An Introduction to Languages used in India

Dr. Vijendra Pratap Singh

Assistant Professor (Hindi)
Govt. P.G.College, Jalesar, Etah, U.P.
Email-vickysingh4675@gmail.com
Cell No. 7500573935

Introduction:-
India is certainly one of the multilingual Nations in the world today. Linguistic diversity, in the
world today, is an issue of growing social importance because a majority of all living languages are
threatened in their continued existence. Multilingualism is a common and increasing phenomenon in
present day society which can be studied from different perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to
focus on language spoken in India. The Languages of India belong to several language families; the
major one is the Indo-Aryan family. Languages of this family are spoken by a large number of people
in India. Second major language group is Dravidian families. Other groups are Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-
Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates are other language groups spoken in the
country.

If we think over Official recognition of a lingua franca, which is considered as National

Language. In India Hindi is considered as National as well as Official Language but factually there is
no official national language. There are 22 official languages in India. The official language of the
Union Government of Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official
language. The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in
Devanagari script.(Article 343:Constitution of India). A position supported by a High Court ruling.
However, languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian constitution are sometimes referred to
as the national languages of India. (James W. Tollefson-(2002) & (Andrew Simpson (2007). In India
there are several Hundreds of individual mother tongues used by the people of different states.

The Indo-Aryan Language forms a branch of Indo-Iranian languages, which in itself is a

branch of Indo-European language family. Out of all the Indo-European speakers, Indo-Aryans forms
one half of them. The large numbers of native speakers are Hindustani, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi,
Gujarati, Odia, Sindhi, Nepali, Sinhala, Saraika and Assamese with the total number of native numbers
are more than 900 million. They form a small sub-group of Indo-Iranian languages which consists of
two other language groups: Nuristani and Iranian.
The earliest proof of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the language that has been used in the
prehistoric preserved text of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational stone of Hinduism called the
Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of same age as the Rig Veda, but the only proof is a
number of loanwords.In 4th century BC, the Language was codified and standardized by the
grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention. Outside the purview of the Sanskrit
Literature, the vernacular dialects continue to evolve. The ancient attested prakrits are the Jain and
Buddhist canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi respectively. By the medieval period, the
Prakrits had actually diversified into many Middle Indic dialects. The Apabhramsa is actually a
traditional cover term for midway dialects connecting late Middle Indic with early Modern Indic,
spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects did show considerable literary
production, the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi
book. Under the thriving Mughal Empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige
of the Islamic courts. But, as a matter of fact, the Persian was displaced by Urdu. This Indo-Aryan
language is actually a combination with the Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of
the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Hindi and Bengali;
others include Oriya, Gujarati, Marathi and Punjabi.

The Indic languages of North India, which also includes the Assam Valley and Pakistan, form
a dialect continuum. The common Hindi that is spoken in India is actually standard Hindi which is the
Sanskrit version of the local Hindustani spoken in Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term
Hindi is also used for most of central Indic dialects to Rajasthan from Bihar. The Indo-Aryan Prakrits
also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi,
which are not considered to be Hindi despite being part of the same dialect continuum.

In the Hindi-speaking areas, the prestige dialect was long Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in
the 19th century by Khariboli -based Hindustani, commonly known as Urdu. This state of affairs
continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindustani/Urdu continued as an official language
of India and Pakistan but renamed Hindi in India and Urdu in Pakistan. Persian-Arabian vocabulary
began to be excised from the official Standard Hindi corpus of India in a bid to make the language
more "Indian". A return to Hindi poets such as Tulsidas resulted in what is known as a Sanskritisation
of the language. Persian words in common parlance were slowly replaced by Sanskrit words,
sometimes borrowed wholesale, or in new compounds. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of
Hindi-Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although
the basic grammar remains identical. Most people speak something in the middle, and this is what the
term Hindustani is frequently used to mean today.
Central zone, Northern zone, Northwestern zone, Eastern zone , Southern zone, Insular
(Southern) are major Indo-Aryan languages groups in India. Because there are not always clear breaks
between languages, there is no definite classification of the Indo-Aryan languages. However, they are
commonly divided as Dardic languages, such as Kashmiri, though their exact classification among
Indo- Aryan, Iranian and Nuristani Group, is uncertain. Northern languages: Kumaoni, Nepali,
Garhwali .North-western languages, such as Lahnda, Sindhi, and the Western Pahari languages,
Central languages, such as Punjabi, Hindi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Awadhi. Magadhan or Eastern,
languages, such as, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Maithili and Bhojpuri. Southern languages are Dhivehi,
Konkani, Marathi, Sinhala, and perhaps Dakhini

In a recent survery work “Bhartiya bhashanchi lok surveykshan (2012) Padmagandha

Publication under supervision of The People's Linguistic Survey of India (PLSI) includes Aagar,
Ahirani, Beldar, Bhatkya Vimuktanchya, Bhilalandi Nimadi, Chandgadi, Chhaparband, Chitodiya,
Dakhkhani, Dehwali, Dhorkoli, Dombari, Golla, Gondi, Gormati, Gosavi, Halabi, Jhadi, Kaikadi,
Katakari, Khandeshi Leva, Kohli, Kolami, Kolhati, Kokana, Korku, Kuchkoravi, Madiya, Malawani,
Malhar Koli, Mang Garudi, Mangeli, Marathi, Mathwadi, Mavchi, Nandiwale, Nathpanthi Davari,
Nauling, Pardhani, Pardhi, Paroshi Mang, Pawri, Powari, Samvedi, Sangmeshwari, Sindhi, Tavadi,
Thakuri, Vadari, Varadi, Vadavali, Vaidu and Varli in India. (http://peopleslinguisticsurvey.org/view
_ Publication_Details.aspx?id=11)

Angika Language:-
Angika language is spoken in south Eastern area of Bihar and also in some parts of North
Bihar. It is even orated in Maldah district of West Bengal and Santhal Praganas of Jharkhand.
Descriptively it is spoken in Madhepura, Purnia, Katihar, Saharsa, Banka, Bhagalpur, Numger and
Sheikpura districts. Moreover in Jharkhand region it is extensively orated in Pakur, deoghar and
Jamtara districts. This region lies within the states of Jharkhand Bihar and West Bengal. Moreover a
notable number of Angika speaking folks can be seen in countries like United Kingdom, United States
and Gulf countries. Further more this language is even narrated in Terai region of Cambodia, Nepal,
Malaysia, Vietnam and some Southeast Asian contries. Angika language has language family in which
Indo European is the family and it consists of some groups under it which are, Indo Iranian, Indo
Aryan, Bihari, Eastern and Angika. Angika Language is considered as the oldest language of the
Bengali family. This language is considered as very close to the language of Maithili. Naturwise
Angika language is close to Bangla and Maithili languages. George A. Grierson classified Angika
Language as Chikka Chikki. It has some affinity to Indo Arayan languages such as Oriya, Bengali and
Assamese. Historically this language has been identified as Bihari language whihc includes Bhojpuri,
Magahi, Angika, Maithili and Vajjika. In ancient historical times it has proved itself as an independent
language. It is not included in the 8th schedule of the constitution of India as a language. It has only
included as Chika chiki boli by George A Grierson who conducts its supervision in the year of 1928
Linguistic Survey of India. After Linguistics Survery in the year 1961 this language was given name
as Angika. This language has various alternative names i.e. Angikar, Aangi, Chekari, Bhagalpuri,
Chhai-chow, Chheka-chhiki, Chekari etc. Devanagri script was used to jot down Angika language. In
ancient era, Anga Lipi was used and later on Kaithi script was used to write Angika language. The
dialects of Angika are: Deshi, Dakhnaha, Mungeria, Devgharia, Gidhhoria, Surjapuri, Khortha and
Dharampuria. This language is spoken in these areas: Eastern and North-Eastern Bihar (Bhagalpur
District, Katihar District, Purnia District, Banka District, Madhepura District, Jamui District and
Munger District), Jharkhand (Sahibganj District, Godda District,and Deoghar District), West
Bengal( Malda District and Uttar Dinajpur district). A substantial portion of the Angika-speaking
population has settled down in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Baroda, Surat, Chandigarh,
Ludhiana, Jamshedpur and Bokaro.

Assamese language:-
Assamese or Asamiya is an Official Languge of Assam State, Which belongs to Eastern Indo-
Aryan language family. It is recognized as the official language of Assam. It is also spoken in parts of
Arunachal Pradesh and other northeast states. Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language is
widely used in Nagaland and parts of Assam. Negamese is an Assamese-based pidgin used in
Arunachal Pradesh. This language was evolved between 1000 to 1200 AD from the Magadhi Prakrit
which developed from a dialect or group of dialects that were close to, but different from, Vedic and
Classical Sanskrit. Its sister languages include Bengali, Oriya, Maithili, Chittagonian, Sylheti, Angika
and Bihari languages. It is an important language of the Indo-Aryan languages and spoken by over 13
million native speakers. This language is different from Classical Sanskrit and Vedic. Additionally its
sister language include Bengali, Bihari and other Chittagonian languages. In Bangladesh also
Assamese spoken in some areas.The language Assamese has strong literary tradition in early times.
Several examples can be seen in Land grants, copper plates and edicts of medieval kings. The second
Assamese dictionary introduced many spellings and words based on Sanskrit which are now very
standard. The present day Assamese language is not generally phonetic. Hemkosh is the other
dictionary of Assamese language which introduces many spellings which are based on Sanskrit.
Historically Magadhi Prakrit gave rise to four Apabhramsa dialects regionwise, viz. Radha,
Vanga, Kamarupa and Varendra. The Kamarupa dialect spread to the east keeping north of the Ganges
and is represented in North-Bengal at present by North-Bengali and in the valley of Assam by
Assamese. It is believed that Assamese and the Kamatapuri lects derive from the Kamarupa dialect of
Eastern Magadhi Prakrit and Apabhramsa, though some authors contest a close connection of
Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit. A fully distinguished literary form (poetry) appeared in the
fourteenth century in the courts of the Kamata kingdom; in the same century, Madhav Kandali
translated the Ramayana into the Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana) in the eastern court of a Kachari
king. From the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs (borgeets), dramas (ankiya nat) and the first
prose writings (by Bhattadeva) were composed. The literary language, based on the western dialects of
Assam moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century, where it became the state
language. Different kinds of prose developed by eminent writers of different period. Charyapadas of
Buddhist Literature were written in the ninth-century.
The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of ten diphthongs, eight vowels and also twenty
one consonants. It has four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically. Its phoneme inventory is
unique in the Indic group of languages in its lack of a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal
stops. Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese
resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India. The only other language to have fronted retroflex
stops into alveolars is the closely related eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental
stops remains in those dialects).
 Assamees has its own system of writing on the bark of the Saanchi tree in which chronicles and
religious texts were written. It closely resembles to Mithilakshar script and as well as Bengali script.
There are two theories in prevalence abut the Aasamiya script. Accordinging to first theory Assamese
script originated from the kutila script which was prevalent in the whole of North India between 4th
century A.D and 9th century A.D. The second theory says that the Assamese script originated from the
Eastern variety of Gupta Brahmi Script. Assamese is written from left to right and top to bottom
manner. The sounds are similar to Bengali language. Assamese script has evolved basically from
ancient Indian script called ‘Brahmi`. The history has been divided into Ancient Assamese script or
Kamrupi script, Medeival script and modern script. The ancient script spans from fifth century A.D. to
thirteenth century. Medieval Assamese script spans from 13th century A.D. to 19th century. Modern
Assamese script spans from 19th century A.D. to till the date. The name Kamrupi script is derived
from the name of ancient Kamarupa kingdom. The Medieval age of Assamese script starts from Kanai
Boroshibowa stone inscription. Ambari and Gochtal stone inscription, Rautkuchi inscription, copper
inscription of Madhav Raja, Srikrishna Kirtan and Charjabinisway are other scripts found in the
Middle age. According to Hemachandra Goswami the manuscripts can be categorized into three
groups: Gorgoyan script, Bamuniya script and Kaitheli script. The modern age of Assamese script
began with the British rule in Assam. The script that was used by the Christian Missionaries in order to
publish books and magazines in Assamese in the 19th century is considered as the Assamese script.
Assamese has a number of regional dialects. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects
which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects, of which the Eastern dialect is homogeneous,
and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. The Central group in
Nagaon and Morigaon and its adjoining districts.The Kamrupi group in undivided Nibari, Kamrup,
Darang and Bongaigaon district and finally the Goalpariya group in Golpara and Dhubri districts.
Recently four dialects are also documented which are Eastern Group in and around Sibsagar district.
The regional dialects are often used in creative works and even in novels. There also survive some
regional dialects which are Standard dialect influenced by neighbouring centres. Also there are
number of non regional dialects which are community based. Most literary activity takes place in this
dialect and is often called as Likhito bhaxa. Additionally the Bhakatiya dialect is highly polite and
sattra based which contains different set of nominals, verbal forms and prenominals. The fisherman
community has a dialect which is used in central and eastern region whereas the astrologer community
of Darrang district uses dialect called thar which is secretive and coded. It also consists of indirect and
passive expressions. Some of the features are even used in standard dialect on very formal instances.
Morphologically Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive. Adverbs can be derived
from the verb roots. Even a passive construction may be employed idiomatically. There is lexical
difference of gender in the third person pronoun. Genders and numbers are not grammatically marked.
Transitive verbs are illustrious from intransitive. Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots. Also a
passive construction may be employed idiomatically. Assamese has a massive collection of classifiers
which are all used for unique kind of objects. In Assamese the classifiers are generally used in the
numeral+classifier+noun forms. Most of the verbs are converted into nouns by the addition of
suffix.Assamese has a huge collection of classifiers which are all used for distinctive kind of objects.
In Assamese the classifiers are generally used in the numeral + classifier + noun forms.
There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. The first characteristics of
this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in the between the 8th and 12th centuries. The
first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the 14th century, the finest example of which is
Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as
well-crafted.Additionally the Vaishnavite literature came into existence in sixteen to seventeen
centuries. Moreover in 19nth century modern form of Assamese literature came into subsistence.

Awadhi Language:-
Awadhi language is an Eastern Hindi Language which is even at times considered as a dialect
of Hindi Urdu continuum. This language is also spoken majorly in Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh and
Nepal. Moreover some speakers can be found in Delhi and Madhya Pradesh. Furthermore a blend of
brij bhasha, Awadhi and bundeli is broadly spoken in Vatsa country of south of Awadh region which
even inhabits Allahabad and Kanpur areas. Also this verbal communication is extensively spoken in
numerous Caribbean countries where many residents of Uttar Pradesh have been brought as indentured
labours by the British government. As per 2001 census, this language is ranked as 29th language in the
list of languages by number of native speakers of the World.
This Awadhi language is recognised by number of names such as Abadi, Abadhi, Ambodhi,
Abohi, Biswari, Awadhi, Kosali and Kojali. Also it is considered as the main dialect of Eastern Hindi
branch in Indo Aryan group of Languages. These are basically spoken in northern parts of the Indian
sub continent and also its Diasporas are distributed all across the world. Additionally this language
term Awadhi resembles to denote the language of Awadhbut as matter this language is not confined to
Awadh region but is spoken outside this region i.e in Agra, Allahabad, Kanpur and some parts of
Nepal.
This Awadhi idiom is considered and spoken as a main part in the Awadh area of Uttar
Pradesh, some adjoining Terai regions of Nepal and also in Caribbean countries. This language is also
broadly spoken in lower areas of Ganges Yamuna doab. Approximately 40 million people are
calculated who speak Awadhi language. Moreover this idiom is ranked as 40th most spoken languages
in the world and is mainly orated in Nepal, all over India and in Mauritius even. This language at
many parts is spoken by the people as their primary language not the second one. Furthermore this
language belongs to Indo European family which further includes few groups such as, Indo Iranian,
Indo Aryan group, central zone and East central zone. Additionally the writing system used in Awadhi
language is Devanagri and Kaithi scripts whereas some people use the blend of both writings. This
language is largely spoken in many districts of Awadh region which includes, Rae Bareli, Gonda,
Balrampur, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur and Lucknow. It is even largely spoken in doab areas which include
Allahabad, Kanpur urban, Kaushambi and Fatehpur. Additionally in some districts this language is
orated partially which includes, Sitapur, Mirzapur, Sant Ravidas Nagar, Lakhimpur Kheri and
Ambedkar Nagar. Also in Nepal, Awadhi language is narrated in few zones such as Lumbini Zone
whihc includes Rupandehi district, Kapilvastu district and Nawalparasi district. The Rapti zone
contains Dang Deukhuri district whereas the Bheri zone includes Bardiya and Banke districts.
This Awadhi language is basically written in Kaithi and Devanagri script. Dialects of Awadhi
are Gangapari, Uttari, Mirzapuri, Tharu, Degauri Tharu, Fiji Hindi, Pardesi etc.

Bagheli Language:-
Bagheli language is a Hindi Eastern verbal communication which is orated in the Baghelkhand
district of central India. The Bagheli orators are seen chiefly in six areas of Madhya Pradesh (Satna,
Rewa, Sidhi, Umaria, Shahdol and Anuppur). The language spoken in Baghelkhand has been known
as Bagheli since the 13th century. Bagheli is a regional language used for intra-group and inter-group
communication. It is also known as Baghelkhandi, Rimahi and Riwai (Rewa district).Some alternative
names of Bagheli language are Godwani Kawathi, Bhugelkhud, Gangai, Mannadi, Bagelkhandi,
Kenat, Kevati, Kevat Boli, Kewat, Kewati, Kewani, Kewot, Mandal, Kumhari and Riwai. Northeast
Madhya Pradesh includes Satna, Rewa, Sidhi, Umaria, Shahdol, Anuppur, Mandla, Dindori, Jabalpur
and Chhindwara regions of Bagheli idiom. Also Panna districts contain Uttar Pradesh, Mirzapur,
Allahabad and Banda areas of Bagheli language. Even Hamirpur districts inhabit Bilaspur,
Chhattisgarh and Koriya districts. This language is also spoken in some part of Nepal. Dr. George
Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic survey of India classified Bagheli under Indo-Aryan, Eastern
Hindi. The extensive research by Dr. Bhagawati Prasad Shukla also agrees with Dr. Grierson’s
classification. Ethnologue classifies Bagheli as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, and East
Central zone (Grimes 1992:552). According to Dr. Bhagawati Prasad Shukla, Bagheli language has
three major divisions: 1. Pure Bagheli, 2.West Mixed Bagheli and 3.Southern Broken Bagheli.

Bagri Language:-
Bagri is important language widely spoken by people of North western states of India. Amongst
various important languages that belong to the Indo-Aryan family. It is a dialect of Rajasthani language. It is
used by the people of various districts of Rajasthan like Hanumangarh and Sriganganagar; in Haryana, Sirsa and
Hissar districts; Firozepur and Muktsar districts of Punjab; speak Bagri. Few people of Madhya Pradesh and a
handful of nomads of India speak Bagri.

Banjari/Banjara language:-
Banjari or Banjara language is spoken in the Rajasthan state, Western part of Madhya Pradesh
and also North West Gujarat by the nomadic people. They protest themselves to belong from the tribe
of Agnivanshi Rajputs and therefore they came to be known as Banjaris, Lamadi, Lavani, Goola,
Gurmati, Kora, Tanda, Wanji and Sugali. Combined with Domba, sometimes, they are also considered
as “Indian gypsies”. Banjara people are divided into two tribes. These tribes are Maturia and another
one is Labana. The language spoken by wide number of people from these regions is Banjara
Language. The word Banjara came into existence supposedly from Hindi and Prakrit and words used
in Rajasthani “bana or ban”. It is also said as Vana or van” connotation forests or Moorlands. The
word chara refers to movers. Additionally the word Banjara is a conversational form of the origin in
Sanskrit. The Sanskrit word adds up to for the word vana chara that refers to “forest wanderers”. It
was given them this name because of their ancient role in the society in India as distributors and
collectors of forest wood. Banjari, or Lambadi, is a Rajasthani language spoken by nomadic Banjara
people across India. The language is known by various other names, including Lamani, Lamadi,
Lambani, Labhani, Lambara, Lavani, Lemadi, Lumadale, Labhani Muka and variants, Banjara,
Banjari, Bangala, Banjori, Banjuri, Brinjari, Vanjari, Wanji, and variants, Gohar-Herkeri, Goola,
Gurmarti, Gormati, Kora, Singali, Sugali, Sukali, Tanda.Regional dialects are divided between the
Banjara of Maharashtra (written in Devanagari), Karnataka (written in the Kannada script) and Andhra
Pradesh (written in the Telugu script). Speakers are bilingual in either Telugu, Kannada, or Marathi.

Braj Language:-
Braj Bhasha is the most popular language of North India, particularly in the region of western
Uttar Pradesh. It is also known as `Brij Bhasha`, `Braj Bhakha` or `Dehaati Zabaan`. This language is
very closely associated with Hindi language. In fact, at times it is generally considered as a dialect of
Hindi language, and Braj Bhasha along with Awadhi language was considered as one of the two major
literary languages of North-Central India before the Khariboli language. The region in which Braj
Bhasha is hugely spoken is nebulously defined as the region of Braj Bhoomi. This particular region
lies in between the Agra-Mathura area, and it almost stretches up to the vicinity of Delhi. Today, the
Braj Bhoomi is considered as a cultural-geographical body and not a proper state. In the medieval
period, major part of the Hindi literature developed in Braj Bhasha. But, today, it is the Khariboli
dialect that has taken the place as the principal model dialect of Hindi language. After independence in
modern India, Braj Bhasha or Brij Bhasha subsists as an unsanctioned or unofficial dialect that is
spoken colloquially by natives of Braj Bhoomi. This language has great cultural as well as religious
significance. A major portion of Hindi poetry and literature is in Braj Bhasha. For instance, some
devotional poems devoted to Lord Krishna were also composed in this particular language. Today it is
basically considered as a rural tongue more popular in the vague Braj region that is centred near
Mathura and Agra in Uttar Pradesh. This language is predominant in the following districts of the
country - Mathura, Agra, Aligarh, Bulandshahr, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Firozabad, Hathras, Etah,
some part of mainpuri etc. Besides Uttar Pradesh, this language is spoken in certain areas of Haryana
specifically in Gurgaon and Faridabad districts. Braj Bhasha is also spoken in the neighbouring areas
of Rajasthan and the main districts include - Bharatpur, Dhaulpur.

Bengali language:-
Bengali is second important eastern Indo-Aryan language. It is native to the region of eastern
South Asia known as Bengal, which comprises present day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West
Bengal, and parts of the Indian states of Tripura and Assam. Bengali is one of the most spoken
languages, ranked seventh in the world. Literary Bengali saw borrowings from Classical Sanskrit,
preserving spelling while adapting pronunciation to that of Bengali, during the period of Middle
Bengali and the Bengali Renaissance. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the
19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali
dialect. Bengali presents a strong case of diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing
greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Standard Bengali in
West Bengal and Bangladesh are marked by some differences in usage, accent, and phonetics. Today,
literary form and dialects of Bengali constitute the primary language spoken in Bangladesh and the
second most commonly spoken language in India. With a rich literary tradition arising from the
Bengali Renaissance, Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor
to Bengali nationalism.
Like other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali arose from eastern Middle Indo-Aryan
dialects of the Indian subcontinent. Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, the earliest recorded spoken languages
in the region and the language of Gautama Buddha, evolved into the Jain Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi
"Half Magadhi" in the early part of the first millennium. Ardhamagadhi, as with all of the Prakrits of
North India, began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages just before the turn of the
first millennium. The local Apabhraṃśa language of the eastern subcontinent, Purvi Apabhraṃśa or
Abahatta, eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups of the
Assamese-Bengali languages, the Bihari languages, and the Oriya languages.
Historically it has three phases. i.e.i: Old Bengali (900/1000–1400), Middle Bengali (1400–
1800) and New Bengali (since 1800). With high influence from Pali and Prakrit into Bengali, Bengali
also saw an increase in Sanskrit influence during the Middle Bengali (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu era) and
also during the Bengal Renaissance. Of the modern Indo-European languages in South Asia, Bengali
and its neighbors, Oriya and Assamese, in the east maintain a largely Pali/Sanskrit vocabulary base, as
does Marathi in the center-west.
Bengali was the focus, in 1951–52, of the Bengali Language Movement in what was then East
Bengal (today Bangladesh). Although the Bengali language was spoken by the majority of East
Bengal's population, Urdu was legislated as the sole national language of the Dominion of Pakistan.
On 21 February 1952, protesting students and activists were fired upon by military and police in the
University of Dhaka and three young students and several other people were killed. Later in 1999,
UNESCO declared 21 February as the International Mother Language Day in recognition of the
deaths. In a separate event on 19 May 1961, police in Barak Valley in Assam, killed eleven people
who were demonstrating against legislation that mandated the use of the Assamese language. Bengali
is native to the region of eastern South Asia known as Bengal, which comprises Bangladesh, the
Indian state of West Bengal and parts of Assam and Tripura. Besides this region it is also spoken by
majority of the population in the union territory Andaman and Nicobar Islands. There are also
significant Bengali-speaking communities in: Middle East, United States, Japan,Singapore, Malaysia,
Maldives, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Pakistan. Bengali is the national and official language
of Bangladesh, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. It is the
official language of the states of West Bengal and Tripura. It is also a major language in the Indian
union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also the co-official language of Assam, which
has three predominantly Sylheti-speaking districts of southern Assam, Cachar, Karimganj and
Hailakandi. Bengali is a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand from September
2011. It is also a recognized secondary language in the City of Karachi in Pakistan. The Department of
Bengali in the University of Karachi also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the
Masters levels for Bengali Literature. In December 2002, Sierra Leone’s President Ahmad Tejan
Kabbah also named Bengali as an "official language" in recognition of the work of 5,300 troops from
Bangladesh in the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone peacekeeping force. The national anthems
of both India and Bangladesh were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath
Tagore. Another gem of Bengali literature, Kazi Nazrul Islam is the National poet of Bangladesh. Kazi
Nazrul Islam was born in India and died in Bangladesh. In 2009, elected representatives in both
Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations.
Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar
Chatterjee grouped these dialects into four large clusters-Rarh, Banga, Kamarupa and Varendra; but
many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects (Rarh) form
the basis of standard colloquial Bengali, while Bangal is the dominant dialect group in Bangladesh. In
the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka
and Sylhet divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are
pronounced as fricatives.
The Bengali script is an abugida, a script with letters for consonants, diacritics for vowels, and
in which an "inherent" vowel is assumed if none is written. The Bengali script is used throughout
Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura and the Mithila region of Bihar). The
Bengali script is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th -
11th century). The Bengali script has particularly close historical relationships with the Assamese
script, Tirhuta, and some resemblance with the Oriya script and Nepali scripts (although this
relationship is not strongly evident in appearance). The Bengali script is a cursive script with eleven
graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs, and thirty-nine graphemes representing
consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run
from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words. Bengali script has a distinctive
horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called matra.

Bihari Language:-
The Indic Eastern Languages in Western group is come to be well known as Bihari. This
language is orated in Bihar as well as in several adjoining states of India. The Bhojpuri, Angika,
Bajjika and the Magahi are the most well known languages spoken in the state of Bihar. It is also
narrated in Nepal region as well. A good percentage of population of Nepal orate this language.
Despite of large number of idiom spoken by various speakers still they are not identified as well. But
the language Maithili has expanded a constitutional status in India. Even in Bihar apart from Bihari
language, Hindi is also used and taught. It is even used in official and educational matters. Many
Universities in Bihar such as Nalanda Open University, Bihar Central University etc. serve its students
and teach them Bihari as the compulsory language. Bihari Hindi was given the status of sole official
through Bihar official Language Act, 1950. Hindi was displaced as the solitary authorized language of
Bihar in the year 1981. In Bihari verbal communication the numbers of speakers are difficult to point
out as because of unreliable sources. The educated speakers in built-up region grasps language name
Hindi as their language because this is what they employ in the official contexts. Urban accumulation
and also the educated folks of the region return Hindi as the basic name of the verbal communication.
Additionally the relationship with the Maithili community with the Magahi and also with the Bhojpuri
is neither very agreeable nor very intimidating. These two groups are considered very resentful of the
achievement series. Both in the Socio political and literary group Bihari language have achieved
success. Furthermore Maithili has been the only one among them which has regularly tried to reject
the superimposition of Hindi over the distinctiveness. However the other two groups have given all
their claims and also have resigned to believe the rank of dialects of Hindi.

Bhili language:-
Bhili is a Western Indo-Aryan language spoken in west-central India, particularly in the region
east of Ahmedabad. Other names for the language include Bhagoria and Bhilboli; several varieties are
called Garasia. Bhili is a member of the Bhil language family, which is related to Gujarati and the
Rajasthani language. The language is written using a variation of the Devanagari script.

Bhojpuri Language:-
Bhojpuri is spoken extenshively in several parts of eastern and northern India and even in state
of Uttar Pradesh. It is also orated in number of western parts of Jharkhand and Bihar. Bhojpuri is also
measured as a division of Hindi Eastern tongue and therefore it extends from Bihar to Purvanchal. In
Mauritius, Fiji and Guyana cities of the world, Bhojpuri language is orated largely. Numerous people
in region of surnami speak this verbal communication more as evaluated to Fiji and Guyana cities.
This verbal communication contains Dutch lexical pressure and is therefore referred as Surnami
language. It is a member of east Indo-Aryan language family. After independence of Pakistan in 1947,
many Bhojpuri speaking Muslims migrated to Pakistan and settled in Karachi. The Bhojpuri dialect is
currently spoken by elderly while the younger generation now speaks standard Urdu. The Bhojpuri
dialect is also known as Bihari dialect in Pakistan. Bhojpuri is little comparable to Awadhi lingo.
Bhojpuri lingo has been documented as one of the authorized languages in India. This language
literature inhabits modern influences. It holds number of poems and folk music.The fiction written in
Bhojpuri verbal communication underway in 20th century.The British era prepared Bhojpuri language
to be known as Province Northern Frontier Language. After sovereignty this language also accepted
the Patriotic pitch. The mythical works in Bhojpuri verbal communication are extra founded on
sentiments and human struggles of life. Additionally this verbal communication is written in diverse
scripts by several well-known people.Bhojpuri contains Standard Bhojpuri dialect, which comprises
all the model southern areas like eastern Gazipur in Uttar Pradesh, Siwan, Saran, Gopalganj in Bihar
and Rohtas. Secondly Northern Bhojpuri dialect which is prevailed in all the areas of Deoria,
Gorakhpur and Basti in Uttar Pradesh. It also includes champaran area of Bihar. Thirdly, Western
Bhojpuri dialect includes the regions like Mirzapur and Azamgarh in Varanasi and Uttar Pradesh.
Banarasi is regarded as the confined name for Bhojpuri. Purabiya is another famous name for Western
Bhojpuri language.Bhojpuri was historically written in Devanagari and Kaithi with some claiming
Nastaliq script being used. But after 1894, Devanagari has served as the primary script for writing
purpose. It is script of Bhojpuri used by Kayastha. Kaithi script was used for administrative purposes
in the Mughal era for writing Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, Urdu, Magahi and Hindi from at least 16th
century up to the first decade of 20th century. Government gazetteers report that Kaithi was used in a
few districts of Bihar through the 1960s. The first impetus of growth was the standardization of written
Kaithi in 1875 by the government of NWP&O for the purpose of adapting the script for use in formal
education. The second was the selection of Kaithi by the government of Bihar as the official script of
the courts and administrative offices of the Bihar districts in 1880. By 1894, official works were
carried out in both Kaithi and Devanagari in Bihar. At present almost all the Bhojpuri works are done
in Devanagari even in the overseas islands where Bhojpuri is spoken.

Bhoti Language:-
The Bhoti language or Ladakhi language is the principal language in the region of Ladakh in
the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India. The Bhoti language is also used as a dialect in Himachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh and some parts of West Bengal. When the Purig or
Burig and Balti dialects are incorporated, then it is called Western Archaic Tibetan by linguists. Bhoti
or Ladakhi is intimately linked to Tibetan, and the Ladakhi populace has close cultural resemblance
with the Tibetans, particularly Tibetan Buddhism. Although there is ambiguity as to whether they
should regarded as distinctive languages but Bhoti and Central Tibetan are not equally
comprehensible. Both the languages mutually share a written form which can be traced back to old
Tibetan. There are more than 200,000 speakers of Bhoti language in India. Bhoti comprises of several
classifications, such as: Lehskat or Ladakhi proper- used mostly in Leh, the capital of Ladakh,
Shamskat- used mostly in northwest of Leh,Stotskat- used mostly in the southeast in the Indus valley;
and Nubra- used mostly in the north. The assortment of Bhoti or Ladakhi language spoken in Zangskar
and Upper Ladakh consists of several features of Bhoti and various other characteristics of western
dialects of Central Tibetan. The majority dialects of Bhoti language lack tone, except for Upper
Ladakhi and Stotskat which have a similar tone to that of Central Tibetan. Bhoti language is generally
written in Tibetan script. The occurrence of diglossia, where two distinct dialects are utilised by a sole
language community, is usual in Bhoti, where it bears close resemblance in pronunciation to written
Tibetan than other Tibetan vernaculars.

Bundelkhandi Language:-
Bundeli or the Bundelkhandi language has its name from the Bundelkhand. It was once
controlled by Rajputs and some other martial tribes. It is one of indo Aryan language and is generally
spoken more in bundelkhand region of the Madhya Pradesh. It is also spoken in some parts of southern
Uttar Pradesh.Bundeli is even considered as the western Hindi language. It was widely spoken in the
north Indian region only till the 19th century and is classically related to braj Language.The native
speaker of this verbal communication counts up more than twenty million. It uses its writing system as
devanagri script. It is even regarded as the most orated idiom in Madhya Pradesh which is considered
to be the largest state in India covering almost 443446 sq. Km. Of area. Bundelkhandi is the chief
dialect of Madhya Pradesh and also it contains a lot of variations in it. Hindi is generally spoken in the
urban areas of this state while the local dialects and the sub dialects are generally known as Tirhani,
Gahora, jurar and Aghari. There are certain changes in this language is spoken which depends
generally on the distance in which the region is situated.

Chhattisgarhi Language:-
Chhattisgarhi language is an Indo Aryan language and is spoken mostly in Chhattisgarh. It is a
rich Indo -Aryan language and is spoken in almost all the parts of Chattisgarh. Other than Chhattisgarh
,in some parts of Madhya Pradesh ,Orissa and Bihar Chhattisgarhi language is also spoken.Chhattisgarhi
is similar to Bagheli and Awadhi (Avadhi). It is the official language of Chhattishgarh State. It is an
eastern Hindi language with very heavy vocabulary and linguistic features from Dravadian and Munda
languages. This language is also known as ‘Khaltahi’ which is surrounding hill people and also by the
name of Laria which includes Sambalpuri and Oriya speakers. In ancient times the Chhattisgarh region
was known as Daksin Kosal that’s why this classical name of the Chhattisgarhi language is Kosali or
Daksin Kosali with historical significance. The speakers of this language are spread all over ranging
from Indian state of Chhattisgarh to adjacent areas of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Orissa. In 2000,
16th districts of the state of Madhya Pradesh became the new state as Chhattisgarh. From 93 languages
total which are used united M.P., 70 are variants belong to Chhattisgarhi alone. Due to numbers of
varitents Chhattisgarhi can also be termed as a variety of Hindi language. It contains 70 dialects which
are widely spread all over the three linguistic groups of Austro Asiatic languages. Approximately 12
million people speak Chhattisgarhi language. This Chhattisgarhi language is spoken and written with
different accents and pronunciations in many different parts of the Indian state of Chhattisgarh. Apart
from Chhattisgarhi language many people nearby state of Madhya Pradesh also speaks English and
Hindi as well. The Awadhi and Bagheli languages are closely related to Chhattisgarhi language.
Chhattisgarhi has rich cultural and literature history. The most widely use dialects of Chhattisgarhi are
Kalanga, Sadri korwa, Bhulia, khairagarhi, baigani, kavardi and Surgujia. Many dialects are also dying
away like Kurukh, Parji and Gondi which are facing near extinction among the languages of
Chhattisgarh. Also European dialects are in use in the central part of the Chhattisgarh. The southern
part of the state falls on the Deccan plateau and this has influence on the Dravidian dialects which are
infused with the Indo European dialects. Linguistically it is with the East Central Zone of the Indo
Aryan languages which is the Indian branch of the Indo European language family. Like Hindi
language, Chhattisgarhi language is also written using Devanagri script.

Dogri language:-
Dogri is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about five million people in India and Pakistan,
chiefly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, but also in northern Punjab,
other parts of Jammu and Kashmir, and elsewhere. . In himachal, Dogri is majorly spoken in Una,
Chintpurni, Kangra, and Bilaspur regions. Dogri speakers are called Dogras, and the Dogri-speaking
region is called Duggar. Since Dogri, Kashmiri, Punjabi, Urdu and Hindi are spoken in a region that
has witnessed significant ethnic and identity conflict, all have been exposed to the dialect versus
language question. The Dogri speaking people are known as Dogras and their region is called as
Duggar. Dogri language is actually a member of the Western Pahari languages group.The language is
referred to as Pahari in Pakistan. Unusually for an Indo-European language, Dogri is tonal, a trait it
shares with other Western Pahari languages and Punjabi.Very recently, this language of the Indo
Aryan language family received an official recognition in India. Before that Dogri language was
identified as an `independent modern literary language` of the country and this recognition was based
on common recommendation of a panel consisting of linguists from the General Council of Sahitya
Academy of Delhi in the year 1969. Dogri language received recognition on 22nd December, 2003,
when it was summoned as a national language of the country in the Indian Constitution.

Dogri script was written with the help of Takri script. This writing is intimately connected to
writing of Sharda which was engaged by Kashmir. Even the Gurmi scripts were taken into use to write
Punjabi in Kashmir. In India, recently Devanagri writing is used in scripting the Dogri script.
Moreover in Pakistan the Persian Arabic form of Nastalliq script is used to write Dogri writing.

Dhundari language:-
Dhundari is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Dhundhar region of north eastern Rajasthan
state of India. Dhundari-speaking people are found in three districts – Jaipur, Karauli, Sawai
Madhopur, Dausa, and Tonk. The derivation of the name “Dhundari” is thought to be from two
origins. According to the first opinion, Dhundari is believed to have drawn its name from the Dhundh
or Dhundhakriti Mountain, which is situated near Jobner in Jaipur District. The other opinion is that it
is named after a river called Dhundh flowing through this region. Hence the name became Dhundhar.
It has been classified as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central Zone, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Alternative names for Dhundari are Dhundhali, Dhundhahdi, Jhadshahi boli, and Kai-kui boli and
Jaipuri.

English Language:-
In Indian context, Officially English has a status of assistant language, but in fact it is the most
important language of India. After Hindi it is the most commonly spoken language in India and
probably the most read and written language in India. The British first arrived in India in the early
1600s and soon established trading posts in a number of cities under the control of The East India
Company. By 1765 the Company’s influence had grown to such an extent that the British were
effectively controlling most parts of the country. This date is often taken as the start of what is referred
to as The Raj - a period of British rule in India that lasted until Independence in 1947. Initially English
was only taught to the local population through the work of Christian missionaries. There were no
official attempts to force the language on the masses. But by the 1700s, English had firmly established
itself as the language of administration and many educated Indians were demanding instruction in
English as a means of social advancement. By 1857 universities had opened in Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras. English was increasingly accepted as the language of government, of the social elite, and of
the national press.

After Independence, India became a nation state, and it was intended that English would
gradually be phased out as the language of administration. But there was no simple solution as to
which language should replace it. At first Hindi, the most widely spoken language, seemed the
obvious choice, but following violent protests in 1963 in the state of Tamil Nadu against the
imposition of Hindi as a national language, opinion has remained divided. In a country with over 900
million people and more than a thousand languages, it is difficult to choose a single national language,
as mother tongue speakers of that language would automatically enjoy greater social status and have
easier access to positions of power and influence. Even Ghandi, a proponent of a native variety as a
national language, accepted that his message was most widely understood if expressed in English. So,
although English is not an indigenous language, it remains as an ‘Associate Language’ in India,
alongside Hindi, the ‘Official Language of the Union of India’ and eighteen 'National Languages',
such as Bengali, Gujurati and Urdu that have a special status in certain individual states.

Garhwali Language:-
Garhwali is a Central Pahari language belonging to the Northern Zone of Indo-Aryan
languages. It is also considered as a Central Pahari language which is initially and chiefly spoken by
the people of Garhwal who reside in north western Garhwal area of Uttarkhand. This language is also
be in the right place of Indo European Language family which further consists some sub groups such
as Indo Aryan, Indo Iranian, Northern, Pahari, Garhwali and Central Pahari. It has many regional
dialects which all are conversed in different regions of state of Uttarkhand. In the middle period of the
course of development of Indo-Aryan languages, there were many prakrit. Of these, the "Khas
Prakrit" is believed to be the source of Garhwali although some scholars believe "Shaurseni
Apabhransa" to be the source of the Garhwali. The early form of Garhwali can be traced to the 10th
century which is found in numismatics, royal seals, inscriptional writings on copper plates and temple
stones containing royal orders and grants. One such early example is the temple grant inscription of
King Jagatpal at Dev Prayag (1335 AD). Most of the Garhwali literature is preserved in folk form,
handed down verbally from generation to generation but since the 18th century, literary traditions are
flourishing. Till the 17th century, Garhwal was always a sovereign nation under the Garhwali Kings.
The script used in jotting down this language is Devanagri script. This language also inhabits
official status and is therefore regarded as official language of Uttarkhand. It is widely spoken by
number of people living in Pauri, Garhwal, Tehri Garhwal, Chamoli, Haridwar, Dehradun and
Uttarkashi which all are districts of Uttarkhand. Additionally this idiom is also widely spoken in Delhi,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Bihar of India. This Indo Aryan Language
contains many prakrits from which the Khas Prakrit is considered as the source and origin of Garhwali
language. Garhwali language is heavily influenced by many dialects and some languages, these are,
Hindi, Sanskrit or Hindustani which is spoken in south areas of Garhwal, Bhotia dialect of China and
Tibet, Nepali and Kumauni is orated in south areas of Gahrwal and finally it includes the western
Pahari group dialects and languages which are spoken by the people living in nearby areas of
Himachal Pradesh. Srinagariya, Jaunsari, Tihriyali, Badhani, Lohabbya, Nagpuriya, Rathi, Salani,
Bangani, Parvati, Gangadi and Jaunpuri are the dialects of this language. All these dialects are spoken
in different districts like garhwal, Kumaon, Tehri and Uttarkashi of Uttarkhand and are therefore
heavily influenced from Garhwali language.

Garo Language:-
This language is mostly spoken by the people living in Garo Hills in the Indian state of
Meghalaya. It is regarded as prominent language of the Indian state of Meghalaya and it has been
recognized as the official language of this state. Garo language is also known as Garrow or it is even
known as by the names of people such as Mande. It is language used in Dhubri, Kamrup, Goalpara and
Darrang district of Assam. It is even used in adjoining areas of Bangladesh.This Garo language
belongs to Sino Tibetan language family group. This group has few sub groups such as Tibeto
Burman, Bodo Koch, Garo and Brahmaputran groups. Garo language is a Tibeto Burman verbal
communication and is widely spoken by groups of Bodo Konyak Jingpho. It is also closely linked up
with Bodo language. Many tribal people converse in this language which is also related to Assamese
language. This language uses Latin script as well as in Bengali script also, which itself has some close
similarity with Bodo language. Garo language has A’beng dialect. There are also some dialects of this
language other than this A’beng dialect which exist in Indian region of Bangladesh.These dialects are
Du’al and Me’gum dialects.

Gondi language:-
Gondi is a South-Central Dravidian language, spoken by about two million Gond people,
chiefly in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattishgarh and in
various adjoining areas of neighbouring states. Although it is the language of the Gond people, only
about half of them still speak it. Gondi has a rich folk literature, examples of which are marriage songs
and narrations. Most of the Gondi dialects are still inadequately recorded and described. The more
important dialects are Dorla, Koya, Maria, Muria, and Raj Gond. Gondi is typically written in the
Devanagari script or Telugu script, but has its own writing system, the Brahmi-based Gondi script,
designed by a Gond in 1928 and evolved since. However, most Gonds are illiterate and do not use any
script.
Gujarati Language:-
Gujarati is a modern Aryan Indo language which is evolved from Sanskrit. It is considered as
the 26th most spoken native language in the world. Old Gujrati includes Vedic and classical Sanskrit,
Middle Gujrati includes Apabhramshas and Prakrits and Modern Gujrati contains modern languages
like Hindi, Bengali and Punjabi.The gujars speak the old Guajarati language. They reside in Punjab,
central India and also various other parts of Gujarat. In 12th century this language was taken into use
as literary. Middle Gujarati language is spitted from Rajasthani phenomenon. Modern Gujarati verbal
communication has chief phonological amends and it even contains final consonant words. Gujarati is
one of the twenty two authorized verbal communication and also the fourteen district languages of
India. Moreover it is authoritatively recognised in the state of Gujarat. Gujarati language accepts a
benchmark dialect speech which extends from Baroda to Ahmadabad. Standard Gujarati – Nagari,
Bombay Gujarati, Vadodari, Kathiyawadi-Halodi, Mer, Kharva, Khakari and Sorathi, Gamthi –
Pathani, Gramya, Machi, Anavla and Patidari are its Ethnologue dialects and sub divisions. Parsi is the
major dialects include a simplified grammar of the Gujarati language. Similar as to the Nagari writing
system, the Gujarati libretto is an abugida. It is used to engrave the Kutchi and Gujarati language. Also
Gujarati verbal communication is a variant of Devanagri Script and is therefore discriminated from the
defeat of the characteristic horizontal procession which runs above the letters. It even contains a small
amount of alterations in the residual characters. Gujarati is closely related to Kutch language and can
also be written in Persian and Arabic scripts. These types of writing scripts are done by many in
Gujarat Kutch’s district. The accepted standard dialect is the speech of the area from Baroda to
Ahmedabad and north. Nagari,Bombay Gujarati, Patnuli,Vadodara,Amdavadi,Gamthi
,Sabarkanthi,Gramya,Surti, Anavla, Bhathla, Machi, Charotari, Patidari, pathani, Patani, Parsi,
Kathiyawadi, Jhalawadi, Sorathi, Holadi, Gohilwadi,Bhavnagari,Mer,Kharva,Khakari,Tarimukhi
,Ghisadi,Ghanchi are dialects of Gujrati.

Harauti Language:-
Harauti language is a part of Rajasthani language. Harauti language is considered as the Indo
Aryan language and as a whole this Harauti verbal communication comes under Indo European
family. This verbal communication is widely orated in Hadoti regions of India like, Baran, Kota,
Jhalawar and Bundi district. It is also extensively spoken in adjacent areas of Madhya Pradesh. Harauti
language is known by different names like Hadothi, central east Rajasthani, Havauti, Hadoti, Hadauti,
HAirauti, Piploda, Standard Rajasthani, Harauti, Eastern Rajasthani and Jaipuri. Harauti: Standard
Harauti (hoj-har) and Sipari, Shiopuri (hoj-sip) are its child dialects.

Haryanavi Language:-
Haryanavi belongs to language family groups of Indo Aryan and comes under the Western
Hindi family of languages. It is the northernmost dialect of the Hindi language. It is also called a part
of Khadi Boli or Jaatu. It is most widely spoken in the North Indian State of Haryana and in Delhi
also, generally by rural people and particularly by the Jats. Haryanvi language has been acclaimed as
one of the most significant as one amongest regional language that have their basic origin at Indian
land. Hariyanavi is spoken in almost fifty percent of the districts of Haryana. The districts adjoining
Rajasthan speak different Rajasthani languages like Mewati in Mewat district, Ahirwati in
Mahendragarh and Rewari districts, Bagri in Bhiwani, Sirsa and Hisar districts and Braj bhasha in
Faridabad district and Gurgaon. The rest of the districts speak Haryanvi with the exception of
Fatehabad and where the effect of Punjabi if predominant.Bangru is spoken in Jind District.Most
famous of Haryanavi dialect Desari or Deshwali and 'Khaddar are spoken in Sonipat and Rohtak
Districts. Bangaru, also known as Jaatu (literally, language of Jats), is most widely spoken followed by
the Haryanvi spoken in the Khāddar areas close to Yamuna, which is akin to Khariboli and is spoken
by Rors. It is usually understood to be a dialect of Hindi and not a separate language; it has many
similarities with Khariboli, the prestige dialect of Hindi. Alternative names for Haryanvi are Banger,
Bangaru, Bangri, Bangru, Chamarwa, Desari, Jatu, Hariani, Hariyani etc. Various dialects have been
branched out from Haryanvi language. Nowadays, "Bangru" is famous amongst the local residents of
Jind province. Enriched Harynavi speech of Sonepat and Rohtak people is known as "Khadar" and is
also spoken by the Jind localites. "Bagdi" is the Haryanvi dialect prevalent in regions like Fatehabad
and Sirsa, and south of Bhiwani. Haryanvi has nearest similarity with Braj Bhasha. Almost ninety two
percent of various words of Haryanvi dialects have been borrowed from Braj Bhasha.

Hindi Language:-
Hindi being the National Language of India has its roots in the classical Sanskrit language.
Hindi language is essentially counted as an Indo-Aryan language, or a `dialectical gamut` of
languages, spoken in northern and central India (defined as the "Hindi belt", commonly referring to the
region in North and Central India where Hindi languages are verbalised natively or as a primary
language). Hindi is principally spoken in the northern states of Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar,
but is also comprehended together with regional languages like Punjabi or Marathi across north and
central India. Hindi is a direct descendant of Sanskrit through Prakrit and Apabhramsha. Hindi's
origins as a distinct identity can be traced back to the period in history commonly referred to as the
Middle Indo-Aryan Period. This Period, spanning between 600 BC and 1000 AD, represents a vital
period of development in most present-day Indian languages. Braj was the popular literary dialect until
it was replaced by khari boli in the 19th century. As per the theory of the Indo-Aryan linguistic
classification system, Hindi resides in the Central Zone of languages. Hindi or more precisely Modern
Standard Hindi is a standardised and sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. The
development of Standard Hindi into a national language had its beginnings during the colonial period,
when the British began to promote and school it as a standard among government officials. Hindustani
is the native language of people living in Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan. Hindi is one of the official languages of India. Standard Hindi is
mutually intelligible with the other standardized register of Hindustani, Urdu, which is associated with
the Muslim community. Mutual intelligibility decreases in literary and specialised contexts, which rely
on educated vocabulary drawn from different sources; Hindi drawing its specialised vocabulary from
Sanskrit, whilst Urdu does so from Persian and Arabic. In their colloquial language the two
communities are nearly indistinguishable. People who identify as native speakers of "Hindi" include
not only Hindu speakers of Hindustani, but also many speakers of related languages who consider
their speech to be a dialect of Hindi.

Hindi, the official language of India, is based on the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region. A
more scholarly, Sankritized form of Hindi was believed to have developed primarily in Varanasi, the
Hindu holy city and is believed to have been based on the Eastern Hindi dialect of that region. The
term "Hindi" can thus be an ambiguous term at times.

The Indian constitution, adopted in 1950, declares Hindi shall be written in the Devanagari
script and will be the official language of the Federal Government of India. However, English
continues to be used as an official language along with Hindi. Hindi is also enumerated as one of the
twenty-two languages of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which entitles it to
representation on the Official Language Commission. The Constitution of India has effectively
instituted the usage of Hindi and English as the two languages of communication for the Union
Government. Most government documentation is prepared in three languages: English, Hindi, and the
primary official language of the local state, if it is not Hindi or English. Article 351 of the Indian
constitution stipulates that Hindi language shall be enriched by drawing for its vocabulary, primarily
from Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. Article 344 stipulates that official language
commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi
language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language. In practice, the official
language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on
English in official use.
 At the state level, Hindi is deemed the official language in the states of: Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana
and Delhi. Each of these states may also additionally assign a "co-official language"; in Uttar Pradesh
for instance, depending on the political formation in power, sometimes this `official` language is
changed to Urdu. In the same manner, Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language in several
states. Though there exist no judgement of opinion upon a specific time, Hindi language is also
believed to have sprung up as local dialects such as Braj, Awadhi and finally Khari Boli, after the turn
of 10th century. In the extent and duration of virtually thousand years of Muslim influence, like times
when Muslim rulers commanded over much of northern India during the Delhi Sultanate and the
Mughal Empire, umpteen Persian and Arabic words were assimilated into khari boli and was named as
Urdu (spoken as `Hindi` in India). Since almost all Arabic words travelled by way of Persian, they do
not maintain and hold back the original phonology of Arabic.Although Hindi language has basically
being penned in the Devanagari script. However, besides Devanagari serving as the singular respected
orthography across the country, according to historical annals, there also have existed some other
writing system styles for Hindi. These significant others have too made their lasting presence felt in
Hindi literary traditions, subject of panoptic research both in India and overseas. Hindustani, Hindi and
Urdu have been penned in umpteen variations, lending a difference in virtually every script that
perhaps goes unheeded to the unpractised eye. Most Hindi texts are penned in the Devanagari script,
which has been deduced from the Brahmi script of Ancient India. Most Urdu texts are scripted in the
Urdu alphabet, which further has descended from the Perso-Arabic script. Hindustani however has
been scripted in both the above-mentioned scripts. Not begun in much bygone years, the Roman
alphabet has been utilised to pen these languages for technological or internationalisation grounds.

Ho language:-
Ho is a Munda language of the Austroasiatic language family spoken primarily in India. It is
also known as Bihar Ho, Lanka Kol, China Ho, Vietnam Ho and Laos Ho. It is the language of Ho
tribe. It is written with the Devanagari and the Varang Kshiti scripts. The latter script was invented by
pandit Dr. Lako Bodra.

Kachchi Language:-
Kachchi is an Indo Aryan language and is spoken widely in the Kutch region of Indian state of
Gujarat. It is also spoken in huge regions of eastern Africa and even in Sindh province of Pakistan. In
Africa many Indian people reside who belongs to Kutch region therefore they converse in this
language as well. This language is spoken by the Kutchi folks who contain some groups such as
Bhatias, Bhanushalis, Brahmins and Rajput jadejas. Also several Muslim communities orate in
Kachchi language. They belong to Muslim Hingoras, Khojas, Jats and Mutwas of the Kutch Memon
communities. This verbal communication has no official status. This Kachchi language is a dialect of
Indo Aryan Sindhi language and is spoken in the region of Kutch of the Indian state of Gujarat.This
Kachchi language inhabits Indo European language family. Indo Aryan, Indo Iranian, Sindhi, North-
western Zone, and Kutchi are the few groups held by this language.This Kachchi language is written
in Arabic or Gujarati script. Moreover it is usually jotted down in advanced version of Gujarati script.
Additionally numerous magazines and books are printed in this language using the advanced script of
Gujarati. It is also written in Devanagri script by some speakers. Anciently Khojki script was used to
write Kachchi language which is now wiped out.A famous psychologist; doctor and graphologist have
developed a script using this language. Some beliefs were also made that Dholavira script was
anciently used in writing Kachchi language. Also some examples and proofs can be seen in the Kutch
museum of Kutchi script.

Kadar Language:-
This language is widely used by number of Kerala and in its adjoining areas. it is extensively
spoken and used in religious, village and home as well. Many people learn this medium of
communication in schools and colleges where it is taught. This language is seen primarily spoken in
Thrissur hills, Palakkad and Coimbatore region. Secondly it is seen spoken in areas of Wayanad
district. This district has Malayalam language as their first language. The third group of Kadar
language is in Tamil Nadu region, Tanjavur and Triuchirapalli districts. In this group Kadar language
mixed with Hindi idiom is spoken largely. Tribal communities can be seen in various parts of India.
Kadar and Kerala region claimed themselves among all the anthropologists of the country that they
hold maximum number of tribal areas. These tribes of Kadar also recognise themselves as Kadir and
talk in their primitive idiom which is a mixture of both Malayalam and Tamil languages.This Kadar
verbal communication belongs to the classification of Southern, Dravidian, Tamil Kannada, Tamil
Kodagu, Malayalam and Tamil Malayalam group.Many Kadar people use this language also in their
both traditional and cultural as well as in religious terms. They are very religious people and follow
the ritual of covering the departed bodies. Numbers of Kadar songs are sung in the event of marriages
or some in traditional fests. This verbal communication is widely spoken in Thrissur district, Chittor
taluk, Palakkad district, Coimbatore district and also in Tamil Nadu. Kadar language is also known by
other few names such as Kadir and Kada. This language holds three groups in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Kanauji Language:-
Kanauji belongs to Indo Aryan family and various sub groups are Central zone and Western Hindi.
Kanauji has popularity in Kanauj region of Indian subcontinent, borrowing loads of words from Braj
Bhasa, Hindi and Bundeli. It is widely spoken amongst people in the Kanauj region of Uttar Pradesh. Apart
from it, numerous people of states like Kanpur, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Hardoi, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Mainpuri,
Auraiya districts speak this beautiful Kanauji language. Other alternative names for Kanauji are Kannauji,
Bhakha, Braj. Kanauji has got a close relation to one of the most prominent languages of India, namely Hindi.
Opinions differed regarding its origin. Kanauji has two significant dialects include Tirhari and Transitional
Kanauji. The latter has close link with both `standard Kanauji and Awadhi`. Tirhari is also believed to be a
variety of Braj Bhasha. The variety spoken in Kannauj and Farrukhabad is considered the pure form. What is
most interesting to note is the fact that between all the dialects of Kanauji.

Kangri language:-
Kangri is a dialect spoken in northern India, predominantly in the Kangra district of Himachal
Pradesh, by the people of the Kangra Valley. It is an Indo-Aryan dialect, related to Dogri and
classified as one of the Western Pahari group of languages, with deep vocabulary impact from Punjabi,
which is spoken to the west in the state of Punjab. Kangri, along with Dogri, has been classified as a
dialect of Punjabi and both are recognised as dialects of a separate language group called Pahari.

Kangri Language:-
This language is spoken in the Kangra district in Himachal Pradesh of North India. This dialect
is considered as an Indo Aryan dialect as it is related to Dogri. This language is also categorized as one
of the Western Pahari Languages. It has deep vocabulary impact of Punjabi Language. This verbal
communication is also spoken in few regions of Punjab and in 1960 it is also declared as dialect of
Punjabi by Linguists. This language is also widely orated in Hamirpur, Una districts, Kangra and some
parts of Himachal Pradesh. This is also known by other few names such as Pahari Kangri, Pahari and
Kangra Dogri. Kangri Language has few dialects which are known as Hamirpuri and Palampuri
dialect. The Palampuri Dialect has close lexical similarity with Chambeali, Bilaspuri, Mandeali and
Bhatiyalli.This language has Pahari dialects and also it use Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu words in its
language.

Kannada Language:-
Kannada is one of the official languages of India and the official language of the Karnataka
state of south India. Union Government declared Kannada to be a Classical Language. After Sanskrit
and Tamil Kannada is the third oldest language of India. Kannada also known as Kanarese is one of
the oldest Dravidian languages. This language is not just confined within the borders of Karnataka, for
you will find it spoken by people in parts of the neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Maharashtra. Kannada is spoken in its various dialects by roughly 45 million people across the
globe. It is one among the top 40 most spoken languages of the world. Spoken Kannada varies
according to the region of Karnataka it is spoken in, while the written form remains constant.The
initial development of Kannada language has followed that of other Dravidian languages, with the
development of a vocal identity preceding the written system. During later centuries, Kannada has
been highly influenced by Sanskrit vocabulary and literary styles. Kannada has been categorized into
the Proto-Dravidian group of languages on account of its close affinity with Tamil. The script of
Kannada is also used in other languages like Tulu, Kodava and Konkani. Kannada literature has
historically shown the adherence of every literary novelty that had developed over the ages. This
characteristic has always ensured its primacy and popularity amongst the masses of the Kannada-
speaking region throughout the ages. With the Kannada-speaking region's concurrence with one of the
fastest growing areas harbouring new-age technologies, Kannada shows a tremendous promise as a
language to gain currency in the Information Technology era.

Karbi Language:-
This language is widely spoken by Karbi people of Assam. Karbi language is also known as
Arleng or Mikir language.The position of this language is still unclear and it belongs to Tibeto Burman
language family. Bradley and Shafer classify this language as and aberrant Kukish branch. Karbi does
not have its own script and also is written in Roman alphabet, sometimes in Assamese alphabet even.
Additionally Karbis have rich oral tradition and contains.The Mosera which is a lengthy folk which
narrates the migration and origin ordeal of the Karbis.It was composed when few Karbi people were
changed into Hinduism.This language has little dialect diversity except the Armi dialect.This dialect is
distinct enough and is considered as a separate Karbi language.

Kashmiri Language:-
Kashmiri is part of the Indo-Aryan group of the Indo-European language family. Amongst
various languages of Indo-Aryan languages, Kashmiri languages are a famous language belonging to
the north western group. In the year 1919, George Abraham Grierson commented “Kashmiri is the
only one of the Dardic languages that has a literature”. Some people also identify Kashmiri language
in different names. These are namely Kacmiri, Keshur, Kaschemiri, Cashmiri and Cashmeeree. There
is also no dearth of Kashmiri dialects prevalent in India. The Sanskrit language is an Indo-Aryan language.
It used to be earlier treated as having a Sanskritic origin. It has this time been grouped with Shina-Kohwari
according to the revised system of classification, but the claim locally urged that it is essentially a Sanskritic
language and in view of the historical fact that the valley of Kashmir, before its conversion to Islam, was wholly
populated by Barhmins with the Shastric lore, that claim may merit consideration. Kashmiri has a dialect which
is spoken in Kashtwar and Badrwah. But Kashmiris do not take it to be a dialect. They believe it to be the old
and correct form of Kashmiri, which was current before the advent of Islam in Kashmir This claim is justified
by the historical fact that many times in the past, Kashmiris have taken refuge in these high hills, from the then
prevalent political or religious persecution in the valley. The present-day inhabitants of these tracts are the
descendants of those refugees of yore who migrated to these places via Batote. Batote as we call it now, was in
fact then-called Bath-vath i.e. the vath (route) taken by Bats (Bhattas or Kashmiri Pandits) to reach these
remotes corners for their safety. Standard Kashmiri dialects include Kishtwari, Kashtawari, Kistwali,
Kashtwari and Kathiawari. There are also other dialects that have been originated from Kashmiri, all
influenced by `Dogri`. These are namely Miraski, Poguli, Rambani, Riasi, Shah-Mansuri, Siraji of
Doda, Siraji-Kashmiri, Zayoli, Zirak-Boli, Bunjwali, and Bakawali. Kashmiri language is written in
three orthographically systems, the Devanagri Script, the Sharda Script and the Perso Arabic Script.
Even the Roman script is also used to write Kashmiri language. Traditionally Kashmiri language was
written in Sharada Script at 8th century. But today Devanagri script and Perso Arabic script are used to
write Kashmiri Language. Perso Arabic script is related to Kashmiri Muslims whereas the Kashmiri
Devanagri script is associated with Hindu Kashmiri community.
Khandeshi languages:-
The Khandeshi language is a small subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages family. It is used in the territory
of Bhili and Marathi. It consists of Khandeshi proper, Dangri, and Ahirani dialects, the last named for the Ahir
(Yadav) caste. It is also known as Ahirani. It is a most common language spoken language in the "Khandesh"
region of the state of Maharashtra in India. It is believed that during the Moghul rule in India, the Khans ruled
this region, thus the name 'Khan-Desh'. Ahirs, the natives of the region, are traditionally cattle-herders, and
various Gavali (dairy-owning) kingdoms and forts in this region suggest the name Kanha-desh i.e. land of
Krishna or land of the followers of Krishna. The goddess Kanbai is worshiped in Khandesh, a variant of 'Khanh
Desh.' In the Rajasthani language, the word 'Khahan' means hay, or dried grass. The land of Khahan is
Khandesh. The word 'Khan' is also used by some as a synonym for 'basin', and a metaphor for 'purity'. A
detailed study of the various etymologies of the word Khandesh appears in the book Ahirani Boli by Dr.
Ramesh Suryawanshi. Also there is difference in nashik district ahirani and khandesh ahirani. In Nashik district
ahirani only spoken in Balgan. The Khandesh region consists of the forests on the eastern basin of the river
Waghur, surrounded by the mountain ranges Ajanta to the south, Satpuda to the north, and Chandwad to the
west. The native inhabitants of the basin speak the Ahirani language. The Khandesh region consists of grassy
land where the Ahiras grazed their cattle.Ahirani is spoken mainly in the districts of Dhule, Jalgaon, Nandurbar,
and in parts of Nasik and Aurangabad.But Nashik district and Aurangabad district are not in khandesh. People
in the tehsils of Amalner, Sakri, Dondaiche, Shirpur, Taloda, Shahada, Dhadgaon, Akkalkuwa, Parola, Erandol,
Satana, Malegaon and Baglan also speak Ahirani. In the neighboring state if Gujarat, it is spoken in Surat and
Vyara, and in Madhya Predesh, Ahirani is spoken in and around Amba-Varla.

Khariboli (Standard Hindi):-

Khariboli was considered as a higher standard of Hindi dialect as Delhi was regarded as the
administrative center in northern India.During 19th century and in northern India, Khari boli was
regarded as a centre of administrative. At the era of 1800’s the professors of Fort William College in
Kolkata were enthused to write in different languages. Therefore many literary books like Sukhsagar,
Rani Ketaki ki Kahani and Premsagar were printed. It is also measured as a dialect of higher standard
in Hindi. After India`s independence Khariboli was recognized as an official language and an
approved version of Hindi. Khariboli is mostly used in the rural regions of Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh and Haryana. In Uttarakhand, the districts of the Yamuna-Ganges doab that partially speak
Khariboli are Dehradun and Haridwar. In Uttar Pradesh, the dialect is normally used in Muzaffarnagar,
Meerut, Bulandshahr, Saharanpur, Baghpat and Ghaziabad. In the Rohilkhand region of Uttar Pradesh,
the districts of Jyotiba Phule Nagar, Moradabad, Bijnor and Rampur, also speak the language. Where
as, Yamuna Nagar in Haryana is a partial Khariboli speaking region. Khariboli, also known as
Khadiboli or Khari, which literary means standing dialect. Khariboli is believed to be the chief
dialectical precursor of the Hindi-Urdu prestige dialect. Standard Hindi and Urdu, official standard
registers and literary styles are the main official languages of India. Khariboli is supposed to have
originated along with Braj and Awadhi dialects, during the same period, 900-1200 CE. Khariboli
consists of various characteristics like germination that provides a unique sound and separates it
Awadhi, Braj and standard Hindi-Urdu. Although Standard Hindi-Urdu and Khariboli are rather
different in dialect, still Hindi-Urdu is often referred to as Khariboli and believed to be the literary
form of the language. There are several features which separated Khariboli from Urdu Hindi standard
dialect. These features are germination, vowel length, different verb forms and limited loss of
aspiration. Moreover there were some vocabulary and terminologies dissimilarities with Urdu Hindi
dialect as well. Many words were different from Hindi Urdu dialects in Khariboli language. This
language although is regarded as a blend of rustic and unworthy idiom but with support of government
it has developed and gain some importance with other older languages like Avadhi, braj and Maithili
which made it as an official language of Uttar Pradesh. Khariboli language is related to four registers
of Standardized dialects which are Hindi, Urdu, Rekhta and Dakhini. Moreover Standard Hindi in
Northern India is considered as the Lingua franca. Even Urdu language is the lingua Franca of
Pakistan country whereas Dakhini is the dialect of Deccan region in historical literary premises. This
rekhta dialect is used as court register form of Urdu in medieval poetry. All these standard dialects
when combine with Sansiboli form the dialect of Hindustani group and this group together with
Haryanvi, Braj Bhasha, Kauravi and Bundeli forms the Hindi western dialect group.

Khasi Language:-
Khasi is an Austroasiatic language spoken primarily in Meghalaya state in India by the Khasi
people. Khasi is part of the Austroasiatic language family, and is fairly closely related to the Munda
branch of that family, which is spoken in east–central India. The Khasi language is the most
significant and official language of Indian state of Meghalaya. This language has khasian and khasi
groups. It includes some dialects i.e. Bhoi Khasi and Nonglung. It has good number of speakers in the
state of Meghalaya and also in hill areas of Assam. Even a fair number of speakers are founded in
Bangladesh state which lies close to Indian state. In year of 2005, this Khasi language has been
declared as an official language. The dialects in this language are mutually intelligible. The Nonglung
and Bhoi dialect are considered separate idioms. Cherrapunji, War and Khynriam are other dialects of
this language. This War and Cherrapunji dialects shares some similar lexicity and are standard.
Anciently, Khasi language has no script as such. William Carey made several attempts in jotting down
the Assamese script. Numerous books were published in this script and which is even considered a
significant manuscript of Khasi religion. Later on in 1841 year, Latin script was written which also
contains some similarities with Welsh alphabet.

Khortha Language:-
Khortha (Khotta) is a dialect of Maithili spoken in Jharkhand, mainly in 13 districts of two
commissioneries i.e north Chotanagpur and Santhal Pargana. The 13 districts are Hazaribag, Koderma,
Giridih, Bokaro, Dhanbad, Chatra, Ramgarh, Deoghar, Dumka, Sahebganj, Pakur, Godda, and
Jamtara. Khortha is not only spoken by the Sadaans, it is also used by the Adivasis as a link language.

Konkani Language:-
Konkani language belongs to Indo European family languages and it is the Indo Aryan
language which is widely spoken on the west coast of India. Konkani is a member of the southern
Indo-Aryan language group. It retains elements of the old Indo-European language structure and
shows similarities with both western and eastern Indo-Aryan languages. It is the official language of
the Indian state of Goa. It is considered as minority language in northern Kerala and Karnataka. It is
also denoted as a member of southern Indo Aryan Group. This language is known by various names
such as, gamantaki, gaoni, bramana and canarim. The word ‘Konkan’ comes from the word ‘Kukkana
tribe’. They were the main original residents of the region Konkani. In earlier times all the European
authors identifies two languages in Goa which are the Plebian and the lingua canarim. Konkani
language is divided between many periods like the Pre history and The Early development, The Indo
Aryan element and The Later Dravidian Influence. The Early stage the earliest inscription was found
in the Aravalem village which was written in Brahmi script. Another inscription was Nagari of
Aaparditya King in 1166 AD. Even many copper plates and stone inscriptions were found which were
written in Konkani language. The Medieval phase Goa was invaded and it exodus to Marhatta
Territory and Cochin and Canada. This stage causes multiple dialects to evolve. Many Konkani
communities arrive with their own Konkani dialects. As the Konkani Muslim community of Bhatkal
and Ratnagiri arrive with the mixture of Arab seafarers and local even. The Contemporary Konkani
language was written in Devanagri script, Persian, Roman and Kannada scripts.This language was
written by the speakers in their native dialects. The Goan Antruz dialect in the Devanagri script was
claimed as the standard Konkani. This language is spoken widely in the Western Coastal region of
India. The regions consists is the Konkan region of Maharashtra, the Uttara Kannada and also the state
of Goa. Konkani language is also spoken in many districts. Each region includes different dialects,
vocabulary, and tone and pronunciation style. Some speakers can be found in Kenya, Persian Gulf and
Portugal region. Many families still speak different dialects as per their ancestors spoke and they are
highly influenced by native languages. A very high number of dialects can be seen in Konkani
language. Its tree structure can be classified according to caste, religion, region and local tongue.
Many speakers are based on historical and cultural aspects. Northern Konkani: - It includes dialects in
Ratnagri district. Central Konkani: - It includes dialects in Goa and Northern Karnataka. Southern
Konkani: - It includes dialects in the Canara region of Karnataka are major groups of this
language.The literature and history of Goa is represented in Konkani language. The Konkani language
is spoken widely in the Western Coastal region of India known as Konkan. This consists of the
Konkan division of Maharashtra, the state of Goa, and the Uttara Kannada, Udupi and Dakshina
Kannada districts of Karnataka, together with many districts in Kerala(Kasargod, Kochi, Alappuzha,
Trivandrum, Kottayam etc.). A significant number of Konkani speakers are found in Kenya and
Uganda, Pakistan, Persian Gulf and Portugal. During Portuguese rule many Goans had migrated to
these countries. Many families still continue to speak different dialects that their ancestors spoke,
which are now highly influenced by the native languages.

Koraga Language:-
This Koraga language is a member of Dravidian language family. This family is further
divided into small groups of Southern Dravidian, Tulu and Koraga. This language is generally spoken
and not jotted down. The people of Koraga usually narrate in Kannada and Tulu idioms and hence
these mediums are used for developing the rich literature. Koraga language follows under Dravidian
language family. This family involves few groups which are Southern Dravidian, Koraga and Tulu.
This Koraga language usually follows Kannada script.This language is also known by numerous
names such as Koragara, Koragar, Korra Koraga and Korangi. This idiom is extensively orated by
scheduled tribal folks of Tulu Nadu. Moreover it is verbally narrated by most of Karnataka individuals
in West south India. This Tulu Nadu consists of few districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udipi in
Karnataka state. It even includes the district of Kasaragod of Kerala state. Furthermore this language is
remotely connected to Tulu language and even Kannada idiom too. In addition this verbal
communication is not comprehensible to Muddu Koraga, this is an idiom spoken by Koraga clan in
Kerala. Additionally this language is regarded as an independent idiom instead of being dialect of any
other language. Koraga people converse in their language only with the people of their own
communities. When these people converse with other communities, they communicate in other
languages such as onti and ande. This language is also considered as an endangered idiom as it is
already suffering from language shift and loss in several regions within their regional home of Tulu
Nadu. The language attitude by the rural people is shown negative. This language as per the myths
possesses some cultural traits and also some inferiors. Therefore it is spoken mostly by urban society
and not by the rural people as they consider this language a dishonourable way of communication.
Northwest Koraga dialect, Northeast Koraga dialect, Central Koraga dialect, South Koraga
dialect,North Koraga dialect. Other than these regional dialects there are other few dialects more
which are suggested such as Badaga Koraga and Kappada Koraga dialects. These are the social
dialects and therefore these dialects are not found in regional dialects. As per the investigation it has
searched that Koraga people are bilingual and the other language they speak are Tulu and Kannada.
Moreover the speakers of the third dialect orate only with Kannada language as their mother tongue. It
is even seen that Tappu Koragas are multilingual. They converse and talk in both languages of
Kannada and Tulu instead of their mother tongue.

Kosli language:-
Kosli or Koshali is also known as Sambalpuri. It belongs to the Indo-Aryan language of
Western Odisha. Once considered a dialect of Oriya language, it is now recognized as a distinct
language. Sambalpuri is largely incomprehensible to speakers of Oriya. Literary works started being
produced in the late 20th century. Samalpuri songs are famous throughout Orissa and parts of
Chhatisgarh. Kosli descends from Ardha Magadhi Prakrit, along with other languages of eastern India.
Ardha Magadhi Prakrit gave rise to Ardha Magadhi Apabhramsa, which evolved into Purbi Eastern
Hindi, which in turn formed the languages of Awadhi, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi and Kosli. Thus Kosli
has evolved from the Southern form of Ardha Magadhi Apabhramsa. Purbi Hindi has got the
characteristics of both Purbi Sourseni and Ardha Magadhi, as it evolved from Ardha Magadhi Prakrit.
Kosli is spoken in the Sambalpur, Balangir, Bargarh, Sonepur, Kalahandi, Sundargarh, Boudh,
Deogarh, Nuapada and Jharsuguda districts of Orissa state by a population of around 9 million as of
2001. It is also the mother tongue of a sizable population of Raipur, Mahasamund and Raigarh districts
of Chhattisgarh state. Nearly half million Kosli speakers reside in Chhattisgarh, where they are
officially recognized as Oriya speakers. Sambalpuri does not have a separate script. Most of the
printed material is written in Oriya script. Some books articles in Newspaper, magazines are printed in
Devanagari.

Kokborok Language:-
The Kokborok or the Kok borok or Borok language is also known as Tripuri language.
This is medium of communication of Tripurian people and also of the adjoining regions of
Bangladesh. The word Kok borok is derived as Kok means language and borok means people.
Kokborok language is spoken in many communities like:- Koloi, Molsom,Tripura South
Rupini, Jamatia South,Darlong part of North Debbarma,Western Reang,South Eastern and
Eastern.Therefore this idiom is especially put in use for Tripura borok people. Originally the meaning
of Kok borok is Language of the Borok. It belongs to Sino Tibetian family which further involves two
groups which are Brahmaputran, Tibeto Burman, Bodo Koch, Bodo Garo, Bodo and Kokborok.
Additionally this language is officially recognised by Indian state of Tripura. Assam, Tripura and
Mizoram all constitute in Borok nation of India. It even involves some adjoining provinces which is
Bangladesh country which inhabits chiefly Chittagong Hills. It contains three chief dialects which are
not equally comprehensible. Therefore it contains the most prestige dialect which is Debbarma, and
this dialect can easily be understood by everyone. Kalai, Jamatia and Noatia are other main dialects of
Kokborok language. The Kolama script of Kokborok has disappeared now and from 19th century the
Twipra Kingdom used the script of Bengali to write Kokborok language. From the independence that
is from 1947, India merger with Twipra region. Since then onwards the Roman script came into
existence by organizations of non government. Moreover this script issued is highly politicized and
therefore recently now days both scripts are used in Tripura region in literary, cultural and educational
level.

Kumaoni language:-
The Kumaoni is the language of people of the Kumaon division of Uttarakhand, a region in the
Indian Himalayas. Basically this is one of the Central Pahari languages. Kumaoni language in India
has been recognised as one of the 325 Indian languages. It belongs to the enriched family of Indo-
Aryan languages. Generally people of Almora, Nainital, Pithoragarh, Bageshwar, Udhamsingh Nagar
districts of Uttarakhand use this language. Kumaoni is spoken by people of Almora, Nainital,
Pithoragarh, Bageshwar, Champawat, Rudrapur (Udhamsingh Nagar) districts; Assam; Bihar; Delhi;
Madhya Pradesh; Maharashtra and Punjab, besides being spoken in some regions of Himachal Pradesh
and Nepal. The Central Pahari languages include Kumaoni and Garhwali (spoken in the Garhwal
region of Uttarakhand). Kumaoni has many regional dialects spoken in different places in
Uttarakhand. Amongst its dialects, the Central Kumauni is spoken in Almora and northern Nainital,
Northeastern Kumauni is in Pithoragarh, Southeastern Kumauni is in Southeastern Nainital and
Western Kumauni is west of Almora and Nainital. Almost all people who can speak and understand
Kumaoni can also speak and understand Hindi, the official language of India. In all, there are 20
dialects spoken in the Kumaon region, including, Johari, Majh Kumaiya, Danpuriya, Askoti, Sirali,
Soryali, Chaugarkhyali, Kumaiya, Gangola, Khasparjia, Phaldakoti, Pachhai, and Rauchaubhaisi.
Dialects of Kumaoni Language are Central Pahari, Kali Kumaon, Central Kumaoni,North-Eastern
Kumaoni,South-Eastern Kumaoni,Western Kumaoni, Askoti of Askot,Bhabhri of Ramnagar,
Chaugarkhiyali of Chaugarkha,Danpuriya of Danpur, Gangoli of Ganai-Gangoli (Gangolihat),Johari of
Malla and Talla Johar,Khasparjiya of Almora,Kumaiyya of Champawat, Pachhai of Pali-Pachhhau
(Ranikhet, Dwarahat),Pashchimi, Phaldakotiya of Phaldkot, Rhau-Chaubyansi, (Nainital),Sirali of
Sirakot (Didihat),Soriyali of Sor Valley (Pithoragarh), Baitada (Soradi) of Baitadi District-Darchula
District of Nepal and area of Pithoragarh District,Dotiyali of Dadeldhura and Doti district of Nepal.
Tibeto-Burman (not dialects of Kumaoni; these non-Indo-European languages are indeed spoken in
Kumaon) those are Rang or Rung,Darmyali,Bangbani etc.
All dialects are easily understandable by each and every people of the Kumani speaking region.
However, the dialects that are spoken in the eastern provinces of this region are different from the rest.
Kumaoni has a close relation to Garwhali language. Also the Southeast dialect is considered to be
`sweet`. The Central one is the most conventional. The literacy rate of Kumaoni as a second language
recorded a total of fifty-eight percentage. Out of it, seventy three percent comprises of males, while
forty one percent constitutes of females. Kumauni script is used for Kumaoni writings. Kumaon also
has a very rich tradition of folk literature, which deals with local, national myths, heroes, heroines,
deeds of bravery and various aspects of nature. The Kumaoni language is not limited only under
literature; it has notable presence in the media and folk music. Several films and theatre shows have
been produced in the Kumaoni language. Besides these it can be said that the Kumaoni music has a
touch of nature. The melody and lyrics of the Kumaoni folk music is deeply rooted in the lap of nature.
The Kumaoni music has been designed for all kinds of occasions and is generally accompanied by
instruments like dhol, turi, dholak, rasingha and a lot more.

Kurux Language:-
Kurukh belongs to the Northern Dravidian group of the Dravidian family of languages, and is closely
related to Sauria Paharia and Kumarbhag Paharia, which are often together referred to as Malto. Kurux is
popular amongst its speakers of eastern states of India in different names. Kurux has huge number of speakers
mostly residing in regions of states of eastern and north eastern states of India, namely, Bihar, West Bengal;
Orissa; Assam; Tripura. Few people of Madhya Pradesh too little bit of Kurux. Alternative names of Kurux are
Uraon, Kurukh, Kunrukh, Kadukali, Kuruka, Oragon, Urang, Kisan, Kunha, Kunhar, Kunuk, Kunna, Kuda,
Kora, Koda, Kola, Morva and Birhor. Oraon and Kisan are two famous dialects that have originated from the
Kurux language. Oran has become the most standard one. In fact, both Kisan and Oraon are languages that are
famous amongst the `Scheduled Tribes` of Indian subcontinent. It is most closely related to Brahui and Malto
(Paharia). Kurukh is written in the Devanagari script, a script used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali and
other Indo-Aryan languages. Dr. Narayan Oraon, a medical doctor, has invented the Tolong Siki script for
Kurukh language. Many books and magazine have been published in Tolong Siki script. The Kurukh Literary
Society of India has been instrumental to spread the Tolong Siki script for Kurukh literature.

Ladhaki language:-
The Ladhaki language is the language of the inhabitants of the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir of
India. It has good number of speakers in India and Tibet region of China mainly in the Changthang region. The
language has several dialects, which vary from region to region in Ladakh. The capital of Ladakh is Leh where
Ladakhi proper is spoken, Sham skat is spoken in the northwest of Leh, and Stopta is spoken in the southeast of
the Indus valley while Nubra is spoken in the north. The people of Zanskar also speak a variety of Ladhaki
language

Magahi language:-
The Magahi language is a language spoken in India and Nepal. In Nepal it is known as ancient
Nepali. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magadhi, from which the latter's name derives. The
ancestral language, Magadhi Prakrit, is believed to be the language spoken by the Buddha and the
language of the ancient kingdom of Magadha. Magadhi is closely related to Bhojpuri and Maithili.
These languages are sometimes referred to as a single language i.e. Bihari. These languages, together
with several other related languages, are known as the Bihari languages, which form a sub-group of
the Eastern Zone of Indo-Aryan languages. It is a dialect of the old languages from which Hindi
originated. It is spoken in eight districts in Bihar, three in Jharkhand, and has some speakers in Malda,
West Bengal. In Bihar, Hindi is the language used for educational and official matters since Magadhi
and Hindi are inter-changeable. Magadhi was legally absorbed under Hindi in the 1961 Census.
Magadhi is spoken in the area which formed the core of the ancient kingdom of Magadha - the modern
districts of Patna, Nalanda, Gaya, Jehanabad, Arwal, Aurangabad, Lakhisarai, Sheikhpura and
Nawada. Magahi is bounded on the north by the various forms of Maithili spoken in Tirhut across the
Ganga. On the west it is bounded by the Bhojpuri, on the northeast it is bounded by Maithili and
Angika. A blend of Magahi and Bengali known as Kharostha (Khortha) is spoken by non-tribal
populace in North Chotanagpur division of Jharkhand which comprises districts of Bokaro, Chatra,
Dhanbad, Giridih, Hazaribagh, Koderma and Ramgarh. Khortha language is often regarded as the
rough dialectal variant of Bengali and it serves as the medium of communication between the tribals
and non-tribals in North Chotanagpur division of Jharkhand. In the urban Magahi region, most
educated speakers of the language name Hindi as their language. The uneducated and the rural
population of the region return Hindi as the generic name for their language.People of Southern Bihar
and Northern Jharkhand are mostly speakers of Magadhi language.

Maithili Language:-
Maithili has a long association with all the people residing in East India. It belongs to the
famous language family of Indo Aryan language. Numerous speakers can be found in Bihar, Delhi,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and West Bengal. The term, Maithili has been derived from the
word Mithila, which denotes a famous state in primitive period in Indian subcontinent. Maithili is also
one of the names of Sita, the spouse of Lord Rama. For Maithali language, few alternative names have
been suggested. These are namely Apabhramsa, Maitli, Maitili, Methli, Tirahutia, Bihari, Tirhuti,
Tirhutia are somne alternative names used for Maithili language. Maithili was usually written in the
Maithili script, better known as Tirhuta and Mithilakshar, with some similarity with the Bengali script.
It was also written in the Kaithi script. Today, Devanagari script is most frequently used for Maithili
language. Standard Maithili, Southern Standard Maithili, Eastern Maithili (Khotta, Kortha, Kortha
Bihari), Western Maithili, Jolaha, Central Colloquial Maithili (Sotipura), Kisan, Dehati are names of
the dialects that are worth to note. A distinctive characteristic of these Maithili dialects is its easy
comprehensibility among its people. The reason is the prevalence of several similar words in almost
all the dialects. Almost ninety percent of words are shared between both `Brahmin and non-Brahmin
dialects`. In the initial years Maithili language has earned the status of being the erudite language
widely spoken by the people of high castes. Now, Maithili is language of all the castes and classes.
Usage of the Maithili language in the households, village grounds and also towns, city halls is a
common phenomenon. In the year 2003, Maithili gained the status of an independent language through
its incorporation in the `Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution`. In the year 2003, it was declared
as the official language.

Malayalam Language:-
Malayalam is a language spoken in state of Kerala of India. It is one of the 22 scheduled
languages of India and was declared a classical language by the Government of India in 2013.
Malayalam has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of
Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages. Malayalam is also
spoken in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka with more populace in the Nilgiris,
Kanyakumari and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, and the Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu
districts of Karnataka. Malayalam most likely originated from Middle Tamil (Sen-Tamil) in the 6th
century.
Dialects of Malayalam are distinguishable at regional and social levels, including occupational
and also communal differences. The salient features of many varieties of tribal speech (e.g., the speech
of Muthuvans, Malayarayas, Malai Ulladas, Kanikkars, Kadars, Paliyars, Kurumas, and Vedas) and
those of the various dialects of Dalits (a.k.a. "Harijans"), Brahmins, Nairs, Ezhavas, Syrian Christians
(Nasrani), Latin Christians, Muslims, fishermen and many of the occupational terms common to
different sections of Malayalees have been identified. It may be noted at this point that labels such as
"Brahmin Dialect" and "Harijan Dialect" refer to overall patterns constituted by the sub-dialects
spoken by the subcastes or sub-groups of each such caste. Nairas dialect has good amount of Sanskrit
influence. The Harijan dialect comprises overall features of many sub-dialects such as the Pulaya
dialect and the Paraya dialect. The Syrian Christian dialect of Malayalam is quite close to the Nair
dialect. The Latin Christian dialect of Malayalam is close to fishermen dialect. It is also influenced by
Latin, Portuguese and English. The Muslim dialect shows maximum divergence from the literary
Standard Dialect of Malayalam. It is very much influenced by Arabic and Urdu rather than by Sanskrit
or by English. As regards the geographical regions dialects of Malayalam are South
Travancore,Central Travancore, North Travancore,West Vempanad,Kochi,South Malabar,South
Eastern Palghat,North Western,Central Malabar,Wayanad,North Malabar,The Peak Dialect etc.
The earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vatteluttu script, and later the Kolezhuttu,
which derived from it. As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar
from Sanskrit, Grantha script was adopted for writing and came to be known as Arya Ezhuttu. This
developed into the modern Malayalam script. Many medieval liturgical texts were written in an
admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. Due to its lineage deriving from
both Sanskrit and Tamil, the Malayalam alphabet has the largest number of letters among the Indian
languages. Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing all the sounds of Sanskrit and all
Dravidian languages.

Malvi Language:-
Malvi is a significant language of west India. Malvi is a part of Indo- Aryan language group,
belonging to the zone of Rajasthani languages of the same family. Amongst various languages that are
prevalent in the western region of Indian subcontinent, Malvi deserves a special mentioning. It is
wildly spoken in the Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. In Rajasthan, it is spoken in Ujjain,
Indore, Rathlam, Mandsaur, Rajgarh districts while in Chittaurgarh, Jhalawar districts of Gujarat, quite
a handful of Malvi speakers are being found. The Malvi language has alternative names like Malavi,
Ujjaini, Mallow, Malwada and Malwi. Bachadi, Bhoyari, Dholewari, Hoshangabadi, Jamral, Katiyai,
Malvi Proper, Patvi, Rangari, Rangri, Ujjaini, Indori, Dewasi, Rajawadi, Umawadi, Sheori, Nimadi
and Sondwari are other dialects which have been originated from the Malvi language.The famous
Devangiri script has been used for the writing with its literacy rate as a second language rising to forty
percent.

Manipuri Language:-
Manipuri language belongs to the Kuki-Chin group of the Tibeto-Burmese stream of the
Mongoloid family of languages. In the 19th century this language was known as `Moitoi` after the
name of a tribe. Manipuri language is considered as the most predominant idiom and also the Lingua
franca in the Himalayan South-eastern state of Manipur in the north-eastern India. It is even regarded
as the official language in administrative offices and is spoken widely in many states of India like
Tripura, Bangladesh, Burma and Assam. Furthermore the classification of this Tibeto Burman idiom is
still unclear and therefore it shows some lexical similarity with Tangkhul and Kuki language.
Additionally it has proved itself as a huge integrating factor among the Manipur ethnic groups who use
this language to communicate among themselves. Also Manipuri is considered as a Meitei Ion idiom
by the Indian Union and also has concluded itself in the group of scheduled languages. This language
is also learned as a subject and is learned up to post graduate level. This Manipuri language is well
known as Indo Aryan Language and is well conversed in many Indian states such as Bangladesh’s
Sylhet region and Burma. This language is also known as Imar thar by the speakers which mean the
language of my mother. The Manipuri people call themselves and also their idiom as Manipuri with
the addition of Bishnupriya so as to distinguish themselves with other races of ethnic Manipuri.
Moreover this word Bishnupriya is derived from the word Bishnupur which was the old capital of
Manipur. From individual to individual and as per their beliefs all have different sayings and
depictions of this language. Some history writers and scholars support Mahabharata source of
Bishnupriya by observing the grammar, morphology and vocabulary. Later on it is even found that this
idiom has retained some features of Magadhi and is also closely related to Bengali, Oriya and
Assamese languages. In addition this language has Indo Aryan and Tibeto Burman effect. It is also
heavily influenced from Sanskrit idiom and therefore its relation can be traced out by some features of
the pronouns. Manipuri language falls under the language family of Indo European which further
includes some groups such as Indo Aryan, Indo Iranian, Eastern and Assamese Bengali. Manipuri
language is spoken in many parts of India like Assam, Tripura, Burma and Bangladesh. Moreover this
language is different from many Indo Aryan languages like Assamese, Bengali and Oriya. Initially and
originally this language was developed and originated in Manipur region and is also related to Loktak
lake surroundings. Manipuri language is spoken in many districts and regions of India. Moreover it is
widely spoken in Tripura region, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Bangladesh. It is also
conversed broadly in all other countries other than India such as Germany, Canada, Middle East and
Austria. This language has two dialects which are known as Madai Gang and Rajar Gang. Moreover
the dialects of Bishnupriya Manipuri language are not confined to the geographical areas. They exist
in the same localities side by side. Furthermore these two dialects are confined to the territories of
Manipur. In addition the Madai gang dialect has similar phonology in comparison with Meitei and
Assamese language whereas Rajar Gang dialect consists of sound similar to Bengali language. Also in
terms of vocabulary the Madai gang inhabits Meitei words and rajar Gang has Assamese and Bengali
vocabulary. In early years Devanagri script was used to write Manipuri language. Later on Assamese
and Bengali script came into existence to write this language. Moreover this language is written from
top to bottom and left to right

Marathi Language:-
Marathi is a southern Indo Aryan Language. It is considered as the official language of Goa
and Maharashtra. It is also the 23rd official language in India. It is mostly spoken in Maharashtra and
also in few neighbouring regions like Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
It is also spoken widely in some union territories like Daman and dui. The cities like Surat, Baroda
and Indore and Gwalior also inhable scarce Marathi speaking people. Marathi is the official language
of Maharashtra and co official language in union territories of Daman and diu. This language is also
used in some official purposes. Marathi language was originally derived from Sanskrit language. It
includes Maharashtri Prakrit. This was the official language earlier and was given a high literary level.
42 dialects are recognised by the Indian scholars of Marathi language. The major dialect divisions are
Ahirani, Varhadi, Vadvali, Zadi boli and Samavedi. Other major dialects include are Nagri, Dangi,
Deshi or Satari. All districts of Maharashtra have different dialects of Marathi language. Moreover the
major dialect of Marathi language is Warhadi Marathi and Standard Marathi. In 11th century written
Marathi language was first prepared in form of inscriptions, stones and copper plates. Marathi
devanagri alphabet is similar to Hindi devanagri alphabet. From 13nth to mid 20th century, Marathi
was written in Modi script. In the year 1950, Marathi language finally written in Devanagri script
which contains 36 consonants and 16 initial vowel letters. Also the Marathi devnagri alphabet is called
Balbodh.

Marwari Language:-
Marwari language is also known as Marwadi, Marvari and Marvadi language. It is widely
spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan and also in nearby state of Haryana and Gujarat. This language
is also orated in some eastern parts of Pakistan. There are about 23 dialects of this Marwari language.
It is written in Devanagri script same as it is written in Sanskrit, Hindi and Nepali script.This language
has no official status and yet not declared as the idiom of education by the government. Recently a
push has been made towards its recognition and therefore it came to be stated as language of scheduled
caste. As this Rajasthan state recognises Rajasthani as its official language. Marwari is spoken widely
in and around the Jodhpur region. Additionally in Pakistan there are two varieties of Marwari. This
may not be close to Indian Marwari but has some similar relevance to it.This Marwari and Gujarati
language advanced from Maru Gujar or Gujjar Bhaka, language of the Gurjars. Anciently formal
grammar of this Rajasthani language was written by a Jain monk and also prominent scholar
Hemachandra Suri. In the Indian state of Rajasthan, Marwari is the prime language. Many Marwari
orators have spread widely throughout India and many other countries. Marwari language is mostly
found more in the neighbouring states of Haryana and Gujarat. Even in Eastern Pakistan, Marwari
language is largely spoken. The Bhopal city also inhabits Marwari language in some of its parts. This
language is usually written in Devanagri script. The Mahajani script was anciently and traditionally
linked with this language. This ancient script also does not contain any vowels and inhabits only
consonants. Moreover in Pakistan this Marwari language was written in Perso Arabic script with lots
of modifications. Furthermore the historical Marwari language orthography for the Devanagri script
uses some other characters in place of Devanagri standard letters.

Mewati Language:-
Mewati language is an Indo Aryan language and is spoken by the people of Bharatpur, Alwar,
Dholpur districts of Rajasthan. Additionally Haryana’s Mewat district and also in some southern parts
of Pakistan this Mewati language is widely spoken. In the medieval period Rajasthani literature
contribute a major part to Mewati language.Ahirwati is also a Rajasthani language and even an Indo
Aryan language. This language is heavily spoken in Rewari and Mahendragarh districts of Haryana.
During ancient time, Ahirwati language was the idiom of Ahirs. The Robert Vane Russell wrote few
scripts on Ahirwati language during British Raj era. Furthermore the Gurgaon regions of Punjab and in
Rhotak, Mewati language are also spoken.

Muduga Language:-
Muduga is considered as the major language of Mudugas who inhabits in small portions of
Kerala. Moreover Mudugas is considered as the second largest community in district Attappady of
Tamil Nadu. A fair number of families of Muduga are seen inhabiting in Coimbatore and Nilgiris of
Tamil Nadu. People of Muduga consider themselves more prior in relation with other communities
and they use common language which is somewhat similar to Tamil language. They use many words
and phrases which are influenced by Tulu language. Also the literacy rate of Muduga people is higher
in comparison with other communities and tribal groups. They only have the right to marriage in their
own community and group not with any other group or hamlet. This language is even largely spoken
in Kerala state and also in some districts of Mannarkad, Palakkad, and Attapady block, Veeranuru,
Thazhachundakki, Chundakki, Karuvare and Kottamale. It is also extensively spoken in some areas of
Ommale, Chitturu, Kallamale, Chandakulam, Ummathupadiga, Koranvanpady, Abbannuru,
Pettikkalu, Kottiyuru and Kakkupady. This Muduga language is influenced by Tamil, Kannada, Tulu
and Malayalam languages.

Mundari language:-
Mundari is a Munda language of the Austroasiatic language family spoken by the Munda
people, and is closely related to Santali. Mundari is primarily spoken by Munda tribal people in east
India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Jharkhand, south and west Ranchi district; Odisha; Madhya Pradesh; West
Bengal; Himachal Pradesh; Assam; Tripura; Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Nagpuri Language:-
Nagpuri language is a dialect of Marathi language and is spoken largely in Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra. Many Marathi people living nearby areas of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh states of India use this language. This Language belongs to Indo European Family group.
This family includes few groups such as Indo Aryan, Indo Iranian, Marathi, Southern Zone and
Varhadi. This is also spoken in some parts of Jharkhand. Nagpuri language is extensively spoken in
Vidhraba region of Maharashtra and also in Moreover this language is recognised as a dialect of
Marathi.They are not appropriate and even they are very similar to Nagpuri language. Therefore the
people of this society claim that it is a different dialect and it must be known by Nagpuri medium
while others claim that this language is a blend of both Jhadiboli and Varhadi. Abhangas written in
Nagpuri language is narrated by Rashtrasanta Tukdoji Maharaj. This book can easily be understood by
the common people.Moreover many radio stations of Nagpur broadcast various channels and its
programmes in Nagpuri language as well as in jhadiboli medium also. This language is written in
Devanagri script style. Nagpuri language dialect is a alternative of Varhadi dialect. This dialect is the
dialect of Marathi language and moreover it is interspersed between local slangs and Hindi words
which are spoken in Nagpur district of Central India. All the dialects in Nagpuri language are
reciprocally understandable to one another up to a limit. Moreover each dialect in this language can
easily be distinguished and recognised by its exclusive features. Similar in case of Nagpuri language
the case endings are replaced with a character it allocates with its adjoining dialect of Khandeshi.

Nepali Language:-
Nepalese or Nepali is the language of Indo Aryan group and also the language in Indo
European Family. This is the official language and lingua franca of Nepal. This formerly independent
language has official status in state of Sikkim and also in Darjeeling district of West Bengal. This
language is also considered as one of the 23rd official languages. Bhutan and some areas of Burma
contain the influence of Nepali language. Moreover it has gained its immediacy with number of Tibeto
Burman languages such as Gurung and Kiranti. Anciently this Nepali language was known as
Khaskura language in which Khas means rice farmers. Later on it came to be known as Gorkhali or
Gurkhali whihc means the language of Gurkhas. Nepali language has distinct names which are
Parbatiya, Lhotshammikha. The word and name Nepali means ambiguous. Nepali language is usually
written in Devanagri script. Initially some evidences were found on Takri script used in Nepali
language. Bhujimol script is considered as older script to Nepal whereas Ranjana script was also used
in formulating Nepali language.

Oriya Language:-
Oriya is an integral part of Eastern zone group of the famous Indo-Aryan language family. It is
the official language of Orissa with a treasure of rich literary works. Oriya is spoken in the West
Bengal (Midnapore District); Jharkhandand (Saraikela Kharsawan District ); and also some provinces
of Andra Pradesh. This Oriya verbal communication is not only spoken in Orissa but also in many
other linguistics regions such as West Bengal Midnapore district, West Singhbhum’s Kharsawan
district, Ranchi, Khunti and Gumla. Moreover this language is spoken widely in Srikakulam, eastern
Districts of Chhattisgarh and Vishakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Surat is the second largest
Oriya speaking region in Indian subcontinent. Additionally it is found that a large number of Oriya
speaking people inhabits in Hyderabad, Bangalore, Pondicherry, Chennai, Goa, Baroda, Jamshedpur,
New Delhi, Kolkata, Guwahati, Pune and Kharagpur. Also not only in India, several Oriya speaking
people exists all over the world. Many residents of Bangladesh, Bali, Indonesia, and Java speak Oriya
language. Even some residents who were carried to Canada, United States, Australia and England also
converse in Oriya verbal communication. This one of the official languages of Orissa and also the
major idiom has spread its lingo in Malaysia, Burma, Sri Lanka and Fiji. It is believed that Oriya has
been directly derived from the Prakrit, better known, as Purva Magadhi.This ancient language was
spoken in East India almost more than one hundred five hundred years ago. Oriya bears a resemblance
to some of the modern languages like Bengali, Maithili, and Assamese. This Oriya language consists
of many groups and dialects as per region wise. These are illustrated as follows:-
Midnapuri Oriya :- It is spoken in Midnapore undivided district of West Bengal
Baleshwari Oriya :- It is spoken in Baleshwar and Mayurbhanj district of Orissa.
Ganjami Oriya :- This dialect is spoken in Gajapati and Ganjam district of Orissa.
Halbi :- This dialect is orated in Bastar district undivided of Chhattisgarg
region.
Bhatri :- This dialect is spoken in eastern South Chhattisgarh and South
western Orissa.
Singhbhumi Oriya :- This dialect is orated in West and East Singhbhumi and
Saraikela of Jharkhand.
 Desiya Oriya :- This is spoken in Rayagada, Malkangiri, Nowrangpur and
Koraput districts of Orissa.
The Oriya script is usually written in Kalinga script. In ancient India, this script was considered
as one of the descendent. Kalinga script is regarded as one of the earliest inscription in Oriya language.
This script appears in curve form, which means that it was written on palm leaves which have the
capability to tear if still many straight lines are used.

Punjabi Language:-
Punjabi language is an integral part of Indo-Aryan language family.It has gained the status of official
language in Punjab, while in other states of north India, namely Delhi and Haryana, it is the second official
language.Speakers of this languge are also been found in adjoining regions like Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana etc. Punjabi has gained acknowledgement in the world arena too. In fact , Punjabi is ranked eleventh as
far as popularity of the world languages are concerned. Punjabi language is considered to be a `sister language`
of Sindhi and Serieki. Varieties of dialects of Punjabi language have been derived from the Punjabi language.
Eminent scholars have categorized Punjabi dialects in diverse forms. The chief dialects of Punjabi are Doabi,
Lahori, Malwai, and Powadhi in India. Lahori is the standard written script of Punjabi language. Punjabi
University, Patiala has categorised the dialects of Punjabi as Malwai, Bhattiani, Rathi, Powadhi, Pahari, Doabi,
Kangri, Chambiali, Dogri, Wajeerawadi, Baar di Boli, Jangli, Jatki, Chenavri, Multani, Bhawalpuri, Thalochri,
Thali, Bherochi, Lahore-gujranwala, Chakwali, Kachi, Awankari, Lubanki, Dhani, Ghebi, Hindko, Swaen,
Chacchi, Pothohari/Pindiwali, and Punchi Gojri. Bhattiani is a combination of Punjabi and Rajasthani
languages, comprises of Eastern or Central Zone. Other dialects are Powadhi, Doabi, Malwai, Majhi, Bathi
Western or Northwestern Zone constitutes of Pothohari, Multani, Hindko, Pahari,
Northern Zone consists of a beautiful dialect of Punjabi language, namely, Dogri
The dialects that comprise this continuum eventually merge with Hindi in India and Sindhi in
Pakistan. In India, the key dialects of Punjabi are: Majhi, Doabi, Malwai, and Powadhi. In Pakistan,
the key dialects are Majhi, Pothohari/Panjistani, Hindko, and Multani.

Pahari languages:-
The Pahari languages are a geographic group of Indo-Aryan languages spoken in the lower
ranges of the Himalayas, from Nepal in the east, through the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, to the Pakistani controlled territory of Kashmir and in Murree,
Pakistan. They are usually written in the Devanagari script. The Pahari languages fall into three
genealogical groups. Eastern and Central Pahari have been placed together as the Northern zone of
Indo-Aryan, with Western Pahari in the Northwestern zone along with Punjabi and related languages.
Eastern Pahari languages are Jumli is spoken in the Karnali zone of Nepal., Nepali is spoken in
Nepal,Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal. It is
an official language in Nepal and India. Palpa is spoken in the Lumbini zone of Nepal. Central Pahari
languages are Kumaoni is spoken in the Uttarakhand.,Garhwali. These languages are closer to
Rajasthani than they are to Hindi. Western Pahari languages are a dozen in number, of which Dogri is
the best known. Though traditionally considered Pahari, and often Hindi or Punjabi, the Western
Pahari languages are more closely related to each other than to other Indo-Aryan languages. 17 to 20%
of Jammu and Kashmir speaks Pahari languages.

Portuguese Language:-
Portuguese is spoken in the Goa and Daman and Diu of India. Portuguese is a Romantic
language. It is also the Official language of Brazil, Portugal, Angola, Principe and Sao Tome. It has co
official status in East Asia in Macau. Many Portuguese speakers can even be found in Daman and Diu
and Goa. This language is considered as the 6th most spoken language in the world and even 3rd most
spoken language in the western area. Initially Romans brought Latin language when they arrived
peninsula. Later on they were conquered by German people who adopt Romance in their language
which was commonly known as Mozarabic. Arabic on Romance dialects was influenced by
them. Later on Portuguese came into existence in medieval language which was known today by the
linguists as Old Portuguese or Galician. Afterwards in 15th to 16nth centuries Portuguese undergone
many regions of Asia, Africa and America. Majority of Portuguese speakers can be found Brazil.
From 16th centuries till now, the evolution of modern Portuguese came into existence.

Pnar Language:-
Pnar language is an Austro Asiatic language which is spoken by number of residents living in
Bangladesh and also in Indian state of Meghalaya. This is considered as the official language of
Meghalaya state in India. It also consists of two sub groups which are Pnar and Khasian. In addition
this verbal communication is considered as official language in state of Meghalaya. This Pnar verbal
communication is widely spoken by many people living in and around the Indian state of Meghalaya.
A fair number of people residing in Jaintia and Khasi Hills orates this verbal communication very
well. Even certain number of inhabitants from Mizoram, north of War Jaintia, Aizwal district and
north of Assam also converse very fluently in this medium of communication. Moreover numerous
folks from Bangladesh, Ulukunchi and Karbi Analog district support this idiom and also talk very well
in this language of Pnar. Pnar language contains numbers of dialects like Jaintia dialect which is
spoken in 12 different forms such as Shangpung, Jowai, Raliang and Batau. The standard dialect form
of this language is Jowai. This Pnar language is based on Latin script.

Rajasthani Language:-
Rajasthani Language is spoken in the Sate of Rajasthan in India. In ancient era the Rajasthani
language was called Maru-Bhasa. Generally the name of a language is given after the name of the
region, province or state. Sometimes the language is also called either after the name of its major
dialect or the people using it. The name Rajasthani is given after the name of the state and is
universally accepted. The old and popular name was Maru Bhasa. The evolution and the stages of
growth of Indo-Aryan languages may be traced thus: (1) Vedic Chandas in Sanskrit (from 1500 B.C.
to 500 B.C.), (2) Prakrit-Apabhramsa (from 500 B.C. to 1000 AD) and (3) Desi-bhasas, including
Rajasthani language (from 1000 AD onwards). Out of the six major forms of Prakrit language,
namely, Pali, Ardha-Magadhi, Saurseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and Paisaci, the first two are supposed
to be comparatively older. Buddhist and Jain scriptures were written in Pali and Ardha-Magadhi
respectively. Although a form of Prakrit, usually Pali language is not termed as Prakrit. The growth
and development of Rajasthani language was dependent on several types of languages, for instance,
Prakrit Apabhramsa Rajasthani, Maru-Gurjar, Pingal and several colloquial languages. Each of these
languages, in their own way, nourished Rajasthani language and influenced the original Rajasthani
dialect. Historically the evolution of Rajasthani may be linked up with Saurseni Prakrit. It was
originally the language of Mathura region and was extant in the west including Gujarat and Saurastra.
From the popular Gurjar Apabhramsa influence in the western parts of the country including the
present states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, the early Rajasthani language developed and started taking a
definite linguistic pattern during the 11th century. The early Rajasthani and Gujarati were identical till
about 1450 AD. The separation started thereafter. Various common language names, such as Maru-
Sorath, Old Western Rajasthani, Old Gujarati, Old Rajasthani and Maru-Gurjar have been given to this
form.
The Maru-Bhasa is also called Dingal. Both were treated as identical up to the end of the 19th
century. Dingal is considered to be synonymous with Maru Bhasa, literary and otherwise, poetic
speech and the speech of the people. The earliest mention of both Dingal and-Pingal as linguistic
entities, however, occurs in a `chappay` by a saint poet Surjandas Puniya (1583-1691), composed
about 1640 or earlier. Pingal means prosody but in Rajasthan this term came to be used for language
as well. Braj Bhasa mixed with Rajasthani is also called Pingal. The diction and style of Maru Bhasa
poetry are adopted in Pihgal but the grammatical structure is of Braj Bhasa or akin to it. Thus, it differs
from pure Braj Bhasa on one side and Pingal or Rajasthani on the other. There are following branches
of Rajasthani:
 i. Marwari :- Mewari is spoken in the old princely states of Jodhpur, Bikaner,
Jaisalmer, Udaipur, Sirohi, Sekhawati region of Jaipur, part of
Kishangarh and Ajmer-Merwara, some parts of Punjab and
Haryana with slight variations.
ii. Jaipuri :- Hadauti, a popular speech in the old princely states of Jaipur
Lawa, Tonk, part of Kishangarh and Ajmer-Merwara and the
Hadauti regions including Bundi, Kota and Jhalawar.
iii. Mewari :- Ahirwati covers some parts of the old Bharatpur distrcit, Alwar,
some parts of Gurgaon in Haryana and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.
It carries slight influences of Braj and Haryani.
iv. Malwi :- It has the characteristics of Marwari and Jaipuri-Hadauti and is
spoken in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. It has a slight
tinge of Gujarati as well as Marathi language and Bundeli.
v. Bhilli :- It is popular in the princely states of Dungarpur, Banswara and
some parts of Mewar. It is also slightly influenced by Gujarati
language. Banjari and Gujari, spoken in different parts of the
country, have affinity with Rajasthani, as most of the Banjaras
and Gujars were originally the residents of Rajasthan. Nepali and
Dakkhini Hindi are also remotely connected with Rajasthani.
Speech in the territory of the princely states of Bharatpur,
Dholpur and Karoli is mostly influenced by Braj.
vi. Uttaradhi :- It belongs to the northern part or Ganganagari has emerged in
Sriganganagar district and adjoining areas of Haryana and
Punjab.
Sadri Language:-
Sadri language is considered as a branch of Prakrit Language. It belongs to the Bihari language
group. It is Lingua franca of Jharkahndi region. It is even regarded as a sister language of Bengali,
Maithili and Oriya. It is spoken widely amongst people of East India, who identity them in their
alternative names. Spoken area of this language includes Assam, Bihar, and Orissa. Few speakers can also be
found in the nook of provinces of other states like Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Andaman
Islands, and Nagaland. Few communities of Kharia and Mundra use Sadri language as to converse with
each other. Oraon region apart speaking their own native language usually communicate in Sadri
language. Several districts like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar
and even Assam inhabit large communities of Sadri language speakers. In these regions many
Jharkhandi societies endeavours. In addition this Sadri language has variation which is known as
Nagpuri language and this idiom is learned in Ranchi and other nearby universities of Jharkhand. Sadri
language is spoken extensively in South and East Chotta Nagpur region. Sadri language is considered
as the primary lingo of Oraon and Nagpur region. Particular tribe of India, namely Chero tribe uses Sadri as
first language. Sadri has its alternate names including Sadani, Sadana, Sadati, Sadari, Sadhan, Sadna, Sadrik,
Santri, Siddri, Sradri, Sadhari, Sadan, Nagpuria, Nagpuri, Chota Nagpuri, Dikku Kaji, Gawari, Ganwari, Goari,
Gauuari, and Jharkhandhi. For writing, Sadri uses Devanagari script. This is related to Dravidian language
group of Indo Aryan language and it is written in Bengali script and Latin script.

Sanskrit Language:-
Sanskrit is considered to be a key element in the Indo-Aryan language superfamily and holds the rank
of a classical language, together with other languages such as Classical Greek, Latin, Persian, Arabic Hebrew,
Chinese and Tamil. It is considered to be the oldest language in human history. Sanskrit has a similar position in
India to that of Latin and Greek in Medieval Europe. It is central part of Hindu/Vedic traditions. In its pre-
classical form, called Vedic Sanskrit, Sanskrit is one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European
language family. The oldest example of Sanskrit literature available is the Rigveda. The word "samskrata", in
the strictest sense, means "purified, consecrated, sanctified". Sanskrit, usually referred to as "Samskrata Vāk",
would mean a "refined language". Sanskrit has, by definition, always been considered to have been a language
chiefly employed for religious and scientific discourse and is assumed to have contrasted with the languages
spoken by the people. The oldest surviving example of the tabulations of the rules of Sanskrit grammar is
Panini's "Astadhyavi" which was written around the 5th century BC.The current form of the language is
believed to have evolved out of the earlier "Vedic" form of Sanskrit and certain scholars often classify Vedic
Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit as separate languages. Vedic Sanskrit is titled so due to its usage in the Vedas,
the earliest sacred texts of India and the foundations of Hinduism. The earliest of the Vedas, the Rigveda, is
estimated to have been composed in the 2nd millennium BC. Another form of this language is "Buddhist
Hybrid Sanskrit". Essentially a Prakrit language form, the language is replete with Sanskritized elements, which
are assumed to have been used for the purposes of ornamentation of the language. The word "Prakrit" refers to
the broad family of the Indic languages and dialects spoken in ancient India. The Prakrits were literary
languages, generally patronized by king. The earliest extant usages of Prakrit available are the inscriptions of
Emperor Ashoka, with the various Prakritic languages intimately associated with different patron dynasties and
kingdoms.
Today, Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language, in hymns and mantras. But the evidences of
Sanskrit still exist underneath the national consciousness of modern India. Bengali and Marathi still retain a
largely Sanskrit vocabulary base. The national anthem, "Jana Gana Mana" is composed in an extremely
Sanskritized form of Bengali. The national song, "Vande Mataram" originally a poem taken from the book
"Anandmath" written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay is in pure Sanskrit like a tribute to the mother of all
the Indian languages today. In the present scenario, Sanskrit is considered by many scholars to be a dead
language. But Sanskrit continues to display the same amount of persistence it had displayed across these many
millennia. The Government of India actively promotes Sanskrit as a third language throughout the primary
education system and modern scholars across oceans now have begun to study and encourage conversations in
Sanskrit, among a steadily growing student community. It seems manifest that Sanskrit will endure and bridge
across centuries to live on in the consciousnesses of future generations of humanity.

Santali Language:-
Santali Language belongs to the Austro-asiatic family. It is a language which has long been spoken by
the tribes of India, these are generally backward tribes. It is generally spoken in the Jharkhand west Bengal
Assam and Orissa, it is also being used by some of the tribes residing in Nepal Myanmar and surrounding
regions. Santali Language is not restricted to India only, but it also has its roots expanding to various other
countries like it is spoken in some parts of Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar. Until early 20th century
this language did not have any proper script to write it in it was generally written in the native bangle devnagari
or the Latin writing systems. The Santali alphabets are generally known as the Ol chiki now and this Ol chiki
script came into existence in 1920’s.

Shekawati Language:-
Name of this language is derived from the Shekhawati Rajputs. Shekhawati language is
considered as a semi arid language in the north eastern part of Rajasthan in India. This language is also
spoken in few administrative regions of Sikar and Jhunjhunu. North east side of Haryana, North West
part of Jangladesh and also in east of Mewat and even in south east of Dhundhar, Shekhawati language
is extensively spoken. This is also found in south side of Ajmer and south west part of Marwar region.
However in some areas of Nagaur and Churu, this semi arid Shekhawati language is spoken.

Sindhi Language:-
The word ‘Sindhi’ is an adjective of Sindh. As per classification of Grierson (1919: 01) Sindhi
is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. He has mentioned it as one of the northwestern
group of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. It is spoken in the lower Indus Valley of South Asia, which
nowdays is in Pakistan. Most Sindhi speakers are concentrated in the Sindh province and in Kutch,
Gujarat, India where Sindhi is a local language. The remaining speakers in India are composed of the
Hindu Sindhis who migrated from Sindh and settled in India after partition. These people are spread to
many part of world. The folk literature of Sindhi is as old as the language itself. Sindhi Adabi Board,
established by government in the year 1955 for promotion of Sindhi language. It has collected and
compiled and published in more than 40 volumes from oral tradition by the speaker of this language.
Written Sindhi literature is first attested in the 8th century, when references to an independent, Sindhi
version of the Mahabharata appear. However, the earliest well-attested written records in Sindhi
belong to the 15th century. Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of the
Devanagari and Lunda (Laṇḍā) scripts were used for trading, universally by all Sindhis. For literary
and religious purposes, a modified form of Persian alphabet known as Ab-ul-Hassan Sindhi and
Gurmukhi were used. Another two scripts, the Khudabadi alphabet and Shikarpuri were attempts to
reform the Landa script. Khudawadi script, formerly known as the Sindhi script, was decreed a
standard script for Sindhi by the Government of Bombay in 1868. It was was developed by Narayan
Jagannath Mehta, the Deputy Educational Inspector in Sindh, and is based mainly on the old
Khudawadi script, which was used in Hyderabad. It was officially known the 'Hindi Sindhi' or 'Hindu
Sindhi' and was used in education and literature. It was eventually replaced by the Arabic script.
During British rule in the late 19th century, an Arabic-based orthography was decreed standard, after
much controversy, as the Devanagari script had also been considered. However, this script has since
become accepted.

Shompen Language:-
Shompen Language is basically spoken by hunter gatherers in the hilly area of the great
Nicobar Island. Around 400 people speak this language. This has been included in the Nicobarese
languages which are a part of Austro Asiatic family. It appears that Shompen might be an isolated
language though there is not enough proof to support this claim. It is highly probable that this
language might be a divergent branch of a neighbouring language family.

Tamil Language:-
Tamil is a Dravidian Language of Southern branch. The Indian sub continent holds 26
languages and 36 ethno Linguistics groups. It has gained official status in Tamil Nadu and also in
small union territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and even in Pondicherry. Tamil is largely
spoken by the inhabitants of Tamil Nadu and also by its nearby regions. Tamil Language has been
descended from Proto Dravidian Language. This language was spoken in 3rd millennium BC around
the Godavari River. Tamil language holds the most ancient Indian Literature of non Sanskritised.
Tamil is considered as the first language for majority of people who inhabits in Tamil Nadu region and
also of many others nearby residing regions like Eastern and Northern Province and Sri Lanka. This
language is also orated in many minority areas of India like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Maharashtra. It is also considered as the 22nd scheduled languages and even 8th language in the
constitution. It language has also official language in union territories of Andaman and Nicobar and
Pondicherry. Its dialects are different from each other and have even gone under some different
phonological changes. It includes the Thanjavur Dialect. The old dialect of Tamil is the source of
Tirunelveli. Many dialect of this language vary in sound but they do not differ in the vocabulary
words. In the Initial stage this Language was written using vatteluttu, Pallava and Grantha script.
Tamil script consists of 18 consonants, 12 vowels and also one special character. All the consonants in
Tamil language have an inherent vowel ‘a’, as with other Indic languages. Tamil script does not
differentiate between unvoiced and voiced plosives. Vocabulariwise it has adopted words from
Sanskrit, Prakrit and many other languages.

Telugu Language:-
Telegu is a south Central Dravidian language which is used in Andhra Pradesh. This language
is widely spoken in numerous states of India like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka
and Orissa. Also it is spoken in adjoining Yanam city and in Pondicherry, a neighbouring territory. It
is influenced by Prakrit and Sanskrit. It is also persuaded by Urdu. Telugu is written in a Brahmic
alphabet and is considered as one of the 22 languages, a part of the scheduled list of languages in the
Republic of India. Telugu world is obtained from the word trilinga, which means “the country of 3
lingas”. As per Hindu legend, Lord Shiva moved down linga on three mountains known as Srisala,
Bhimeswara and Kaleswara. Also as per Marepalli Ramachandra Sastry, the word Telu means white
and the word unga refers to plural. Telagu has many dialects like Dasari, Gadwal (Rayalaseema mix),
Dommara, Berad, Golari, Salewari, Kamathi, Komtao, Warangal, Konda-Reddi, Toorpu Godavari,
Telangana, , Mahaboobnagar (Palamuru), Srikakulam, Vijayawada, Narayanapeta (with an influence
of Kannada and Marathi) Vadaga, Visakhapatnam, Kandula, Paschima. The most paradigm forms of
languages in India are like Kannada, Oriya, Tamil, Bengali, Hindi, Gujarati and Marathi, Shudda
Telugu is the name given to Standard Telugu which is often called or Accha Telugu. Telugu is spoken
by wide number of people worldwide. In United States, Telugu is spoken by approximately 800,000
people who reside in New Zealand, Center of New Jersey, Canada, Malaysia, Fiji and
Singapore. Even in most of European countries in west, a number of Telugu Diaspora exists. After
Bengali and Hindi, Telugu is considered as the 3rd highly spoken language. Though, it is usual to
write and read consonants with an inferred 'a' vowel sound. When consonants unite with other vowel
signs, the vowel part is indicated orthographically using signs known as vowel “maatras”. The script in
Telugu is written from left direction or side to right and even inhabits simple and characters that are
complex in a sequence. In nature, script of Telegu is syllabic. The basic units of writing are syllables.
Telugu alphabet consists of three vowel modifiers, 41 consonants, 60 symbols and 16 vowels.

Tulu Language:-
Tulu language is basically spoken in the south west part of Karnataka. Tulu language belongs
to Dravidian language family of Southern branch and it also contains many groups under it which are
Southern Dravidian, Tulu and Tulu languages. It is also orated in a small portion of northern Kerala.
The native and primary speakers of this verbal communication are commonly referred as Tulu people
or Tuluva. The word Tulu means something which is connected with water. This idiom is based
initially on Tulu script and later on Kannada script of writing style. This language was originally
spoken in Tulu Nadu and also in many districts such of Dakshini Kannada and Udupi in west region of
Karnatake. It is also orated in Kasaragod taluk of kerala. Apart from Tamil Nadu this idiom is verbally
orated in many other states such as Maharashtra, Bangalore and Gulf countries. This language was
written in Tulu script and which is adapted from Grantha script. Tulu script is also known as Arya
Elzuttu. Later on in 20th century this script declined and again Tulu language was written using
Kannada script. Many manuscripts of different types were written in Tulu language. This language has
four dialects which are somewhat similar but with slight variations. These four dialects which are as
follows:-
Brahmin Tulu :- This dialect is spoken by Tulu Brahmins and is slightly
influenced by Sanskrit.
Harijan Dialect :- This dialect is orated by Mansa, Mera, Tribal and Harijan
classes.
Jain Dialect :- This dialect is verbally orated by jains of Tulu.
Common Tulu :- This dialect is mostly conversed by Billava, Bunts and
Mogaveera communities. Moreover it is used by trade,
commerce and entertainment sectors majorly and is used by inter
community communication.
Common Tulu is sub divided into five groups i.e.Central Tulu, North west Tulu,North East
Tulu,South west Tulu,South Central Tulu,South East Tulu

Urdu Language:-
Urdu Language belongs to Indo-European family of languages and developed under Persian
and Arabic. Urdu language historically spelled Ordu, is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-Iranian
branch, belonging to Indo-Europ ean family of languages. Urdu came to India during the rule of
Turkish emperors from 1191. After that it was nurtured by the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rulers in
India. It is the national language of Pakistan as well as one of the 21 official languages of India. Urdu
is also one of the officially recognized state languages in India and has official language status in the
Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh, and the national
capital, Delhi. Urdu is widely used in Indian cities like Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad. Urdu can
be considered to be a part of a dialect continuation which extends across eastern Iran, Afghanistan and
modern Pakistan right into North India. Urdu has four recognised dialects Dakhini, Pinjari, Rekhta,
and Modern Vernacular. Modern vernacular is based on the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region.
Modern Vernacular Urdu is the form of the language that is least widespread and is spoken around
Delhi, Lucknow, Karachi and Lahore. Dakhini is spoken in Maharashtra and around Hyderabad.

Urdu is spoken largely in India where number of Muslims resides. In Pakistan, Urdu has moved over
with few alters which as a result has clutch many phrases from Pashto, Sindhi, Punjabi and Balti
languages. This type of Urdu verbal communication erect Pakistani folks simply distinguishes own
selves from others. In India this language is found in many dialects like Khairboli of Punjab district
and Dakhini of South India. Urdu is also spoken and understood by huge amount of Sialkot Lahore,
Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Jhang, Karachi and Islamabad section. Even this verbal communication is well
thought-out as the most noteworthy languages and is therefore spoken and written by several people. It
is also trained in schools and is considered as the essential subject. Furthermore it has shaped several
Urdu writers as well. In the province regions and also in the country of Pakistan, Urdu is measured as
the mother dialect. Additionally in South Asia, it is spoken by great number of folks. Several children
in major urban centres United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and United States actively look forward to
learn and speak Urdu. In Indian state of Orissa, Urdu is commonly narrated but it is different from
Urdu orated in other various regions of the India. Urdu language is written from right to left and many
words are influenced from Arabic or Persian alphabets. It is also written in various other formats like
Devanagarin Script, Kaithi Script and Roman Script.

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 Website Reference:
 http://dsal.uchicago.edu
 http://peopleslinguisticsurvey.org
 http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~jason2/papers/natlang.htm
 http://www.ncpsl.org
 http://www.wazu.jp/gallery/Fonts_SindhiA.html
 http://www.voiceofsindh.net/fonts.htm
 http://www.censusindia.gov.in
 http://www.garhwalpost.com
 http://www.ethnologue.com
 http://www.nainitalsamachar.in
 http://www.navhindtimes.in
 http://www.nainitalsamachar.in
 http://in.jagran.yahoo.com
 http://www.indiamapped.com/languages-in-india/assam-karbi-language/
 http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~jason2/papers/natlang.htm
 http://www.nainitalsamachar.in/garhwali-kumaoni-language-should-be-in-eighth-
schedule/
 http://in.jagran.yahoo.com/news/national/politics/5_2_6618042.html
 http://in.jagran.yahoo.com/news/local/uttranchal/4_5_6647023.html
 http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=5410372