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Media influence, fashion, and shopping: a gender perspective

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JFMM
20,1
4 Department of Fashion and Textile Technology, SUNY Buffalo State,
Received 21 September 2014
Revised 14 April 2015
Accepted 3 July 2015
Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management
Vol. 20 No. 1, 2016
pp. 4-18
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1361-2026
DOI 10.1108/JFMM-09-2014-0068
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/1361-2026.htm
Media influence, fashion, and
shopping: a gender perspective
Arlesa Shephard
Buffalo, New York, USA, and
Sanjukta Pookulangara, Tammy R. Kinley and Bharath M. Josiam
College of Merchandising & Hospitality Management,
University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
Abstract
Purpose – Promotional media and gender have been shown to influence purchase and shopping
channel choice. The purpose of this paper is to better understand the role of media influence, fashion
consciousness, and fashion leadership on shopping channel choice in regard to gender.
Design/methodology/approach – A survey was administered using a convenience sample of male
and female students at a Southwestern University in the USA. A total of 408 surveys were used for
analysis. The data were factor analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
statistical software and a structural equation model was developed to test the hypotheses.
Findings – The results indicate that while the media influence factor of mass media positively
influences fashion consciousness for both males and females, personalized media only indicated
significant influence on male fashion leaders. In addition, both male and female consumers indicated
that fashion leadership influenced non-traditional over traditional retail channels.
Originality/value – This research uses social cognitive theory and the theory of symbolic interaction
to better understand the impact of media and fashion on shopping behavior. This paper addresses the
changing media types and how they impact behavior for both men and women.
Keywords Gender, Consumer behaviour, Fashion leaders, Promotional methods
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The overarching assumption is that gender differences are learned based on social
interaction and upbringing which leads to differences in clothing selection (Workman
and Studak, 2006). Women often prefer to shop in social settings where they can
interact with their peers. In general, women purchase fashion more due to desire or
want as opposed to need or utility (Cho and Workman, 2011; Workman and Studak,
2006). In addition, women have been found to spend more time gathering information
prior to making a purchase (Jackson et al., 2011).
Men, on the other hand, have been shown to prefer having the ability to shop
quickly (Bakewell et al., 2006; Seock and Bailey, 2008; Workman and Cho, 2012). Some
recent studies have suggested that men’s shopping behavior may be changing to
incorporate traits previously associated with women. Millennial men exhibit higher
levels of shopping enjoyment than men of older generational cohorts (Brosdahl and
Carpenter, 2011). Otnes and McGrath (2001) found that there are men who have
transcended the gender role and are more open and willing to engage in the shopping
experience. Due to changing perceptions, shopping behaviors that previously would
have been considered feminine have been retooled to fit within today’s masculine
concepts. In addition, media, such as television programs, have reinforced the idea that
achievement-oriented shopping or purchasing items that denote status and success are
aligned with masculine ideology (Otnes and McGrath, 2001).
 As shopping behaviors change, it becomes increasingly important to understand the Media
mechanisms of change. Concepts, such as fashion consciousness and fashion leadership influence,
which formerly have been associated more with female shopping behavior are now being
examined in men (Bakewell et al., 2006; Darden and Reynolds, 1972; Workman and
fashion, and
Cho, 2012). In addition, promotional media outlets are evolving with new venues including shopping
electronic media which have not been fully addressed in contemporary literature,
particularly as they relate to shopping behavior. Consumers now have access to fashion 5
and product information in a wide variety of media beyond traditional mass media (Bailey
and Seock, 2010). To better understand the role of gender and media in shopping
behavior, this research will examine how media influence (mass media vs personal media)
and fashion orientation (fashion consciousness and fashion leadership) impact shopping
channel choice (traditional vs non-traditional).

Literature review
Theoretical framework
Social cognitive theory examines psychosocial components which motivate human
thought and action (Bandura, 2001). Social cognitive theory works under the
assumption that social mechanisms can affect behavior. According to Bandura (2001),
social cognitive theory is based on modeling which are factors that influence an
individual’s behavior. The three factors that make up an individual’s interaction
with others include personal (cognitive reasoning), behavioral (actions of others), and
environmental (social context). These factors or models define the process by which
individuals observe others and create socially constructed meaning which in turn
affects the behavior of the individual.
Social cognitive theory has been used to examine gender differentiation as well as
media influence. It is argued that society is responsible for defining gender. Gender
differences are observed and gender-related behavior is evaluated within a social
environment which in turn influences gender behavior characteristics in children and
adults (Bussey and Bandura, 1999). Besides gender, media has frequently been
examined within the context of social cognitive theory. According to Bandura (2001),
media is considered a mechanism of the environment. People are greatly affected by
their social environment through both textual and visual cues which affects cognitive
processes and behavioral outcomes.
An important theory which has been used to better understand the role of fashion
orientation is the theory of symbolic interaction. According to Solomon (1983), the theory
of symbolic interaction has three facets: a consumer’s perception based on the response of
others, the influence on a consumers’ behavior, and a consumer’s sense of self based on
the actions and responses of others to various stimuli. The symbolism in the fashion
products is the primary influence for their purchase and individuals attribute meaning to
these products based on the social environment in which they are presented.
According to Zhang and Kim (2013), symbolic interaction theory is appropriate for
examining attitude and purchase intent of fashion products because the theory helps to
explain how people observe, attribute meaning, and understand their appearance and the
appearance of others. Examples of social interaction include being influenced by personal
factors such as peers and social comparison with friends as well as mass media figures,
such as celebrities. In a study by Zhang and Kim (2013) brand consciousness, fashion
innovativeness, and social comparisons were important factors regarding attitudes
toward purchasing luxury fashion goods as many consumers looked toward their friends
as well as celebrities (symbols) for social environmental cues.
JFMM Media influence: mass vs personal
20,1 Previous studies have examined social cognitive theory to better understand different
types of media and their relationship with consumer behavior (Stefanone et al., 2010).
Fashion is a construct that relies on socialization and media which is an important form
of communication that affects shopping behavior (Apeagyei, 2011). The platforms
through which promotional media are conveyed are important toward influencing
6 purchase behavior. A study by Apeagyei (2011) examined the gender differences
regarding the influence of individual media platforms including store windows, fashion
lifestyle magazines, television programs and movies, advice from friends, relatives, or
sales associates, the internet, observation of others, and celebrities. Overall, women
indicated higher media influence than men in all categories except advice from friends,
relatives, or sales associates in which men and women indicated similar influence levels.
As the variety and type of media platforms continue to grow and evolve, researchers
have begun to examine different types or categories of media, such as mass media.
Mass media is an information source that is widely available to the general public.
A study by Belleau et al. (2007) discussed the impact mass media on young consumers,
which included television exposure, store window and in-store displays, billboards,
fashion shows, and the internet when evaluating purchase intention. Their results
indicated that television shows and store window displays received the highest rate of
attention from consumers. They found, however, that mass media was not significant
in predicting actual purchases. Research suggests that consumers may be more
receptive to media strategies such as using TV and movie actors as a means for
clothing promotion. A study by Stefanone et al. (2010) used social cognitive theory to
better understand the relationship between viewing television and people’s attitudes. In
their study, reality TV served as the learning model while social networking sites
served as the context for observing behavior. Reality TV is targeted toward a mass
audience rather than individuals. Social networks have to do with diffusion of the
models and can be represented by colleagues, friendships, and other interactions within
an individual’s daily environment (including sales representatives). Mass media is
rather impersonal, but the growing options for social networks (and personal media)
can change the diffusion path (Bandura, 2001).
Another type of media that has been gaining attention among researchers is personal
media. Yu and Cude (2009) define personal media as “advertising that is created for an
individual using information about the individual” (p. 504) which includes criteria such as
a person’s geographic location, shopping history, or hobby. Personal media incorporates
a wide variety of media formats, both online and off-line. Personal media can be designed
for person-to-person communications and transmitted through speech, mail, and the
telephone whereas mass media is designed and accessed by a broader population
(Types of media: mass media vs personalized media, n.d.). A study by Yu and Cude (2009)
examined consumers’ perceptions of three types of personalized media: delivered online,
by mail, and by phone. Women were found to be more likely than men to respond
negatively to personal media sent without the participants’ permission because of
privacy concerns. Both genders were more receptive to personal media sent through the
mail than that received through the internet or by phone (Yu and Cude, 2009).

Fashion consciousness
Symbolic interaction theory has been used to better understand meaning attributed to
fashion products (Kim and Hall, 2014). In a study by Kim and Hall (2014), fashion
brands serve as the symbolic media from which meaning is derived. Advertising is a
generated media in which symbols are used to represent the brand and influence Media
meaning for consumers. Customers, however, contribute to the attribution of meaning influence,
for fashion branded products. According to the study, fashion advertisements play an
important role in presenting symbols and brand meaning to the customer. The symbols
fashion, and
generated through advertising and marketing, the social environment (culture) of the shopping
consumer, and meanings attributed by the individual work together to attribute
meaning for a fashion brand. If these meanings resonate with consumers, they are more 7
likely to support and purchase the branded products.
The media has a great impact on consumers’ perceptions of image awareness
(consciousness) and fashion. Fashion consciousness refers to a person’s awareness and
interest in fashion (Nam et al., 2006). Research indicates that women are more fashion
conscious than men and prefer recreational shopping whereas men value convenience
shopping (Bakewell et al., 2006; Seock and Bailey, 2008; Workman and Cho, 2012).
According to Gould and Stern (1989), women exhibit a higher level of fashion
consciousness which stems from being publically self-conscious. Women apply their
awareness of fashion to their external appearance; therefore, their fashion
consciousness is reinforced by purchasing fashionable apparel. Young women have
been found to use sources, such as the internet, to conduct research on the latest
fashions and styles so that they are more confident in their purchase decisions
(Burkolter and Kluge, 2011; Seock and Bailey, 2008).
Fashion consciousness, however, is no longer centered primarily on women.
Men who are fashion conscious are found to be more content with their self-identity.
By purchasing fashionable apparel, men are exhibiting that they are comfortable with
both their private and public image (Gould and Stern, 1989). This can be seen with male
celebrities, such as David Beckham, who are perceived in popular media as being
fashion conscious (Bakewell et al., 2006). As more men of high status are seen being
rewarded for their fashion consciousness, they become leaders who influence other men
to increase their consciousness toward appearance and fashion. Being aware or
conscious of fashion, however, does not necessarily translate into purchasing
fashionable apparel. A study by Bakewell et al. (2006) found that generation Y men
were overall fashion conscious, but they scored low on the question “I’m usually the
first to buy the latest styles” (p. 175). This suggests that while they are aware of
fashion, they are not necessarily fashion leaders and act more conservatively when
purchasing clothing. Men’s fashion consciousness is binary; they either are fashion
conscious or they have little concern or awareness of fashion. Those who are not
fashion conscious pay little attention or time to shopping for clothing (Bakewell et al.,
2006). The behavior of men who are not considered fashion conscious tends more
toward convenience shopping (Workman and Cho, 2012). The following are the
resulting hypotheses related to fashion consciousness:
H1a. Fashion consciousness will be positively influenced by mass media.
H2a. Fashion consciousness will be positively influenced by personal media.

Fashion leadership
Fashion consciousness is linked to fashion leadership (Pentecost and Andrews, 2010;
Tigert et al., 1976). Many fashion conscious consumers describe themselves as being early
adopters or leaders of fashion and make a purposeful effort to identify and invest in the
newest trends (Nam et al., 2006; Workman and Cho, 2012). For men, previous studies
JFMM indicate that consciousness and leadership are inherently linked in that men who are
20,1 fashion leaders must also be conscious and aware of fashion (Bakewell et al., 2006; Darden
and Reynolds, 1972). When consumers use their awareness for fashion to influence their
decision to purchase the latest apparel trends, they become fashion leaders.
Fashion leadership refers to consumers who adopt trends early in the fashion cycle
before the trend reaches the majority of the population. Fashion leaders are also described
8 as people who assist with awareness or the diffusion of a fashion (Goldsmith et al., 1993).
Previous studies have indicated that gender plays an important role in fashion leadership
with women indicating higher fashion leadership than men (Cho and Workman, 2011;
Goldsmith et al., 1987; Stith and Goldsmith, 1989). Cho and Workman (2011) found that
while women exhibited higher fashion leadership, gender did not significantly impact
shopping channel choice. Stith and Goldsmith (1989) found that not only did women
exhibit higher fashion leadership than men, but they also spend more on fashion goods.
Symbolic interaction theory is used to further understand the meaning attributed to
fashion-related symbols. This theory relies on meaning people derive from these
symbols (people, objects, etc.) and the environment around them. These meanings are
attributed from the interaction of individuals within society (Aksan et al., 2009).
Fashion leaders often turn to media, such as fashion magazines, to stay up-to-date on
fashion trends. A study by Vernette (2004) found that the level of fashion leadership
has a positive relationship to the impact of fashion advertising. Fashion leaders often
expose themselves to media that contain fashion advertising, such as magazines,
more frequently than consumers with low fashion leadership. In addition, fashion
leaders are more likely to retain the information transmitted through the advertising
media (Vernette, 2004). Although fashion magazines claim to be the best source for
fashion and are directed to specific market groups, today’s consumers can get fashion
information from other broader information sources.
The modeling used in social cognitive theory is applicable to studies involving fashion
media and behavior because advertising for these products uses trendy imagery and
manipulates context to promote these products. This type of media or symbolic modeling
affects opinion leaders who then influence the behaviors of others (Bandura, 2001).
Fashion leaders are more likely to share information from the promotions to influence
their peers. A study by Lee and Workman (2013) indicated that gossip plays an important
role in purchase decisions for fashion leaders. Fashion leaders were more likely to value
gossip as they pay more attention to the appearance of others as well as their own public
image. The study implied that informal advertising through word of mouth is important
which includes social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter as this information
can greatly impact the decisions of fashion leaders (Lee and Workman, 2013). The
following are the resulting hypotheses related to fashion leadership:
H1b. Fashion leadership will be positively influenced by mass media.
H2b. Fashion leadership will be positively influenced by personal media.
H3. Fashion leadership will be positively influenced by fashion consciousness.

Shopping channel choice

Fashion leadership can play an important role in shopping channel choice. Cho and
Workman (2011) found that regardless of gender, consumers with higher fashion leadership
were more likely to be multi-channel consumers whereas consumers that were less fashion
oriented tended to avoid non-store shopping channels and preferred brick-and-mortar
stores. In addition, fashion innovators and opinion leaders were more likely to shop using Media
non-traditional stores including TV retailers, catalogs, and online stores (Cho and Workman, influence,
2011). One study that looked solely at online shopping behaviors found that fashion
conscious consumers used the internet to conduct research as well as complete purchases
fashion, and
online (Seock and Bailey, 2008). In addition, consumers with higher confidence in their shopping
purchase decisions were more likely to complete purchases online.
Gender is also important to consider when examining shopping channel choice. 9
Men have been found to prefer department stores over specialty stores and shopped
at discount stores the least when comparing traditional or brick-and-mortar stores
(Torres et al., 2001). Women tend to find that brick-and-stores fulfill their social
interaction needs more than shopping online (Cho and Workman, 2011). Although
women have been found to use the internet for conducting searches for fashion apparel
and accessories, they do not necessarily complete purchases online. Men continue to
complete purchases online more frequently than women (Burkolter and Kluge, 2011).
This contradicts a study by Seock and Bailey (2008) which indicates that while women
conduct more research online, they also complete more purchases online than men.
While many of these studies focus on only one channel or a single channel type
(traditional or non-traditional), there is a need to further examine the influence of
gender with regard to multiple shopping categories.
Social cognitive theory is used to better understand the influence of media and
fashion orientation on shopping channel choice. According to Bandura, (2001) the
media models influence social systems (fashion orientation), which then influences
behavioral change (shopping behavior). The type of media used to present fashion
products, mass media, and personal media, are likely to influence an individual’s
fashion orientation based on attributed meanings achieved through environmental
behavioral, and cognitive processes. In this study, mass media and personal media
serve as the symbolic models for consumers. Fashion consciousness and leadership are
the means by which the media are diffused. Individuals who are considered fashion
leaders, are more likely to be impacted by the diffusion process and therefore require
further study to better understand their shopping preferences. The shopping channel
choice, traditional and non-traditional stores, measured in this study represent the
outcomes or behaviors resulting from the media and fashion orientation influences.
The resulting hypotheses are as follows:
H4a. Traditional store patronage will be positively influenced by fashion leadership
H4b. Non-traditional store patronage will be positively influenced by fashion
leadership.
Based on the above discussion regarding media influence, fashion consciousness and
leadership, and shopping channel choice, a research model was developed. The
research model is presented in Figure 1 with the paths for the hypotheses included.

Methods
Sample and data collection
Data were collected using a survey from a convenience sample of student participants
(232 male and 176 female) from a Southwestern University in the USA. The use of students
for this study was appropriate as prior research indicates that students are a valid sample
in exploratory research when the information being sought is relevant to this demographic
particularly in regard to their level of fashion leadership (Singhapakdi et al., 1996;
JFMM Mass Media
20,1 H1a
Fashion
Consciousness
H1b
Traditional
Store Patronage
H3
H4a

10 H2a
Fashion
H2b Leadership
H4b
Personal Media
Figure 1. Non-Traditional
Research model Store Patronage

Behling, 1992). In addition, research indicates that younger consumers are an important
group to study due to their differences in shopping behavior as it relates to gender
(Brosdahl and Carpenter, 2011; Otnes and McGrath, 2001) and purchase influence from
media (Belleau et al., 2007; Wolburg and Pokrywczynski, 2001).

Instrument
Existing literature was used to develop a self-administered questionnaire for the
consumers in this study. The media influence scale was adapted from previous
research and included various promotional media including those advertised on
television and featured in a catalog (Kinley et al., 1999). Wells and Tigert (1971)
developed the fashion consciousness scale which was used in several additional studies
(Nam et al., 2006; Parker et al., 2004; Lumpkin and Darden, 1982). Six items were
included in the fashion leadership scale which has been and used in previous studies
(Gutman and Mills, 1982; Goldsmith et al., 1993). Fashion consciousness was
determined by the sum of six statements which have been validated in previous
research (Nam et al., 2006). The researchers developed the shopping channel scale
based on channel choices that were available to the student population in the region
where research was conducted. A seven-point Likert scale was used to measure each
item (1 ¼ “Strongly Disagree” and 5 ¼ “Strongly Agree”). Demographic data included
gender, age, ethnicity, and educational qualification.

Data analysis
Data were analyzed using SPSS and LISREL. Demographic variables were examined
using frequency statistics. Exploratory factor analysis was used to assess the construct
validity (Cronbach and Meehl, 1955). Cronbach’s standardized α was used to assess
internal reliability (Cronbach, 1951). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate
measurement properties, including reliability, and validity of the measures. Fornell and
Larcker’s (1981) suggested steps were the basis for examining convergent validity.
A structural equation model (SEM) utilizing multi-group analysis was used to test
hypotheses and explore the causal relationships.

Results
Demographic profile
A total of 408 usable questionnaires were included in data analysis (Table I). More male
(56.9 percent) than female (43.1 percent) consumers participated, and approximately
Variables Frequency (n ¼ 408) %
Media
influence,
Gender fashion, and
Female 176 43.1
Male 232 56.9 shopping
Age
18-21 220 53.9 11
22-25 160 39.2
26-29 19 4.7
30 years and older 9 2.2
Ethnicity
Caucasian 154 37.7
Hispanic 203 49.8
African American 19 4.7
Asian 6 1.5
Other 26 6.3
Educational qualification
Freshman 61 15.0
Sophomore 59 14.5 Table I.
Junior 129 31.6 Demographic
Senior 153 37.5 characteristics of
Graduate 6 1.5 the respondents

54 percent of them were between 18 and 21 years old and (49.8 percent) were
Hispanics. A majority of the respondents were juniors (31.6 percent) and seniors
(37.5 percent).
Measurement model and structural model testing
The four-step approach recommended by Mulaik and Millsap (2000) was used as a
guide to test the SEM. The four-step approach consists of a common factor analysis to
establish the number of latent variables, a CFA to confirm the measurement model, test
of the structural model, and testing of nested models or model modification to obtain
the model of best fit. The causal model testing was conducted using LISREL 8.72 with
maximum-likelihood estimation method. Fit statistics including χ2, comparative fit
index (CFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), and root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) assessed model fit. A χ2-test assesses the adequacy of a hypothesized
model to reflect variance and covariance of the data. For the statistical significance
of parameter estimates, t-values were used. Generally, fit statistics greater than or equal
to 0.90 for CFI and NNFI indicate a good model fit (Bentler and Bonett, 1980). Similarly,
RMSEA values lower than 0.07 indicate adequate model fit.
The first step was conducted using SPSS as an exploratory factor analysis using
principal component with varimax rotation to identify the latent variables in the model.
A minimum eigenvalue of one was used as the criterion to control the number of factors
extracted. Measured variables with factor/pattern coefficients greater than 0.40 on a
single factor were included as part of the factor (Table II).
For media influence an exploratory factor analysis revealed two factors, mass media
(α ¼ 0.87) and personal media (α ¼ 0.84), which explained 71.00 percent of the total
variance (Table II). An exploratory factor analysis of fashion leadership and
fashion consciousness revealed one factor for each scale. Fashion leadership explained
JFMM Factor % of
20,1 Factor items loading Eigenvalue variance α

Media influence: mass 2.968 37.10 0.87

Advertised on television 0.80
Advertised on a billboard 0.75
In a store display 0.74
12 Worn by persons on television programs 0.71
In music videos 0.68
Media influence: personal 2.712 33.90 0.84
Featured in a catalog 0.87
Featured in a magazine 0.83
Recommended by a sales associate 0.72
Fashion consciousness 4.151 69.19 0.91
It is important to me that my clothes be of the latest style 0.89
A person should try to dress in fashion 0.85
I usually dress for fashion, and not for comfort 0.85
An important part of my life and activities is dressing stylishly 0.82
I usually have one or more outfits that are of the very latest
fashion 0.80
I often try the latest hair styles when they change 0.78
Fashion leadership 4.232 70.53 0.91
I am the first to try new fashion; therefore, many people
regard me as being a fashion leader 0.90
I am aware of fashion trends and want to be one of the first
to try them 0.89
I spend a lot of time on fashion-related activities 0.87
It is important for me to be a fashion leader 0.85
I am confident in my ability to recognize fashion trends 0.79
Clothes are one of the most important ways I have of
expressing my individuality 0.74
Traditional store patronage 1.165 19.41 0.60
Specialty stores (i.e. Gap or American Eagle Outfitters) 0.78
“Fast Fashion” stores (i.e. Zara, Forever 21, or H&M) 0.76
Department stores (i.e. Macy’s or Dillard’s) 0.66
Non-traditional channel patronage 2.290 38.17 0.58
Ebay or other online auction sites 0.79
Table II. Catalogs 0.74
Factor analysis Internet retailers (i.e. www.ae.com) 0.72

70.53 percent of the variance (α ¼ 0.91), whereas fashion consciousness explained

69.19 percent of the total variance with Cronbach’s α of 0.91 (Table II). For channel
patronage behavior, an exploratory factor analysis revealed two factors,
traditional store patronage (α ¼ 0.60), and non-traditional channel patronage
(α ¼ 0.58), which explained 57.58 percent of the total variance (Table II).
The fit of the measurement model was tested by constraining or referencing the
factor loading of one variable per latent construct to one. The fit of the measurement
model was acceptable ( χ 2 ¼ 1,185.01, CFI ¼ 0.98, and RMSEA ¼ 0.069 and
NNFI ¼ 0.98). Therefore, the measurement model was retained without any
modifications. The third step involved testing the fit of the structural model by
adding the hypothesized relationships between the latent variables as shown in
Figure 1. Finally, the model revealed overall acceptable fit ( χ2 ¼ 1,234.17, df ¼ 606,
p ¼ 0.00000, CFI ¼ 0.97, RMSEA ¼ 0.07, NNFI ¼ 0.97). Figures 2 and 3 display the
 Mass Media
Media
0.88
(5.16) Fashion influence,
Consciousness fashion, and
0.94
Traditional shopping
Store Patronage
(10.82)
0.08
(6.46) 13
Fashion
Leadership
0.21
(2.92)
0.48 Figure 2.
(7.24)
Personal Media Non-Traditional Research
Store Patronage model – male

Mass Media
0.85
(4.53) Fashion
Consciousness

Traditional
1.05 Store Patronage
(10.54)
0.20
(4.23)
Fashion
Leadership
0.34
(4.84)
Figure 3.
Personal Media Non-Traditional Research
Store Patronage model – female

results of the causal model analysis showing the statistically significant paths. The effect
sizes have been placed directly below the path coefficients. A parameter estimate t-value
greater than 2.00 was considered an indicator of statistical significance (Byrne, 1998).
According to Fornell and Larcker, (1981), the convergent validity can be assessed
by three measures: item reliability, construct (composite) reliability, and average
variance extracted (AVE). In this current study all the items had a significant t-value
which is considered evidence of convergent validity (Chau, 1996). The construct
reliability ranged from 0.77 to 0.93. Finally, the AVE was greater than 0.5 for all of the
six constructs.
The results of the study indicated that not all of the hypotheses were supported for
both of the gender groups and the groups did show dissimilarities with respect to
channel choice as well as other constructs.

Male consumers
Fashion consciousness was positively influenced by mass media for male consumers
but not personal media (Figure 2). In addition, fashion leadership was positively
influence by personal media for male consumers, but not mass media. Fashion
leadership was positively influence by fashion consciousness for male consumers. Both
traditional and non-traditional store patronage were positively influenced by fashion
leadership. The higher β-value indicates that fashion leadership in men is a greater
influencer for non-traditional retail formats such as the internet.
JFMM Female consumers
20,1 Fashion consciousness was positively influenced by mass media but not personal
media for female consumers (Figure 3). Fashion leadership was not directly influenced
by either mass media or personal media for female consumers. Fashion leadership was
positively influenced by fashion consciousness. Both traditional and non-traditional
store patronage were positively influenced by fashion leadership in which fashion
14 leadership has a greater influence on non-traditional retail formats, such as the internet,
for female consumers.

Discussion and conclusions

There is a wide variety of media available today and each type of media can have a
different impact on consumers’ awareness and purchase of fashion goods. Unlike
previous studies which have examined the influence of individual media platforms
(Apeagyei, 2011; Stefanone et al., 2010), this study used a new approach by examining
media based on its method of dissemination: mass media vs personal media.
In addition, few studies have examined the role of media on gender shopping behavior.
For male consumers, mass media influenced fashion consciousness whereas personal
media influenced fashion leaders. This suggests that men become more aware or
conscious of fashion through the exposure of media presented to the masses, but only
seek personalized and potentially fashion-related media once they have embraced their
awareness and become fashion leaders. This further supports the idea of Bakewell et al.
(2006) which indicates that male consumers who are not fashion conscious pay little
attention to fashion and fashion-related media. Because personal media influences male
fashion leaders, retailers who desire to target this market should incorporate
promotions in men’s fashion and health magazines or in the form of direct media sent
through the mail or e-mail. In addition retailers should ensure that sales associates are
knowledgeable about their products so that they may also provide personalized
information. In addition, the relationship between fashion leadership and fashion
consciousness supports previous research which indicates that men who are fashion
leaders must also be fashion conscious or aware of fashion (Bakewell et al., 2006;
Darden and Reynolds, 1972).
Women’s purchase influence differed from men in that mass media was the only
significant factor and only influenced fashion consciousness. This is an interesting
result which indicates that females pay attention to mass media such as billboards or
television ads vs magazines and sales associates. This indicates that retailers should
continue to promote their products through mass media venues as a means of reaching
their female consumer base. Past studies have shown that women exhibit higher
fashion consciousness than men (Seock and Bailey, 2008; Workman and Cho, 2012).
Due to the positive relationship between fashion consciousness and fashion leadership,
this may also suggest that women overall are more likely to be aware of fashion than
men and obtain information from a wider variety of sources rather than relying on
personalized fashion-oriented media. This further supports the idea that consumers are
diversifying where they obtain their fashion information. While fashion magazines
have been an important form of fashion promotion in the past, today’s fashion leaders
are now obtaining fashion information from other sources (Bailey and Seock, 2010).
Television programing and advertising have been found to be a successful method for
reaching young consumers because generation Y consumers have watched a greater
amount of television and had access to broader television programing than previous
generations (Wolburg and Pokrywczynski, 2001). Retailers may benefit from having
their products worn by television and movie celebrities as well as promoting their Media
products through television advertising during programing with a similar target market. influence,
Fashion leadership had a positive influence on both traditional and non-traditional
store patronage with both males and females indicating higher influence for
fashion, and
non-traditional retail channels. Previous studies indicated that regardless of fashion shopping
orientation, gender did not significantly impact shopping channel choice or shopping
behaviors (Seock and Bailey, 2008; Cho and Workman, 2011; Workman and Cho, 2012). 15
The similarity between males and females found in this study indicates the growing
importance of non-traditional retail formats such as online stores and catalogs as viable
shopping channels. For men, the influence was far greater for non-traditional store
patronage than traditional patronage which supports previous research indicating that
men prefer shopping online more than women (Burkolter and Kluge, 2011). Conversely,
this also suggests that women are beginning to use non-traditional channels, such as
online shopping more frequently. This supports research which indicates that fashion
conscious consumers and fashion leaders are more likely to purchase goods from
multiple shopping channels including online stores (Seock and Bailey, 2008). Although
the shopping behavior regarding shopping channel choice may be similar for both male
and female fashion leaders, the influence of media is different. Previous research
emphasizes the notion that media has a higher impact on fashion leaders (Vernette,
2004). To best target fashion leaders and influence their shopping behaviors, retailers
should continue to target females through mass media platforms while male fashion
leaders may be more directly targeted using personal media.
The information in this research is not generalizable to the entire population as the
data collection was limited to one geographic area and focussed on college students.
In addition, more research is needed to better understand differences in male and
female shopping behavior. Male and female consumer behaviors continue to change
with each generation and are impacted by changes within society. More research is
needed to better understand generational differences between male and female
shopping behaviors and shopping channel choice.

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18 About the authors
Arlesa Shephard is an Assistant Professor in the Fashion and Textile Technology Department
at The State University of New York at Buffalo State. She received her PhD from the
University of Missouri. Her research expertise includes consumer behavior, social responsibility,
and history of dress. Arlesa Shephard is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
shephaaj@buffalostate.edu
Sanjukta Pookulangara is an Associate Professor in Merchandising and Digital Retail at the
University of North Texas. She received her PhD from the University of Missouri. Her research
expertise includes multi-channel retailing, social media, consumer behavior, and social responsibility.
Tammy R. Kinley is an Associate Professor in Merchandising Division at the University of North
Texas. She received her PhD from the Texas Tech University. Her research expertise includes
shopping behavior, fashion leadership, and fashion involvement of various demographic groups.
Bharath M. Josiam is a Professor of Hospitality Management at the University of North
Texas. He received the PhD from the University of Minnesota. His research expertise
includes consumer behavior, GEN Y attitudes and behaviors, international travel and tourism,
and hospitality management.

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