bundles, for use in damp locations.
As shown in Figure 21-1, boreholes for blasting are normally sub-drilled to a few feet below design
grade, to ensure that the rock is broken at that specific grade. The borehole is filled with an explosive up
to a predetermined depth, leaving a portion at the top empty. The portion containing explosive is called
the explosive column, and the remaining space is called stemming.
As you might expect, the denser the explosive, the more rock it will blast. Explosive material density
specifications, provided by the manufacturer, equate to the weight of one cubic foot of explosive to one
cubic foot of distilled water.
Several important blasting-related calculations are based on an explosive's weight for any given
borehole. To determine the number of pounds of explosive per borehole, multiply the explosive material's
density by the square of the charge diameter (in inches). Multiply the result by one-third of the explosive
column height (in feet). For example, a 3.5-inch diameter charge with a density of 1.25, set in a
25-foot-long explosive column, has 127.6 (1.25 x 3.5 x 3.5 x 25 / 3) pounds of explosive per borehole.
Once you know the number of pounds of explosive per borehole, you can calculate the rock volume
blasted from each hole. Divide explosive material weight (in pounds) by the powder factor -- the number
of pounds required to blast one cubic yard of rock. Continuing with our example, assuming 1 pound of
explosive is required to blast each cubic yard of rock, the volume of rock blasted per borehole is about
128 (127.6 / 1) cubic yards.
It's also useful to calculate the blasted rock surface area for any given borehole. Multiply the blasted
rock cubic yard volume by 27, and divide the outcome by total borehole depth. The constant (27)
converts cubic yards to square feet. So if each 25-foot borehole blasts 128 cubic yards of rock, the
blasted rock surface area is 138 (128 x 27 / 25) square feet per borehole.
If you know the per-hole blasted rock surface area, you can determine the required borehole spacing
needed to blast a given rock area: it's the square root of the blasted rock surface area. So, using our
example, the borehole spacing should be 11.7 (the square root of 138) feet. As a rule, borehole spacing
shouldn't be more than half the depth of each borehole.
Sonic Velocity
Sonic velocity, the speed at which a given rock transmits acoustical shock waves, is a major factor in
determining which type of explosive to use. The denser the rock, the faster it transmits shock waves.
One way to estimate sonic velocity in the field is to strike the rock with a one-pound hammer. If the rock
craters and spalls from the blow, the sonic velocity is probably in the 8,000 to 10,000 feet per second
range. If the hammer leaves a smooth dent, the velocity is from 10,000 to 13,000 feet per second. If the
hammer chips the rock, leaving jagged edges, the velocity is from 13,000 to 15,000 feet per second.
And if the hammer rebounds without damaging the rock, the velocity is from 15,000 to 18,000 feet per
second.
Seismic investigation is more precise in helping determine sonic velocity. It involves a sound sensor
(geophone) that times how long it takes a sound wave to travel between equally-spaced impact stations.
Velocity of Detonation
Velocity of detonation (VOD) is the speed at which an explosive changes from a solid to a gas. If the
VOD is slower than the speed at which the rock transmits shock waves (sonic velocity), the rock
breakage along the explosive column won't be uniform. Conversely, if the VOD is close to the sonic
velocity, breakage will be more uniform along the entire explosive column. Most explosives have a VOD
ranging from 10,000 to 18,000 feet/second. VOD increases as the diameter of the explosive increases.
It also increases or decreases slightly as ambient temperature increases or decreases. Solid explosives
exhibit less sensitivity to temperature than do liquid explosives.
Ripping Rock
Improvements in ripper attachments and specialized equipment make it possible to rip rock that
previously would've required blasting. In some cases, ripping instead of blasting can be half as
expensive.
Rippers are generally used for ripping rock and asphalt, but they can also cut tree roots, remove
stumps, and pry up concrete slabs. Rippers are usually installed on self-propelled equipment such as
motor graders, front-end loaders, compactors, tractors and bulldozers. They're attached with
rear-mounted ripper racks. See Figure 21-2. However, towed rippers are the exception, and, as the
name implies, are towed behind a tractor. Towed rippers are only useful for ripping pavement or weak
rock, like shale, slate, soapstone, etc. Since they're relatively lightweight, be aware that towed rippers
are prone to tipping over when they come up against large objects, like boulders.
Tractor-Mounted Rippers
The three basic tractor-mounted ripper types are radial-lift, fixed parallelogram (or parallel-lift), and
adjustable parallelogram. Any of these can be attached to a tractor without compromising the tractor's
dozing ability.
Radial-lift rippers swing the shanks up and down in an arc motion, changing tooth angle at various
depths of ripper penetration. This is especially useful when working close to existing structures, like
walls or footings, and for ripping soils that contain boulders.
Fixed parallelogram rippers raise and lower the shanks through a vertical plane, maintaining a constant
tooth angle at any depth of penetration. This keeps the tooth at its optimum cutting angle and reduces
tip wear.
Adjustable parallelogram rippers are the most versatile ripper variety because the tooth angle is
adjustable, even while the tractor is moving. See Figure 21-3. This ripper is also available with a single,
hydraulically-controlled shank called an impact ripper, useful for dealing with tough rock, such as granite
or marble.
Most rippers come in single- or multiple-shank configurations. The specific shank arrangement for any
job depends on tractor power, penetration depth, the material's resistance to being ripped, and the
required degree of breakage. The breakage requirement hinges on the loading equipment being used.
For example, scrapers can handle smaller fragments than mass excavators, front-end loaders or
dozers. Ripping with just the two outer teeth increases penetration and requires less power, but that
also creates larger rock fragments than when using all three teeth. If ripped rock is still too large, it can
be blasted, rolled over with the ripper tractor, or crushed with a crane-mounted drop ball until it's a
manageable size.
Ripper teeth (tips) come in three lengths. Short tips are used for high-impact jobs when tip breakage is
a concern, and when using tandem tractors to rip, since the additional pushing power exerts extra
stress on the ripper teeth. Medium-sized tips are used for ripping moderate-impact materials where
abrasion isn't an issue, and long tips are best suited for loose materials where breakage is of no
concern. Some ripper teeth are reversible, helping extend their service life.
Sometimes using a single shank with tooth penetration that matches rock stratum (layer) thickness
maximizes productivity. But it's usually more productive to use multiple shanks. In any case, rip as
deeply as possible, because shallow penetration will cause tooth wear that's disproportionate to the
ripper production. Teeth that slide into the same groove during subsequent passes without ripping
usually indicate dull, worn teeth that should be replaced or reversed.
Determining Rippability
Prior to bidding a project, you need to determine whether the rock is rippable, or whether it requires
drilling and blasting. One of the best indicators of rippability is seismic velocity, the speed at which
sound waves travel through rock. Field studies have shown that seismic velocity is inversely
proportionate to the rock rippability. In other words, rock that transmits sound waves at slow velocities is
more rippable than rock that transmits sound waves at high velocities. Sound velocity can range from
1,000 feet per second (fps) in loose soil to 20,000 fps in solid rock.
Seismic velocity charts, like the one in Figure 21-4 can be compared with field seismic information and
used as a guide for determining rippability. Seismic velocity charts are unique to any given tractor and
ripper, but the actual rippability for a particular job still depends on other variables, like the extent of
stratification (layering), fractures, planes of weakness, softening due to weathering, rock brittleness and
grain size.
Tooth penetration is usually the key to ripping success, regardless of seismic velocity. Rippability is
lessened if there are no bedding joints or fractures. This is especially true in homogeneous materials,
like mudstone, claystone, fine-grained caliche, or tightly-cemented conglomerates and glacial till.
Estimating Ripper Productivity

Most ripping is performed in first gear at about 1 1/2 mph, but average speed varies, so that factor isn't
always reliable when estimating ripper productivity. In this section, I'll discuss two basic methods that
can be used to determine ripper production, both of which require measurements taken at the job site.
The first (and most accurate) estimating method involves recording the ripping time (including turnaround
or backup), then removing and weighing the ripped material. Divide the material weight (in tons) by the
ripping time (in hours) for a productivity rate in tons per hour. For example, if 20 minutes (0.33 hours) of
ripping produces 312 tons of caliche, that equals 945 (312 / 0.33) tons per hour. This production rate is
based on the weight of material loaded into trucks or scrapers in a loose condition.
If you know the bank cubic yard (BCY) density of the material, you can convert the tons per hour rate
into BCY per hour. Just divide the tons per hour by the material density. For example, caliche's density
is 3,800 pounds per BCY, which equates to 1.9 (3,800 / 2000 lbs per ton) tons per BCY. Dividing the
945 tons per hour (productivity rate) by 1.9 yields 497 BCY per hour.
Another way to estimate ripper productivity is to record the time spent ripping (including turnaround or
backup), then remove the material and use the Average End Area Method to determine the volume of
ripped material. For a refresher course in using the Average End Area Method, refer back to Chapter 4.
But let's assume you ran the numbers and found that you were able to rip 350 cubic feet (13 BCY) of
material in 2 minutes (0.03 hours). That equals a 433 (13 / 0.03) BCY per hour productivity rate.
Ripper Productivity Graphs

If you don't have previous productivity figures with which to bid a job, the alternative is to use a
productivity graph from the equipment manufacturer, like the one shown in Figure 21-5. This particular
graph represents the productivity range for a Caterpillar D9 power-shift tractor with a single shank,
assuming 100 percent efficiency, and full-time ripping (without dozing). The upper production limits of
the chart (Line A) reflect ripping under ideal conditions. Line B represents productivity under adverse
conditions, such as the presence of thick or vertical lamination in the field material. Any given seismic
velocity between 3,000 and 8,000 feet per second has a corresponding equipment productivity rate
(designated on the vertical axis), based on its intersection with Line A or B. For example, a 5,000 foot
per second seismic velocity, assuming extreme conditions, equates to roughly a 450 BCY per hour
productivity rate prior to adjusting for less than ideal efficiency. Assuming a 50-minute working hour
(0.83 efficiency factor), the estimated ripper productivity rate is 374 (450 x 0.83) BCY per hour.
Using gravity to your advantage by ripping downslope usually improves productivity rates. In stratified
material, however, bedding plane orientation dictates ripping direction, since the shank tip must be
placed beneath the laminations for the most efficient production. On level ground where bedding planes
are perpendicular to the surface, rip at right angles to the direction of the beds. If material can't be
removed effectively by ripping in one direction, cross-ripping at right angles to the original ripping
direction often improves productivity. Also, loosening the rock prior to ripping by setting off small blast
charges (pre-blasting) increases ripper productivity rates.
Other Rock Machines

Rippers aren't the only equipment option when it comes to removing rock. Rock saws, like the one in
Figure 21-6, are used for trenching through rock. A wheel-mounted chain cuts a 12-inch wide trench up
to 3 feet deep. Depending on the rock density, it can cut about 17 feet of trench per hour. For a wider
trench, rock saws can make two parallel cuts, and the portion between them can be broken out using
pneumatic hammers.
Figure 21-7 shows a road miner (rotomill) that's typically used to excavate final grade for new streets
and roads. The milled material can be used as subgrade for the road. These machines can mill a variety
of materials, including asphalt, concrete and rock. The drum's teeth are interchangeable to suit the
material being milled. Regardless of material type, due to the equipment's power and the nature of the
work involved, no one but the operator should be in the vicinity during excavation.
Dozer equipped with 310 horsepower engine and a single-shank ripper working a 50-minute hour
ripping rock with seismic velocities of 3,000, 4,000, 5,000 and 6,000 feet per second. The monthly rental
rate for the machine is $13,200 and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel,
fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include transporting the machine to and from the site, or setup
costs.
3,000 fps seismic velocity

Average conditions, 1,750 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.12
Unfavorable conditions, 1,175 BCY/hr OE@.001 BCY 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.18
Dozer equipped with a 410 horsepower engine and a single-shank ripper working a 50-minute
hour ripping rock with seismic velocities of 3,000, 4,000, 5,000 and 6,000 feet per second. The monthly
rental rate for the machine is $15,200 and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of
fuel, fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include transporting the machine to and from the site, or setup
costs.

Dozer equipped with 580 horsepower engine and a single-shank ripper working a 50-minute hour
ripping rock with seismic velocities of 3,000, 4,000, 5,000 and 6,000 feet per second. The monthly rental
rate for the machine is $23,500 and fuel cost is $3.76/gallon. Material prices include the cost of fuel,
fluids and lubricants. Prices do not include transporting the machine to and from the site, or setup
costs.


This is the end of the 2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator.

Costbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Costbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator, All Rights Reserved Page 1

2016 National Earthwork & Heavy Equipment Estimator

Craftsman Book Company

Credits and Acknowledgments

©2015 Craftsman Book Company

Cut and Fill Operations 33

Topsoil, Slabs and Paving 45

Soil Swell and Shrinkage 65

Spoil, Borrow, and Soil Balancing 71

Grade Beams and Drilled Piers 93

Moving Vehicle Performance 191

Trucks and Wagons 209

Tractors and Bulldozers 223

Soil Compaction 251

Compaction Forces and Compaction Equipment 261

Motor Graders 273

Rock Blasting and Ripping 303

Variables Affecting Earthwork Project Costs

* How far will you need to haul imported or exported material?

Getting Started with Earthwork

Using National Estimator

* Storing and securing materials, tools and equipment on site.

Labor Costs and Crews

* Who will do the work (the craft code)

Hourly Labor Costs

Hourly Labor Cost

Components of Hourly Labor Costs

Area Modification Factors

Alabama Average -1 -8 0 -4%

Alaska Average 14 32 5 22%

Arizona Average 1 -9 0 -4%

Show Low, 859 1 -18 0 -8%

Arkansas Average -2 -12 0 -6%

Connecticut Average 1 20 0 10%

District of Columbia Average 3 23 1 12%

Florida Average 0 -11 0 -6%

Tampa, 335-336 -1 -2 0 -1%

Georgia Average -1 -7 0 -4%

Hawaii Average 17 28 6 22%

Idaho Average 0 -19 0 -9%

Green River, 612 -2 12 -1 4%

Indiana Average -2 -2 -1 -2%

Iowa Average -2 -5 -1 -3%

Kansas Average -2 -7 -1 -4%

Hays, 676 -2 -26 -1 -13%

Kentucky Average -1 -8 0 -4%

Maine Average 0 -11 0 -5%

Massachusetts Average 2 24 1 12%

Minnesota Average 0 -1 0 -1%

Brainerd, 564 0 -6 0 -3%

Mississippi Average -2 -12 -1 -7%

Missouri Average -1 -7 -1 -4%

Montana Average 0 -8 0 -4%

Nebraska Average -1 -17 0 -8%

New Hampshire Average 1 -4 0 -1%

New Jersey Average 1 26 0 12%

New Mexico Average 0 -18 0 -8%

New York Average 0 18 0 8%

North Carolina Average 1 -9 0 -4%

North Dakota Average -1 10 0 4%

Oklahoma Average -3 -8 -1 -5%

Oregon Average 1 -9 1 -4%

Pennsylvania Average -3 0 -1 -1%

Rhode Island Average 1 10 0 5%