Chapter Three

Introduction to Electrical Machines
CHAPTER THREE
INDUCTION MACHINES
3.1. ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
Three electrical Machines (dc, induction & synchronous) are used extensively for
electromechanical energy conversion. In these machines, conversion of energy
results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena.
1. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is induced in the
conductor: (generator action)
2. When a current –carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force (Motor action)
Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion

Note that the two systems in Figure 3.1, electrical and mechanical, are different in
nature. In electrical system the primary quantities involved are voltage & current
while in mechanical system, the analogous quantities are torque & speed. The
coupling medium between these different systems is the magnetic field.
The basic electrical machines (induction, dc, and synchronous), which depend on
electromagnetic energy conversion, are extensively used in various power ratings.
The operation, construction and characteristic features of these machines are
discussed in detail in this and other chapters.
3.2. INTRODUCTION
The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in
industry. The induction machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and
separated from the stator by an air gap. However, in the induction machine both
stator winding and rotor winding carry alternating current. The alternating current
(ac) is supplied to the stator winding machine.
The induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it
is seldom used as a generator supplying electrical power to a load. The performance
characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory for most applications. The
induction machine is extensively used as a motor in many applications.
Of all the a.c motors the poly-phase induction motor is the one which is extensively
used for various kinds of industrial drives. It has the following main advantages and
also some disadvantages.
Advantages:
1. It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction
(especially squirrel cage type)
2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable
3. It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes are
needed, hence frictional losses are reduced.
4. It has a reasonably good power factor
1
5. it requires minimum of maintenance

6. It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be
synchronized. Its starting arrangement is simple especially – for squirrel- cage
type motor.
Disadvantage
1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
2. Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load
3. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a d.c shunt motor
The induction motor is used in various sizes:
 Large three-phase induction motors (in tens or hundreds of horsepower) are
used in pumps, fans, compressors, paper mills, textile mills and so forth.
 Small single-phase induction motors (in fractional horsepower rating) are used
in many household appliances, such as blenders, lawn mowers, juice mixers,
washing machines, refrigerators, and stereo turntables.
 The linear version of the induction machine has been developed primarily for
use in transportationsystems.
The induction machine is undoubtedly a very useful electrical machine. Two-phase
induction motors are used primarily as servomotors in a control system. Three-
phase induction motors are the most important ones and are most widely used in
industry. In this unit the constructional features, operation, stator windings,
characteristic futures, and steady- state performance of the three-phase induction
machine are studied in detail.
3.3. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This
type of motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The stator and
rotor do the work, and the enclosure protects the stator and rotor.
a) Stator
The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel and is built up of
sheet steel lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness. Laminations are insulated from
each other by means of varnish coating or oxide (Figure 3.2(a)). A three-phase
winding is put in slots punched out on the inner surface of the stator frame. It is
made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to receive the windings. The
stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound for a
definite number of poles, the number of poles being determined by the requirements
of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator
windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which is of
constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed (given by
120. f
Ns  ). This revolving magnetic flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual
P
induction.
2
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 induction machine laminations (a)Stator and (b)rotor
b) Rotor
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out
on the outer surface (Figure 3.2 (b). The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a
result thicker laminations can be used without excessive iron losses. Two types of
rotor construction is normally used for three phase induction motor.
Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some
motors, like the one shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also mounted on
the rotor shaft, to cool the motor when the shaft is rotating.
(i) Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as
squirrel-cage induction motors.
(ii) Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are
variously known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or slip-ring motors.
Squirrel –Cage Rotor
Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type
‘rotor' has the simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost
indestructible. The squirrel cage rotor is so called because its construction is
reminiscent of the rotating exercise wheels found in some pet cages. The rotor
consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor
conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consist of heavy bars
of copper, aluminum or alloys. One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are
inserted from the end when semi-closed slots are used. The rotor bars are brazed or
electrically welded or bolted to two heavy and stout short circuiting end-rings.
It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on
themselves, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the
rotor circuit for starting purposes.
Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM

1.Shaft ; 2. Ball bearings; 3. Bearings shield; 4. Terminal box ; 5. Fan (ventilator) ;
6. Ball bearings; 7. Bearings shield;8. Ventilator shield ; 9. Rotor core; 10. Stator
core; 11. Frame; 12. Basement
b)
a)
Figure 3.4 a) Real squirrel cage rotor and b) Schematic diagram of cage
rotor
The rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the shaft but are purposely give a
slight skew. This is useful in two ways:
i.) it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
ii.) it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the
rotor teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction
between the two.
In small motors, another method of construction is used. It consists of placing the
entire rotor core in a mould and casting all the bars and end-rings in one piece. The
metal commonly used is an aluminum alloy.
Phase –Wound Rotor
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding
consisting of coils as used in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles as
the number of stator poles and is always wound 3-phase even when the stator is
wound two-phase.
Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction machine

1.Ball bearings 2. Bearings shield 3. Enclosure; 4.Stator core with windings 5.Rotor
core 6.Bearings shield 7.Ball bearings; 8.Shaft ; 9.Terminal box ; 10. Basement; 11.
slip-rings
a)
b)
Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor

The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are
brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with
brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally connected to a
3-phase star-connected rheostat. This makes possible the introduction of additional
resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting
torque of the motor and for changing its speed-torque/ current characteristic. When
running under normal condition, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited by
means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connect all the rings
together (Figure 3.7). Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings
to reduce the frictional losses and the wear and tear. Hence, it is seen that under
normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short–circuited on itself just like the
squirrel-cage rotor.
3-phase
supply
stator
Slip-rings
rotor
Starting
Rheostat
Figure 3.7 Three-phase wound –rotor induction motor with external starting
rheostat.
c) Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing
housings). The stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator
with a slight air-gap separating it from the stator. There is no direct physical
connection between the rotor and the stator. The enclosure protects the internal
parts of the motor from water and other environmental elements. The degree of
protection depends upon the type of enclosure (See Appendix D).
Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors.
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound
rotor machine.
i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting
rheostats are required. The star delta starter is sufficient for staring.
ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.
iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction
iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently
a smaller copper loss.
v. It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the cooling conditions
are better
vi. It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and
greater pull out torque and overload capacity.
The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert
resistance in the rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque,
reducing the starting current and varying the speed as compared with wound rotor
motor.
3.4. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 1200 are
fed by three-phase current displaced in time by 1200 they produce a resultant
magnetic flux which rotated in space as if actual magnetic poles were being rotated
mechanically.
6
Let a 3-phase , two-pole stator having three identical winding placed 120 space
degrees apart and the flux ( assumed sinusoidal) due to three-phase windings as
shown in Figure 3.8(a). The assumed positive directions of the fluxes are shown
Figure 3.8(b).

B
m
120
A 120
120
θ
C
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8 (a) flux waveforms due to three-phase windings and (b) positive
directions of the fluxes
Let the maximum value of flux due to any one of the three phases to m. The
resultant flux r, at any instant, is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes
A, B and C due to three phases. We will consider values of r at four instants 1/6
time-period apart corresponding to points marked 0,1,2 and 3 in Figure 3.7(a).
i) When  = 00 i.e. corresponding to point 0 in Figure 3.8 (a).
Here
3 3
 A  0, B   m , C  m ,
2 2
The vector for O B in Figure 3.9(i) is drawn in a direction opposite to the direction
assumed positive in Figure 3.8(b).
3 600 3 3
r  2 mCos  3  m  m
2 2 2 2
(ii) When  = 600 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here
3
A  m
2
………drawn in parallel to OA of Figure 3.8 (b) as shown in Figure 3.9 (ii)
3
B   m
2
………drawn in opposition to O B of Figure 3.8(b) as shown in Figure 3.9(ii)
C = 0
3 3 3
r 2 m Cos30  3  m  m
2 2 2
7
3
It is found that the resultant flux is again  m but has rotated clockwise through an
2
angle of 600.
(iii) When  = 1200 i.e. corresponding to point 2 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here
3 3
A  m ,  B  0, c   m
2 2
3
It can be again proved that  r   m .So, the resultant flux is again of the same
2
value but has further rotated clockwise through an angle of 600 [Figure 3.9 (iii)].
(iv) When  = 1800 i.e. corresponding to point 3 in Figure 3.7a.
3 3
 A  0, B  m , C  m
2 2
3
The resultant is m and has rotated clockwise through an additional angle of 600 or
2
through an angle of 1800 from the start.
A
 B C
 B
Φ r  1.5Φm Φr  1.5Φ m
i) θ  0 ii) θ  60
Φr  1.5Φm
 C
C B
A
Φr  1.5Φ m
iii) θ  120 iv) θ  180

Figure 3.9 Resultant flux phasor of 3-phase IM at interval of 60
Hence, we can conclude the above discussion as follow:
3
1. The resultant flux is of constant value =  m i.e. 1.5 times the maximum
2
value of the flux due to any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given by
120. f
Ns 
P
8
Figure 3.10 shows the graph of the rotating flux in simple way. As before the
positive directions of the flux phasors have been shown separately in Figure 3.10.
Arrows on these flux phasors are reversed when each phase passes through zero
and becomes negative.
A B C

m
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Figure 3.10 a graph of the rotating flux

As seen, positions of the resultant flux phasor have been shown at intervals of 600
only. The resultant flux produces a field rotating in the clockwise direction.
N.B. The direction of rotation of a polyphase Induction motor depends on the motor
connection to the power lines. Rotation can be readily reversed by interchanging any
two input leads.
3.5. PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux
of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed , is set up. The flux pass
through the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors
which, as yet stationery. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s laws of
electro-magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is the same as the
supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between the
flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since
the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced
direction, as given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it in
this case, the cause which produce the rotor current is relative speed between the
rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the
relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the flux and
tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.
The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor is explained below:
In Figure 3.11(a) is shown the stator field which is assumed to be rotting clockwise.
The relative motion of the rotor with respect to the stator is anticlockwise. By
applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced emf in the rotor is
found to be outwards. Hence the direction of the flux due to the rotor current alone
is as shown in Figure 3.11 (b). Now by applying the left-hand rule or by the effect of
combined field (Figure 3.11c) it is clear the rotor conductors experience a force
tending to rotate them in clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor set into rotation in
the same direction as the of the stator flux ( or field).
9
stator
Stator
rotating fields
rotor
(a)
Figure 3.11 pertaining to principle operation of induction motor

An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close to synchronous
speed and therefore emf in the rotor winding will be very small. This small emf gives
a small current producing a torque just sufficient to overcome the losses such as
due to friction and windage and maintain the rotor in rotation. As the mechanical
load is applied on the motor shaft, it must slow down because the torque developed
at no load will not be sufficient to keep the rotor revolving at the no load speed
against the additional opposing torque of load. As the motor slows down, the
relative motion between the magnetic field and the rotor is increased. This results
in greater rotor emf, rotor current and greater developed torque. Thus, as the load
is increased, the motor slows down until the relative motion between the rotor and
the rotating magnetic field is just sufficient to result in the development of the
torque necessary for that particular load.
Slip
In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really
did so, then there would be no relative speed between the two hence no rotor emf
no rotor current and so no torque to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor runs at
a speed, which is always less than the speed of the stator field. The difference in
speeds depends upon the load on the motor .
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the
rotor is known as slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second ,
yet it is usual to express it as a percentage of the synchronous speed . Actually, the
term 'slip' is descriptive of the way in which the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.
Ns  N
S%  X 100
Ns
Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is
N  Ns (1  S)
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the
stator ( i.e. stationary space but at slip-speed relative to the rotor.
Frequency of rotor current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the
supply frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends
upon the relative speed or on slip-speed.
10
Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr . Then,
120 f r
Ns  N  .
p
120 f
Also N s 
p
fr Ns  N
  S;
Dividing one by the other, we get, f Ns
 f r  sf
As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of fr = sf and when flowing through the
individual phases of rotor winding give rise to rotor magnetic fields. These individual
rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating magnetic field whose speed
relative to rotor is
120 f r 120 sf
   sN s
P P
However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.
Hence,
speed of rotor field in space  speed of field to rotor  speed of rotor relative to space
 SN s  N  N s (1  S)  N s
It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator currents
each produce a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and
constant space speed of Ns. In other words, both the rotor and stator field rotate
synchronously which means that they are stationary with respect to each other.
These two synchronously rotating magnetic fields in fact, superimpose on each other
and given rise to the actually existing rotating field which corresponds to the
magnetizing current of the stator winding.
Example 3.1 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m.
For this motor, calculate the following:
(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator
field with respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and (d) speed of
rotor field with respect to (i) rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii) stator field.
For parts (c) and (d), answer should be given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120  f 1
NS 
P
120  50
Or 1440 
P
120  50 1
or P  4 poles
1440 6
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor
must have 4 poles. Note that an induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than
synchronous speed.
(b) Synchronous speed,
11
120  f1 120  50
NS    1500 r.p.m.
P 4
N s  N 1500  1440
 Slip, S    0.04
Ns 1500
Rotor frequency, f 2  Sf1  0.04  50  2 Hz
(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
 N S  1500rpm
2   N S 2  1500
 S    150.08 rad / s
60 60
(ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500  1440 = 60 rpm
2   60
  6.283 rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
120 ( rotor frequency)

poles
120  2
  60 r.p.m.  6.283 rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure
=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.
(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of 1500
rpm with respect to stator structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field
is zero. Thus the stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other.
Example 3.2 A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the
rotor circuit of a 6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. If the galvanometer
makes 90 complete oscillations in one minute, calculate the rotor speed.
Solution. One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of
rotor frequency.
90
Rotor frequency, f 2  Sf1   1.5 Hz
60
f 2 1.5
or Slip, S    0.03 s = fz fl =501.5 = 0.03
f1 50
120  50
Rotor speed, N  N S (1  S)  (1  0.03)  970 r.p.m.
6
12
3.6. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

The preceding sections have provided an appreciation of the physical behavior of the
induction machine. We now proceed to develop an equivalent circuit model that can
be used to study and predict the performance of the induction machine with
reasonable accuracy. In this section a steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit will
be derived.
For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-rotor induction machine a shown in
Figure 3.12. In the case of a squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor circuit can be represented
by an equivalent three-phase rotor winding. If currents flow in both stator and rotor
windings, rotating magnetic fields will be produced in the air gap.
Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

Because they rotate at the same speed in the air gap, they will produce a resultant
air gap field rotating at the synchronous speed. This resultant air gap field will
induce voltages in both stator windings (at slip frequency f1) and rotor windings (at
slip frequency f2). It appears that the equivalent circuit may assume a form identical
to that of a transformer.
3.6.1. Stator Equivalent Circuit
The stator winding can be represented as shown in Figure 3.13(a),
R1 X1
V1 Rc Xm E1
(a)
Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance
Note that there is no difference in form between this equivalent circuit and that of
the transformer primary winding. The difference lies only in the magnitude of the
parameters. For example, the excitation current Io is considerably large in the
induction machine because of the air gap. In induction machines it is as high as 30
to 50 percent of the rated current, depending on the motor size where as it is only 1
13
to 5 percent in transformers. Moreover, the leakage reactance X1 is large because of

the air gap and also because the stator and rotor windings are distributed along the
periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a core, as in the transformer.
3.6.2. Rotor Equivalent Circuit
The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
R2
S
(b) (c)
Where, E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator
frequency f1)
R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance
Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is
sE 2
I2  3.1
R2  jsX 2
The power involved in the circuit is
2
P2  I 2 R2 3.2
Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase

Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as
E2
I2  3.3
( R2 / s )  jX 2
Equation (3.3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13 (c). Although the
magnitude and phase angle of I2 are the same in Eqs.(3.1)and (3.3), there is a
significant difference between these two equations and the circuits (Figure 3.13 (b)
and (c)) they represent. The current I2 in Eq.(3.1) is at slip frequency f2, where as I2
in Equation (3.3) is at line frequency f1. In Eq.(3.1) the rotor leakage reactance SX2
varies with speed but resistance R2 remains fixed, whereas in Eq.(3.3) the resistance
R2/s varies with speed but the leakage reactance X2 remains unaltered. The per-
phase power associated with the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c).
2 R2 P2
P  I2  3.4
S S
Because induction machines are operated at low slips (typical values of slip s are
0.01 to 0.05) the power associated with Figure 3.13(c) is considerably larger. Note
that the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) is at the stator frequency, and therefore
this is the rotor equivalent circuit as seen from the stator. The power in Eq.(3.4)
therefore represents the power that crosses the air gap and thus includes the rotor
copper loss as well as the mechanical power developed, Equation (3.4) can be
rewritten as .
14
 R 
P  Pag  I 2 2  R2  2 ( 1  s 
 S  3.5
R
 I 22 2
S
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.13(d).
R2
1  S 
S
(d)
The speed dependent resistance R2 (1-s)/s represents the mechanical power
developed by the induction machine.
R 2
P mech  I22 ( 1  S)
S
 ( 1  S ) P ag
1 S
 .P2
S
and
P 2  I 2 2 R 2  SP ag
Thus
P ag : P 2 :P mech  1 :S :1  S
This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (i.e. power
crossing the air gap, Pag), a fraction s is dissipated in the resistance of the rotor
circuit (known as rotor copper loss) and the fraction 1-s is converted into mechanical
power. Therefore, for efficient operation of the induction machine, it should operate
at a low slip so that more of the air gap power is converted into mechanical power.
Part of the mechanical power will be lost to overcome the windage and friction. The
remainder of the mechanical power will be available as out put shaft power.
3.6.3. Complete Equivalent Circuit
The stator equivalent circuit, Figure 3.13(a) and the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure
3.13(c) or (d) are at the same line frequency f1 and therefore can be joined
together. However, E1 and E2 may be different if the turns in the stator wining and
the rotor winding are different. If the turns ratio  a  N1  is considered, the
 N2 
equivalent circuit of the induction machine is that shown in Figure 3.13(e). Note that
the form of the equivalent circuit is identical to that of a two-winding transformer, as
expected.
15
I2
I 2'  X 2'  a 2 X 2
a
E2'  aE2  E1 R2' a 2 R2


S S
(e)
Figure 3.13 Development of the induction machine equivalent circuit
3.6.4. Various equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure3.13 (e) is not convenient to use for predicting
the performance of the induction machine. As a result, several simplified versions
have been proposed in various textbooks on electric machines. There is no general
agreement on how to treat the shunt branch (i.e., Rc and Xm), particularly the
resistance RC representing the core loss in the machine. Some of the commonly
used versions of the equivalent circuit are discussed here.
3.6.5. Approximate Equivalent Circuit
If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1 does not
appreciably differ from the induced voltage E1, the magnetizing branch (i.e. Rc and
Xm), can be moved to the machine terminals as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).
R2'
S
(a)
This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify computation,
because the excitation current (Io) and the load component (I'2) of the machine
current can be directly computed from the terminal voltage V1 by dividing it by the
corresponding impedance.
Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and
frequency the stator core loss is fixed. At no load, the machine will operate close to
synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor frequency f 2 is very small and hence rotor
core loss is very small. At a lower speed f2 increases and so does the rotor core loss.
The total core losses thus increase as the speed falls. On the other hand, at no load,
frication and windage losses are maximum and as speed falls these losses
decreases. Therefore, if a machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-
frequency source, the sum of core losses and friction and windage losses remains
essentially constant at all operating speeds. These losses can thus be lumped
together and termed the constant rotational losses of the induction machine. If the
core loss is lumped with the windage and frication loss Rc can be removed from the
equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 3.14(b).
16
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2
V1 Xm R2'
S
Pag
(b)
Figure 3.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of Induction motor
3.6.6. IEEE1 Recommended Equivalent Circuit
In the induction machine, because of its air gap, the exciting current Io is high of
the order of 30 to 50 percent of the full-load current. The leakage Reactance X1 is
also high . The IEEE recommends that in such situation, the magnetizing reactance
Xm not be moved to the machine terminals (as is done in Figure 3.14b), but be
retained at its appropriate place, as shown in Figure 3.15. The resistance RC is
however, omitted, and the core loss is lumped with the windage and friction losses.
This equivalent circuit (Figure 3.15) is to be preferred for situation in which the
induced voltage E1 differs appreciably from the terminal voltage V1.
I'2 X '2
R '2
S
Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

3.6.7. Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit
In order to simplify computations V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced by Thevenin's
equivalent circuit values Vth, Rth and Xth, as shown in Figure 3.16.
R2
S
Figure 3.16 Thevenin Equivalent circuit
1
IEEE-Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
17
X m
V th  1
 V1
R 1
2
 (X 1  X m ) 2
 2
Where
2 2
If R1  ( X 1  X m ) as is usually the case
Xm
Vth  V1
X1  X m
Vth  K th V1
Xm
Where, K th 
X1  X m
The Thevenin impedance is
jX m ( R1  jX 1 )
Z th 
R1  j ( X 1  X m )
 Rth  jX th
2 2
If R1  ( X 1  X m )
2
 Xm 
R th    R 1
 X1  X m 
 K 2 th R 1
and since X1<< Xm
Xth X1
Example 3.3 A 3-phase slip ring induction motor gives a reading of 55V across slip
rings on open circuit when at rest with normal stator voltage applied. The rotor is
star-connected and has impedance of (0.7 + j 5) per phase. Find the rotor current
when the machine is (a) at stand still with the slip rings joined to a star-connected
starter with a phase impedance of (4 + j 3) ohms and (b) running normally with a 5
percent slip.
Solution
(a) At standstill, i.e. S=1
55
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding, E 2   31.8V
3
Resistance per phase in rotor circuit, r2  0.7  4  4.7  4.7 
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x 2  5  3  8

Impendence per phase in rotor circuit, z 2  r22  x 22  4.7 2  8 2  9.28 
Rotor current per phase,

E 2 31.8
I2    3.425 A
z 2 9.28
r2 4.7
Power factor cos  2    0.506 ( lagging )
z 2 9.28
(b) Running normally at 5 Percent slip
Induced e.m.f in rotor winding per phase,
E 2 S  SE 2  0.05  31.8  1.59 V
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit,
x2 S  Sx 2  0.05  5  0.25 
Rotor impedance per phase,
z 2 S  r22  x22S  0.7 2  0.25 2  0.7433
E2S 1.59
Rotor current per phase, I 2    2.14 A
z 2 S 0.7433
Power factor,
r2 0 .7
cos  2    0.92 ( lagging )
z 2 S 0.7433
Example 3.4 A 3, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm induction motor delivers
full output power to a load connected to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of
the motor is 750 W. Determine the
a) Mechanical power developed.
b) Air gap power
c) Rotor copper loss.
Solution
a) Full-load shft power, P shaft = 15  746 = 11,190 W
Mechanical power developed, Pmech = P shaft + P f&w
= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W
120  f 120  60
b) Synchronous speed, N s    1800 rpm
P 4
N s  N 1800  1728
Slip, S   0.04
Ns 1800
Pmech 11,940
Air gap power, Pag    12 ,437.5 W
1  S 1  0.04
c) Rotor copper loss, P2  SPag  0.04  12 ,437.5  497.5 W
3.7. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the
performance characteristics of the induction machine. The important performance,
characteristics in the steady state are the efficiency, power factor, current, starting
torque maximum (or pull-out) torque, and so forth.
The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by
R2
Pmech  Tmech .  mech  I 22 . (1 S ) 33331 3.6
S
Where,
2 N
mech  3.6 a
60
The mechanical speed mech is related to the synchronous speed by
mech  ( 1  S )syn
Ns 11 3.7
 2 ( 1  s )
60
and
120 f
 syn  x 2 3.8
P .60
From Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)
2
I R
Tmech . syn  2 2  pag
S
3.9
1
T mech  .Pag 3.10
 syn
1 2 R2
 .I2 3.10a
 syn S
1 2 R2
 I2 3.11
 syn S
From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Eq.1.11
2
1 V th R2
T mech  . . 3.12
 R S
syn ( R th  2 )2  ( X th  X 2 ) 2
S
Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.13(b) are used to
determine I2 in Eq.(3.12) Vth, Rth and Xth should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1
respectively. The prediction of performance based on the approximate equivalent
circuit may differ by 5 percent from those based on the equivalent circuit of Figure
3.15 or Figure 3.16.
For a three-phase machine Eq.3.12 should be multiplied by three to obtain the total
torque developed by the machine.
20
2
3 V th R2
T 3  , mech  . .
 R2 2 S
syn ( R th  )  (X th  X 2 )2
S
The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure 3.17. At low values of slip,
R 2' ' R 2'
(R th  )  ( X th  X 2 ) and  R th
S S
And thus
1 V 2 th
Tmech  . .S 3.13
 syn R' 2
Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure 3.17 near the synchronous
speed. Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.14) are used in, Eq.
(3.13), Vth should replaced by V1. At larger values of slip,
R 2' '
R th   X th  X 2
S
and
1 V th R'2
T mech  . . 3.14
 syn ( X th  X '2 )2 S
The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as seen from Figure 3.16.
Equation (3.12) also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed value of s) the
torque varies as the square of the supply voltage Vth (hence V1).
21
Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

Figure 3.18 shows the T-N profile at various supply voltages. This aspect will be
discussed further in a later section on speed control of induction machines by
changing the stator voltage.
Maximum Torque
dT mech
An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting  0.
dS
Differentiating Eq. (3.12) with respect to slip s and equating the result to zero gives
the following condition for maximum torque.
R '2 1
S T max

 R th2  ( X th  X 2' ) 2  2
3.15
This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the condition for maximum
torque corresponds to the condition for maximum air gap power (Eq.3.10). This
occurs, by the familiar impedance-matching principle in circuit theory, when the
impedance of R'2/s equals in magnitude the impedance between it and the supply
voltage V1 (Figure 3.16) as shown in Eq.(3.15). The slip Smax at maximum torque
Tmax is
R 2'
ST max
 1 3.16
R 2
th  ( X th  X '
2 )2  2
The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16) is
2
1 V th
T max  . 3.17
2 syn R  [ R 2  ( X  X ' ) 2 ] 1 2
th th th 2
Equation (3.17) shows that the maximum torque developed by the induction
machine is independent of the rotor circuit resistance. However, from Eq. (3.16) it is
evident that the value of the rotor resistance R2 determines the speed at which this
maximum torque will occur. The torque-speed characteristics for various values of
R2 are shown in Figure.3.19.
22
Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the rotor circuit to
make the maximum torque occur at standstill so that high starting torque can be
obtained. As the motor speeds up, the external resistance is gradually decreased
and finally taken out completely. Some induction motors are, in fact, designed so
that maximum torque is available at start, that is, at zero speed.
If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly small), from Eqs. (3.16)
and (3.17),
R 2'
S T max  3.18
X th  X 2'
2
1 V th
T max   ' 3.19
2  syn X th  X 2
Equation (3.19) indicates that the maximum torque developed by induction machine
is inversely proportional to the sum of the leakage reactances. From Eq. (3.12), the
ratio of the maximum torque developed to the torque developed at any speed is
2
 R 2' 
 R th 
S
  X th  X '
2  2
T max   S 3.20
 2

T  R '  S T max
 R
 th 
S
2 

 X th  X '
2  2
 T max 
23
If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,

2
 R 2' 
  X 
' 2
 th  X 2
T max
  S  
S
2 3.21
T  R 2'  ST max
   X  X '
 2
 ST  th 2
 max 
From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.21)
2 2
 R 2'   R' 
    2 
Tmax  S   ST  S
  max  
2 3.22
T  R 2'  S T max
2  
S 
 Tmax 
2
Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by  R2 

'
S 
 T 
max
2
T max 1  S T   S
     1max
T 2   S   S T max
2 2
1  ST  S  S
  max

2 S2  ST max
2 2
1 S S 
Tmax
  
2  S  ST  max
Hence,
T max S2  S 2
3.23
 T max
T 2ST S max
Equation (3.23) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the
maximum torque in terms of their slip values.
Example 3.5 A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, induction motor runs on full load with a slip
of 4 percent. Given the rotor standstill impedance per phase as (0.01 + j 0.05),
calculate the available maximum torque in terms of full load torque. Also determine
the speed at which the maximum torque occurs. .
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.01
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.05
Full load slip, S=4%=0.04
Ratio of maximum torque to full load torque
2 2
 R2 
   S 2fl  0.01   0.04 2
 X2  
0.05 

0.0416
 2.6
R2 0.01 0 . 016
2  S fl 2  0.04
X2 0.05
24
Maximum torque, Tmax  2.6 T fl
R2 0.01
(ii) Slip corresponding to maximum torque, S T max    0.2
X 2 0.05
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
120  50
N  N s ( 1  ST max )  ( 1  0.2 )
6
 800 r . p .m .
Example 3.6 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of
0.024 per phase and standstill reactance of 0.6  per phase. Determine the speed
at which the maximum torque is developed.
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6
Since the torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip
which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to the rotor resistance per phase,
R2 0.024
Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max    0.04
X2 0.6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
N  N S 1  ST max 
120  50
 1  0.04 
4
 1440 rpm
Example 3.7 The maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor is twice the full
load torque and starting torque is equal to full load torque. Calculate the full load
speed and the slip at which maximum torque occurs.
Solution Maximum torque, Tmax  2T fl
Starting torque, Tst  T fl

Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque,
Tst
 0 .5
Tmax
Since from Eq.1.23
Tst 2S
 2 T max
Tmax S T max  1
2 S T max
0.5 
S T2 max  1
2
or S T max  4 ST max  1  0
Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,

4  42  4
ST max   2  3  0.268 rejecting higher value
2
Let the full load slip of Sfl. Since the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque
(Eq.3.23) is given by the expression
T fl 2 S T max  S fl

Tmax S T2 max  S 2fl
1 2  0.268  S fl
Or 
2 0.268 2  S 2fl
Or 0268 2  S 2fl  4  0.268  0
Or S fl  0.072 rejecting higher value.
Full load speed,
N  N S 1  S fl   N s 1  0.072   0.928 N s i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed

STATOR CURRENT
From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit Figure 3.16, the input impedance is
 R 2' ' 
Z 1  R 1  jX 1  X m //   jX 2 
 S 
 R 1  jX 1
 X m // Z 2'
 R 2' ' 
jX m 
 jX 2 
Z 1  R 1  jX   S 
1
R 2'
 j( X m  X 2' )
S
 Z1 1
The stator current is
V1
I 1  I o  I 2'
Z1
At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R2'/s is infinite and so I2' = 0. The stator current
I1 is the exciting current Io. At larger values of slip S2'(=R2'/s +jX2’) is low and
therefore I2'(and hence I1) is large. In fact, the typical starting current (i.e. at S=1)
is five to eight times the rated current. The typical stator current variation with
speed is shown in Figure 3.20.
I1
pu
6
5
4
3
2
1
-Ns 0 Ns N
Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed

INPUT POWER FACTOR
The supply power factor is given by
PF  Cosθ1
where 1 is the phase angle of the stator current I1. This phase angle 1 is the same
as the impedance angle of the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15. The typical power
factor variation with speed is shown in Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed

EFFICIENCY
In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power converter,
the various losses in the machine are first identified. These losses are illustrated in
the power flow diagram of Figure 3.22 For a 3 machine the power input to the
stator is
Pin =3V1 I1 Cos 1
The power loss in the stator windings is
P1  3 I 12 R 1
Where R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at the
operating temperature and frequency.
Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material of the
stator core. The remaining power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the
resistance of the rotor circuit. P2  3I 22 R 2
Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding. If it is a wound-rotor machine, R2
also includes any external resistance connected to the rotor circuit through slip
rings.
Power is also lost in the rotor core. Because the core losses are dependent on the
frequency f2 of the rotor, these may be negligible at normal operating speeds, where
f2 very low.
27
Pin  3V1I1Cosθ1
Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor

The remaining is converted into mechanical form. Part of this is lost as windage and
friction losses, which are dependent on speed. The rest is the mechanical output
power Pout which is the useful power output from the machine.
The efficiency of the induction motor is
Pout
  3.24
Pin
The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in
the resistance of the rotor circuit,
P ag = Pin
P 2 = sPag
P out = P mech = Pag (1S)
and the ideal efficiency is
Pout
 ideal  1 S 3.25
Pin
Sometimes (ideal) is also called the internal efficiency as it represents the ratio of the
power output to the air gap power. The ideal efficiency as a function of speed is
shown in Figure 3.23. It indicates that an induction machine must operate near its
synchronous speed if high efficiency is desired. This is why the slip is very low for
normal operation of the induction machine. If other losses are included, the actual
efficiency is lower than the ideal efficiency of Eq.(3.25) as shown in Figure.3.23. The
full-load efficiency of a large induction motor may be as high as 95 percent.
28
.
Figure 3.23 Efficiency as a function of speed
Example 3.8 A 3, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has
the following parameters per phase:
R1=0.25 R2’=0.2
X1=X2’=0.5 Xm=30
The rotation losses are 1700 w. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find
a.) i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage
ii) Starting torque
b.) i) Full-load slip
ii) Full-load current
iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current
iv) Full-load power factor
v) Full-load torque
vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load
c.) i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed
ii) Maximum torque developed
d.) How much external resistance per phase should be connected in the
rotor circuit so that the maximum torque occurs at start?
Solution
460
a) V1   265.6 V / phase
3
i) At start S=1. The input impedance is
 r' 
jX m  2  jx '2 
s
Z1  r1  x 1  '  
r2
s
 
 j x m  x '2
j300.2  j0.5
 0.25  j0.5 
0.2  j30.5
 1.0866 
29
265.6
I st   245.9   66A
1.0866
2 N s 2   1800
ii) syn    188.5 rad / s
60 60
V1 jX m 266.5  j 30.0
Vth    261.3V
r1  j xm  x1  0.25  j 30.5
jX m ( R1  jX1 ) j30( 0.25  j0.5 )

Zth    0.5563.9
R1  j( X 1  X m ) 0.25  j30.5
 0.24  j0.49 
 Rth  0.24  ; X th  0.49 
2
3 V th R 2'
T st   ' 2
.
 syn ( R th  R2 )  ( X th  X 2 )2 S
3 261 . 3 2 0 .2
  2 2
 
188 . 5 ( 0 . 24  0 . 2 )  ( 0 . 49  0 . 5 ) 1
 185 . 2 N .m
b) At full-load
N s  N 1800  1740
i) S   0.0333
Ns 1800
R2' 0 .2
ii)   6.01 
s 0.0333
j306.01  j0.5
Z1  0.25  j0.5 
6.01  j30.5
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
 6.212319.7  
265.6
I FL   42.754   19.7A
6.212319.7 
I st 245.9
iii)   5.75
I FL 42.754
iv) PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging
3 261 . 3 2
T FL   6 . 01
v) 188 . 5 ( 0 . 24  6 . 01 ) 2  ( 0 . 49  0 . 5 ) 2
 163 . 11 N . m
vi) Air gap power

Pag  T syn  163.11  188.5  30,746.2 W
Rotor copper loss:
30
P2  sPag  0.0333  30,746.2  1023.9 W
2  1  s Pag  1  0.0333  30,746.2  29,722.3 W

Pmec
Pout  Pmech  Prot  29 ,722.3  1700  28 ,022.3W

Pin  3V1 I 1 cos 1  3  265.6  42.754  0.94  32,022.4 W
Pout 28,022.3
motor    100  87.5%
Pin 32,022.4
int ernal  ( 1  s )  1  0.0333  0.967  96.7%
c)
i) From Eq. 3.16

'
R 2
S T max  1
R 2
th  (X th  X '
2 )2  2
0.2 0.2
 1
  0.1963
0.24 2
 0.49  0.5
2
 2 1.0187
ii) From Eq.1.17

2
3 Vth
Tmax  .
2  syn R  [ R  ( X  X ' ) 2 ] 1 2
2
th th th 2
3  261 .3 2 
  1

 
2  188 . 5  0 .24  0 . 24 2  0 .49  0 .5 2  2 

 431 . 68 N .m
Tmax 431 .68
  2.65
TFL 163 .11
d)
' '
R 2  R ext
S T max  1  1
R 2
th  ( X th  X '
2 )2  2
R '2  R 'ext R '2  R '

ext
 1

0 . 24 2
 0 . 49  0 . 5  2
2
 1 . 0187
'
R ext  1 . 0187  0 . 2  0 . 8187 
Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit. Calculation can be based on the equivalent circuit of Figure. 3.15 as follows:
31
Z1  r1  x 1  R e  jX e
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
3 2 3
T I1 R e   42.754 2  5.598
syn 188.5
 163 N.m
3.8. INDUCTION MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM
The rotor m.m.f. F2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + 2. The
rotor m.m.f. reacts on the stator and calls for a compensating load component of
stator current I2' such that load component of stator m.m.f. Fl' = rotor m.m.f. F2
or I '2 N1'  I 2 N '2
' N '2 N k
I2  I2  I2  2 w2
' N1k w1
N1
Here N1' and N2 are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In
Figure 3.24 load component of m.m.f. F1'  I '2 N 1' of the total stator m.m.f. Fl, is
shown opposing rotor m.m.f. F2. Similarly, load-component current I2', of the total
stator current I1, is shown opposite to rotor current I2. In Figure 3.24, per-phase
rotor induced emf E2 lags  by a time-phase angle of 90°.
2
Figure 3.24 pertaining to the induction motor phasor diagram

If hysteresis is neglected then air-gap flux  is in phase with the resultant air-
gap m.m.f. Fr. As in a transformer, the no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor
does not differ from resultant air-gap m.m.f. Fr. It is because of this reason that
motor magnetizing current Im, is shown in phase with Fr, in Figure 3.24. The phasor
sum of Fl' and Fr gives the total stator m.m.f. Fl. Similarly the phasor sum of stator-
load component of current I2’and motor magnetizing current Im gives the total stator
current I1 as illustrated in Figure 3.24. The stator (or the primary) induced emf El
and rotor (or secondary) induced emf E2 are shown lagging  by 90 as in
transformer.
Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Figure 3.25(a),
where mmfs are not shown for the sake of clarity. At standstill, E2 is shown equal to
I2 (r2 + jx2). The core-loss component of stator current, i.e. Ic is in phase with Vl' or
- E1. At standstill, friction and windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is
I 0  I m  I c and the stator load current is I 1  I '2  I o . The stator applied voltage Vl
must balance the stator counter emf Vl' (= - E1) and the stator leakage impedance
32
drop I1 (rl +jxl) as shown in Figure 3.25 (a). The power factor angle 1 (between V 1
and Il) at the stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator power factor is very poor at
the time of starting a 3-phase induction motor.
At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now
becomes, sE2= I2(r2+ jsx2) and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure
3.25(b). In this Figure, I 0  I m  I fc , where Ifc, is the friction, windage and core-
loss component of stator current. The rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the
same manner as illustrated in Figure 3.24(a). Figure 3.25(b) reveals that full load
power factor at the stator terminals has considerably improved (0.8 to 0.9
lagging) from its power factor at starting. In the phasor diagrams of Fi gures 3.24
and 3.25, all quantities have per-phase values.
Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, V1 jI x

11
durch die Bearbeitung von I1r 1
Feldfunktionen Objekte zu
V’1=-E1 I1
erstellen.
I’2
(a)
1
I0

2
sE2=I2Z2
I2
jSI2x2
E1
(b)
Figure 3.25 Induction motor Phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b) a full-
load slip s.
3.9. MODES OF OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES
The three phase induction machine has the following three modes or operating
regions of operations depending upon the values of slips:
a) Motoring Mode : 1<S>0
Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by
the stator currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at
synchronous speed, i.e. 1 < S > 0. The corresponding speed values are zero (S=1)
and synchronous speed (S=0).
b) Generating Mode: S < 0.
For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0. An induction motor will operate
in this region only when its stator terminals are connected to constant-frequency
voltage source and its rotor is driven above synchronous speed by prime mover. The
connection of stator terminals to voltage source is essential in order to establish the
rotating air gap field at synchronous speed. In case stator is disconnected from
33
voltage source and rotor is driven above synchronous speed by the prime mover, no
generating action takes place.
c) Braking Mode: S > 1.
For this mode, slip is greater than 1. a slip more than one can be obtained by
driving the rotor , with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of rotating field. But
such a use in practice is rare. A practical utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by
bringing the rotor to a quick stop by braking action, called plugging. For obtaining
S>1, or for obtaining plugging, any two stator terminal leads are interchanged. With
this the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore, the direction of rotating
magnetic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation. The
electromagnetic torque T, now acting opposite to rotor rotation, produces the
braking action. Thus the motor can be quickly brought to rest by plugging, but the
stator must be disconnected from the supply before the rotor can start rotate in the
other direction.
All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2.0 to S=1.0; motor regions, S=1.0
to S=0 and generator region, S=0 to S=-1) are illustrated in Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.26 torque-slip curve of an induction machine showing its braking, motor
and generator regions
3.10. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS
Steady-state operating characteristics of an induction motor show graphically the
variation of speed, power factor, stator current and efficiency as the shaft power
output is varied from no-load to full load. For a given induction motor, the operating
characteristics are governed by its rotor resistance, air-gap length and shape of both
stator and rotor slots. The objective of this article is to describe the nature of the
steady-state operating characteristics of induction motors and to examine the
factors that govern them. Figure 3.27 illustrates typical operating characteristics of
an induction motor. The shape of these curves is now explained below.
34
Figure 3.27 operating characteristics of an induction motor

a.) Speed
At no load, the rotor speed is near to synchronous speed; therefore, the no-load slip
is very small. Also, the no-load torque, sufficient to overcome the loss-torque
required by friction and windage, is very low. As a result of small no-load torque, the
rotor current or the rotor m.m.f. F2 is also quite small and the load angle, is very
near to 90°. As the applied load torque is increased, electromagnetic torque T must
increase accordingly-this can happen only if rotor m.m.f. F2 and the load angle
increase. In order that rotor m.m.f. F2 or rotor current I2 increase, the rotor emf sE 2
must increase or the slip must increase; in other words the rotor speed must
decrease as the load torque is increased. Here E2 is the rotor emf per phase at
standstill.
At no-load, rotor leakage reactance has little effect on the rotor leakage impedance,
 
because rotor frequency and sx2 are very small and load angle  90  tan 1 sX 2  is very
 r2 

near to 90°. When the slip increases with an increase in load, the rotor power factor
 1 sX 2 
angle 2   tan  increases and as a result of it, load angle (90 + 2) is also
 r2 
increased. This shows that as the applied load torque is increased, the rotor speed
falls and both the rotor m.m.f. F2 and load angle increase to supply the required load
torque. The fall in speed from no load to full load is usually in the range of 2 to 5
percent of rated speed. In view of this an induction motor can be said to possess
shunt characteristics.
b.) Power factor:
The stator current of a three-phase induction motor is made up of the following
three components:
(i)Magnetizing current Im: This component lags stator voltage V l by 90° as in a
transformer. Its function is to set up rotating magnetic field.
(ii) Stator-loss component Ic: This component supplies the stator iron loss and stator
copper loss as in a transformer.
(iii) Load component I’2: This component balances the rotor m.m.f. as in a
transformer.
35
At no load, stator current Io is shown in Figure 3.28. The function of the third, i.e.
load, component of Io at no load is to supply friction and windage (F.W.) loss. (For a
transformer at no load, this third component is zero). The rotor power developed at
no load, is, therefore, equal to F.W. loss. As this loss is quite small, rotor current
and therefore load component is very small.
V1
'
1' I 2
1
I '2
I0
O

I2
I2 E2
E1
Figure 3.28 Improvement of power factor with increase in load

So the current due to the combination of second and third components is quite
small. But the magnetizing current Im forms a major component of Io due to the
presence of air gap in an induction motor. As a result, no-load current Io lags the
stator voltage by an angle 0 in the range of 75° to 85°. Consequently, the stator
power factor at no load may be as low as 0.1 to 0.3, the lower values being
applicable for large induction motors.
As the motor is loaded, the third, i.e. load, component of stator current rises above
its no-load value. The increment of load component of stator current above its no
load value is responsible for supplying the load torque. The stator-load component
I2' given by when added to Io, gives the stator current OA at a power factor of cos1.
With further increase of load on the motor, the rotor current increases and the
stator-load component I2' when added to Io gives the stator current OB at a power
factor of cos 1'. It is thus seen from Figure 3.28 that the p.f. angle decreases and,
therefore, the stator power factor improves as the load on the motor is increased.
The stator power factors of about 0.85 to 0.88 are obtained at 80 to 90% of full-load
outputs. If the motor is loaded beyond this load, power factor decreases slightly
because of the predominant effect of stator and rotor leakage reactance drops.
c.) Efficiency:
As in other electrical machines, the induction machine losses are made up of fixed
losses (= core loss + friction and windage loss) and variable load losses. At no load,
the shaft power output is zero, therefore, efficiency is zero. At lower values of loads,
the fixed losses are more as compared with the output; efficiency is, therefore, low.
As the load is increased, the efficiency also rises and becomes maximum when fixed
losses and variable losses are equal. Maximum efficiency occurs at about 80 to 95%
of rated output, the higher values being applicable for larger motors. If the load is
increased beyond the load resulting in maximum efficiency, the load losses increase
more rapidly than the output, consequently the efficiency decreases.
d.) Stator current:
The no-load stator current is about 30 to 50% of rated current, the larger values
being applicable to smaller sizes. With the increase in load, the current rises
correspondingly. In the phasor diagram, the locus of the tips of stator current with
36
increasing loads follows a semi-circle and this leads to the induction motor circle
diagram.
e.) Air gap:
In induction motors, for constant supply voltage, the air-gap flux remains sub-
stantially constant. If the air-gap length is increased, then constant flux requires
more magnetizing current. This reduces the no-load power factor as well as the full-
load power factor of the induction motor. Therefore, in order that an induction motor
operates at a better power factor, the air-gap length is kept as small as is
mechanically possible. Small air-gap clearance in induction motors necessitates a
heavier shaft and high-grade bearings than are required for other types of rotating
machines of the same rating and speed.
Open slots in an induction motor has the effect of increasing the air-gap length
(1.10 to 1.20 times the actual air-gap length) as a result of which more magnetizing
current is required and the operating power factor of the motor is worsened. But an
induction motor with open slots has less leakage reactance and, therefore, more Tst,
more Tmax etc. Likewise induction motors with semi-closed slots or closed slots
requires less magnetizing current and, therefore, better operating power factor, but
its Tst, Tmax etc are reduced. In view of this, at the design stage, a compromise has
to be made between Tst, Tmax and the operating power factor of the induction
motors.
3.11. DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
The equivalent circuit parameters of poly phase induction motors can be determined
from no load test, blocked-rotor test and stator winding dc resistance. The object of
this article is to describe the methods of determining the parameters from these
tests.
3.11.1. No-load test (or running light test)
The induction motor is made to run at no load at rated voltage and frequency. Per
phase values of applied stator voltage Vnl, input current Inl and input power Pnl are
recorded.
Figure 3.29 Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test
r2
The no-load slip S is very small, therefore in Figure 3.15 of IEEE recommended
s
equivalent circuit, is very large as compared to Xm. In view of this, the resultant of
 r2 
parallel branches jXm and   jx 2  is almost equal to jXm as illustrated in Figure
s 
3.30 (a). Thus the no-load reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is equal to x1
+ Xm, i.e.
Xnl = x1 + Xm = X1 3.26
37
Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.

From the instrument readings at no load, stator no-load impedance:
Vn 1
Z n1 
I n1
And stator no-load resistance:
Pn1
Rn1  2
I n1
2 2
X n1  Z nl  Rn1
 The rotational losses Prot (friction, windage loss and core loss) are usually
assumed constant and can be obtained from the relation.
PRot  m( Pnl  I nl2 R1 )

Where m is the number of stator phases and r1 is the per phase stator resistance
Thus the no-load test gives Xn1 and the rotational losses P R.
(a)
3.11.2. Blocked-rotor test
Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a transformer, is performed on
the induction motor to calculate its leakage impedance.
For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by external means, i.e. the rotor
shaft is held stationary by belt-pulley arrangement or by hand. Now balanced poly
phase voltages at rated frequency are applied to the stator terminals through a poly
phase variac. This applied voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in the stator
winding. Per phase values of applied voltage Vbr, input current (=rated current) Ibr
and the input power Pbr are recorded. Current Ibr may be affected by rotor position;
in view of this the rotor should be held in a position that gives Ibr equal to the mean
of maximum and minimum current value.
Measure the dc resistance per phase of the stator winding soon after this test and
multiply it by 1.1 to 1.3 in order to obtain the per phase effective stator resistance
r1.
The equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor test is as shown in Figure.3.30 (b).
38
R2
S
(b)
Figure 3.30 Induction motor equivalent circuits for (a) no-load test and (b) blocked-
rotor test
From the instrument readings during blocked-rotor test, the parameters can be
obtained as under:
The blocked-rotor impedance
Vbr
Z br 
I br
and the blocked-rotor resistance,
P
Rbr  br
2
I br
Blocked-rotor reactance
X br  Z br 2  Rbr 2
An examination of Figure 3.30 (b) reveals that the blocked-rotor impedance seen
from the stator terminals is given by
jX m ( r2  jx 2 )
Z br  Rbr  jX br  r1  jx1 
r2  j( x 2  X m )
jX m ( r2  jx2 ) r2  j ( x2  xm )
 r1  jx1  .
r2  j ( x 2  xm ) r2  j ( x2  xm )
2
jX m [ r2  jr2 x 2  jr2 ( x2  X m )  x2 ( x 2  X m ]
 r1  jx1  2
r2  ( x2  X m )2
2
jX m [ r2  x 2 X 2  jr2 X m ]
or Rbr  jX br  r1  jx1  2
r2  X 22
3.27
Where X2 = x2 +Xm, is the rotor self-reactance.
Comparison of the imaginary components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) gives
39
X m [ r22  x 2 X 2 ]
X br  x1 
r 22  X 22
 r22 
Xm   x2 
 X 2 
 x1 
r22
 X2
X2
2
Since X 2  r2 , therefore r2 may be neglected. With this
X2
X m x2 X m x2
X br  x1   x1 
X2 X m  x2
x2
 x1 
x
1 2
Xm
Usually the magnetizing reactance Xm >> rotor leakage reactance x2, therefore
x2
is negligible small and this gives
Xm
Xbr = x1 +x2 3.28
There is no practical method of separating x1 and x2. For wound rotor machines x1 is
assumed equal to x2 i.e. x1 = x2= ½Xbr
For squirrel cage induction machines, total leakage reactance Xbr (=x1 +x2) can be
distributed between stator and rotor as per the following table:
Table 3.1: Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr
Fraction of Xbr
Class of motor X1 X2
Class A (normal Tst , high Ist and low slip) 0.5 0.5
Class B (normal Tst, low Ist and low slip) 0.4 0.6
Class C (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.3 0.7
Class D (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.5 0.5
Once x1 is known, then from Eq. (3.26), the stator magnetizing reactance is given
by
Xm= Xnl –x1
Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) blocked-rotor resistance
Rbr as seen from the stator terminals is
X2
R br  r1  r2 2 m 2
r2  X 2
For machines of normal design, X2>> r2 therefore, r2 in the denominator can be
neglected as compared to X2
40
2
X 
R br  r2  r2  m 
 X2 
 Per phase rotor resistance
2
X 
r2  ( R br  r1 ) 2  3.29
 Xm 
Thus Xm from Eq. (3.26) r2 from Eq. (3.29), r1 form dc resistance per phase of stator
winding and x1, x2 from Eq. (3.28) and Table 3.1 can be determined from three
tests. The equivalent circuit can now be used for computing the motor performance.
Note: For large motors (above 20KW or so), if induction motor characteristics are
required near s =1 (e.g. for starting torque etc.); then since rotor frequency f2 is
equal to the line frequency, the blocked- rotor test should be carried out at line
frequency and with currents equal to those encountered at the time of starting.
In case induction motor characteristics are required near synchronous speed (e.g.
during normal operation), then rotor frequency is equal to sf1, therefore, the
blocked-rotor test should be carried out at reduced frequency and with normal
currents.
3.11.3. Separation of friction and windage loss from the no-load test
The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to supply the stator copper
loss, core loss and friction and windage loss.
The dc resistance of the stator winding is measured and its per phase effective value
r1 is calculated from the relation.
r1 = (1.1 to 1.3) (dc resistance of one phase)
For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied voltage to the unloaded
induction motor is varied from 1.25 times the rated voltage to about 20% of the
rated voltage. The input power, current and voltage are recorded so that a graph
can be plotted. The speed, with reduction in voltage, will fall only slightly so that the
friction and windage loss remains substantially constant
From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic loss is
subtracted to obtain the core loss and friction and windage loss, i.e.
Prot  m( Pnl  I nl2 r1 )
Where, Pnl is the per phase power input,
Inl is the per phase stator current and
r1 is the effective per phase stator resistance.
The plot of the rotational loss P rot with variable stator voltage is shown in Figure
3.31. The intercept of the extraplotted Prot curve with the ordinate gives the friction
and windage loss, because the core loss is zero for zero applied voltage.
41
Figure 3.31 Variation of rotational loss with voltage

In order to get a motor accurate value of mechanical loss (friction and windage
loss), rotational loss Prot should be plotted against (Voltage) 2. This plot of Prot with
(voltage)2 is almost linear and, therefore, the extrapolation is easier.
Example 3.9 A 10-Kw , 400-V, 4-pole delta connected squirrel cage induction
motor gave the following test results:
No-load Test: 400-V , 8-A, 250-W
Blocked rotor Test: 90-V, 35-A, 1350-W
The dc resistance of the stator winding per phase measured after the blocked –rotor
test is 0.6Ω. Calculate the rotational losses and the equivalent circuit parameters.
Solution
No-load rotational losses are
2
2  8 
Prot  Pnl  3I nl R1  250  3   (0.6  1.20)  203.92W
 3
Note that the effective stator resistance per phase is taken equal to 1.2 times its
d.c. value.
From no-load Test:
Vnl 400
Z nl    86 .6 
I nl  8 
 
 3
Pnl 250
R nl    3 .91
3I nl 
2 2
3 8 

 3
 X nl  Z 2nl  R 2nl  86 .6 2  3 .91 2  86 .51
From blocked-rotor test:

Vbr 90
Z br    4.45 
I br  35 
 
 3
Pbr 1350
R br  2
 2
 1.1
3I br   35 
3 
 3
 X br  Z 2br  R 2br  4.452  1.12  4.32 
42
1
 x1  x 2  X br  2.158 
2
X m  X nl  x1  86 .51  2.158  84.352 
And
X 2  X m  x 2  84.352  2.158  86 .51 
From eq.(3.29), per phase rotor resistance is given by
2
X 
r2  ( R br  r1 ) 2 
 Xm 
2
 86.51 
 1.102  0.6  1.2   0.402 
 84.352 
Thus the parameters of the induction motor equivalent circuit are:
r1= 0.72; r2= 0.402; x1=x2=2.158; and Xm=84.352
3.12. SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency f and poles
P by the equation.
120 f
Ns 
p
As regards induction motor, the rotor is given by
N  (1  s ) N s
Where S is the slip
It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of speed control of
an induction motor are:
a) by changing the number of poles and
b) by varying the line (input) frequency.
By the above two methods, the synchronous speed of an induction motor can only
be changed. These methods are applicable only to cage induction motors
The slip can be changed by the following methods.
c) by varying the input voltage
d) by varying the rotor resistance
The methods(c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motors,
whereas only the method (c) can be applied to machines with cage rotor.
a) by changing the number of poles (Pole changing methods)
Four-pole to eight –pole connections
In pole changing induction motors, the stator winding of each phase is divided into
two equal groups of coils. These coil groups are connected in series and parallel with
the current direction being reversed only in one group, to create two different
numbers of poles (even) in the ratio 2.1 respectively. When the connection is
changed from series to parallel or vice versa, the current in one group of coils is also
reversed at the same time. This technique, termed the consequent pole method, is
applied to all three windings (phases). This type of induction motor has always the
squirrel cage rotor, which can adapt to any number of stator poles.
Figure 3.32(a) shows schematically only four coils of one phase of the windings
connected in series, along with the direction of current in them, producing eight
43
poles in the stator. If the current in coils 2 and 4 is reversed and the connection is
changed to parallel with two coils (1 and 3, and 2 and 4) connected in series for
each path, four poles are formed in the stator (Figure 3.32(b)). It may be noted that
the direction of current in coils 1 and 3 remains the same. Only one type of
connection is shown.
(a) Eight pole (Series)
(b) Four pole (parallel) consequent pole

Figure 3.32 Stator winding connection for pole changing induction motor
Normally, poles are changed in the ratio 2:1.This method provides two synchronous
speeds. If two independent sets of polyphase windings are used, each arranged for
pole changing, four synchronous speeds can be obtained for the induction motor. In
many industrial application induction motor with 4/6/8/12 poles are used to provide
1500/1000/750/500 synchronous speeds respectively. Squirrel-cage motors are
invariably used in this method because the rotor can operate with any number of
stator poles. It is obvious, however, that speed can be changed only in discrete
steps and that the elaborate stator winding makes the motor expensive.
Constant torque and constant horsepower operations
This type of pole changing in the stator results in constant torque or constant
horsepower operations. For constant torque operation, the change of stator winding
is made from series-star to parallel- star, while for constant horsepower operation
the change is made from series-delta to parallel-star. Regenerative braking takes
place during changeover from higher to lower speeds.
Constant torque opération: (Y/YY)
44
In any pole changing (P-pole/2P-pole) induction motor, there are two equal parts as
stated above. The changeover for constant torque operation takes place as shown in
Figure 3.33.
(a) Series-star (Y) connection (b)

( 2P-pole connection) Parallel-star (YY) connection
( P-pole connection)
Low
speed High
(2P) speed
(P)
Ns
Ns N
2
(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.33 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors
for constant torque operation
Let V – Line voltage
I – Maximum current that the winding can carry
Then the power drawn from the supply is given by:-
1. For series-star (Y) connection ( Figure 3.33(a))
PY  3 (VI cos  Y )
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure 3.33(b))
PY Y  2 3 (VI cos  Y Y )
It is assumed that the power factor remains unchanged and the motor losses are
negligible. With the changeover of stator winding from series star to parallel star,
the power drawn from the supply is doubled. Simultaneously, the speed is also
doubled. So the motor torque remains constant. Constant torque operation is more
common.
Constant horsepower operation: (/YY)
The power drawn from the supply is given by:
45
1. For series-delta ( ) connection (Figure 3.34(a))
P  3 VICos  
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure (3.34(b))
PY Y  2 3 (VI Cos YY )  3.46 (VI Cos YY )

After changeover from series-delta to parallel-star, the power increases slightly
(about 15%), if power factor is assumed to remain constant. The constant
horsepower connection is the most expensive, because in this case the motor size
becomes the largest.
(b)Parallel-star (YY) connection

(a) Series-delta () connection
( P-pole connection)
( 2P-pole connection)
Ns Ns
2
(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.34 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors
for constant power operation
b) by varying the line (input) frequency)
A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed control of
induction motors.
Constant Volt/Hz operation
The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by
E  4.44  m f T ph K w
46
The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting drop in stator
impedance). Then, we can write
V
f
 4.44  m T ph K V Hz 
When the frequency is reduced, the applied voltage also must be reduced
proportionally so as to maintain constant flux, otherwise the core will get saturated
resulting in excessive iron losses and magnetizing current. The maximum torque
also remains constant under this condition. However, the voltage is not varied
proportionally in the lower frequency range to account for the voltage drop in the
winding resistance. This type of control (constant V/f) is used for speed control
below base frequency (line frequency of 50Hz).
As the voltage increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes above
base frequency, only constant (rated) voltage with variable frequency (frequency
control) is used for speed control. Under this condition, both flux and maximum
torque decrease as the frequency is increased.
Advantages of constant volt/Hz operations are the following:
a) Smooth speed control,
b) Small input current and improved power factor at low frequency start, and
c) Higher starting torque for low cage resistance
Maximum Torque
Neglecting the stator winding resistance, the maximum torque is
3V 2
Tmax 
2syn X1  X '2 
So, the maximum torque remains constant as stated earlier for constant volt/Hz
ratio for frequencies below base frequency, except for very low values of frequency
(Figure 3.35). This is taken as constant torque control with constant flux or
volt/Hz ratio.
For input frequency above base frequency, only constant (input) voltage with
variable frequency is applied as stated earlier. In this case the maximum torque
changes to
2
3 V
T max 
2  syn X 1  X 2    
'
supply frequency
Where, 
base frequency
With α >1 as frequency is higher than base frequency, both maximum torque and
flux, as given by volt/Hz ratio, decrease as frequency increases (as shown in Figure
3.34). This is taken as constant power control with variable flux.
47
Figure 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –

frequency control
The torque-speed characteristic of the load is superimposed on the motor torque-
speed characteristic. Note that the operating speeds N1…N7 are close to
corresponding synchronous speeds. In this method of speed control, therefore, the
operating slip is low and the efficiency is high.
The operating slip can be changed by
c) Varying the line voltage
Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square
of the terminal voltage. A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal
voltages is shown in Figure 3.36.
Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower speeds, making
the operation inefficient.However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in which
torque varies approximately as the square of the speed, the power decreases
significantly with decrease in speed. Therefore, although the power lost in the rotor
circuit (= sPag) may be a significant portion of the air gap power, the air gap power
itself is small and therefore the rotor will not overheat. The voltage controller circuits
are simple and, although inefficient, are suitable for fan, pump, and similar
centrifugal drives.
TL  N 2
Figure 3.36 Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages

d) Varying the rotor resistance
The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by connecting
external resistance in the rotor circuit through slip-rings. The torque- speed
characteristics for four external resistances are shown in Figure 3.37. The load
48
torque-speed characteristic is also shown by dashed line. By varying the external

resistance 0 < Rex < Rex4, the speed of the load can be controlled in the range of N1<
N < N5. Note that by proper adjustment of the external resistance (Rex=Rex2),
maximum starting can be obtained for the load.
3
Figure 3.37 the torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances
The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency
is low at reduced speed because of higher slips. However, this control method is
often employed because of its simplicity. In applicationwhere low-speed operation is
only a small proportion of the work, low efficiency is acceptable. A typical application
of the rotor, resistance control method is the hoist drive of a shop crane. This
method also can be used in fan or pump drives, where speed variation over a small
range near the top speed is required.
3.13. STARTING OF IM
Most induction motors-Large and Small-are rugged enough that they could be
started across the line without incurring any damage to the motor windings,
although about five to eight times the rated current flows through the stator at
rated voltage at standstill. However, in large induction motors, large starting current
are objectionable in two respects:
 First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently
large capacity.
 Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may
be excessive, resulting in reduced voltage across the motor.
Because the torque varies approximately as the square of the voltage, the starting
torque may become small at the reduced line voltage that the motor might not even
start on load. Thus we formulate the basic requirement for starting:
 The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the
extent that the motor can develop sufficient torque to start (on load , if necessary)
A number of methods is available of for starting both cage-rotor and wound-
rotor motors:
3.13.1. Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors

For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of starting depends on (i) size
and design of the motor (ii) capacity of the power lines and (iii) type of the driven
load. There are primarily two methods of starting squirrel-cage induction motors: (a)
full-voltage starting and (b) reduced-voltage starting. The full-voltage starting
consists of DOL starting only. The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of
reducing the starting current, but it produces an objectionable reduction in the
49
starting torque, on account of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage. Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most
popular method of starting three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors and consists
of stator resistor (or reactor) starting, auto-transformer starting and star-delta
starting. The various methods are now described in what follows.
a. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting.
As the name suggests, this method involves the direct switching of polyphase stator
on to the supply mains. The motor takes low-power factor starting current of 5 to 8
times its full-load current, depending upon its size and design. Such large currents
of short duration don't harm the rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents
may cause objectionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding the
induction motor. These large voltage drops cause undesirable dip in the supply line
voltage; consequently the operation of other equipments connected to the same
supply line is effected considerably. A common example is the momentary dimming
of lamp and tube-lights in the home at the instant a refrigerator motor starts. If the
supply system is of sufficient power capacity and the low-power factor starting-cur-
rent surges don't cause objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then
the direct-on-line starting should be preferred.
The relation between starting torque Tst and full-load torque Tfl is now obtained. Let
Ist and Ifl be the per-phase stator currents drawn from the supply mains
corresponding to starting and full-load conditions respectively. From Torque
equation
1 2 R2
T mech  .I2
 syn S
R2
I 22st  2

Tst
 1   I 2st   S 3.30
Tfl R I  fl
I 22fl  2  2 fl 
S fl
Eq. (3.30) is valid in case rotor resistance remains constant. Actually, rotor
resistance varies with the frequency of rotor current; at starting rotor frequency is
50 Hz and at full load it is only a few hertz.
Here I2st and I2fl are the per-phase rotor currents at starting and full-load conditions
respectively.
If no-load current is neglected, then
Ist  effective stator turns  I 2st  effective rotor turns

or I st  I 2st  effective rotor to stator turns ratio
Ist Effective rotor to stator turns ratioI 2st
or 
Ifl Effective rotor to stator turns ratioI 2fl
I st I 2st
or 
I fl I 2 fl
2
Tst  I st 
From equation (1.30),    S fl
Tfl  I fl 
50
If V1 is the per phase stator voltage and ZSC is the standstill per phase leakage
impedance referred to stator, then per phase short-circuit current at standstill (or at
starting) is,
V1
I sc 
Z sc
Where,
Z sc  R 1  R 2   jX1  X 2 
Note that here shunt branch of the induction motor equivalent circuit is neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,
V1
I st  I sc 
Z sc
Equation (3.30) can, therefore, be written as
2
Tst  I sc 
   Sfl 3.31
Tfl  I fl 
b. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in between motor terminals and
the supply mains, as illustrated in Figure 3.38.
1
xV
3V1 3xV1
V1
xV1
Figure 3.38 Reactor (or resistor) starting of squirrel cage induction motor
At the time of starting, some voltage drop occurs across the starting resistor or
reactor and, therefore, only a fraction x (less than 1) of the supply voltage appears
across the stator terminals. This reduces the per-phase starting current Ist drawn by
the motor from the supply mains. As the motor speeds up, the reactor is cut out in
steps and finally short-circuited when the motor speed is near to its operating
speed. Since per phase voltage is reduced to xV1, see Figure 3.38 , the per-phase
starting current Ist is given by
xV1
I st   xI SC 3.32
Z SC
2
Tst  I st 
As before   S fl
T fl  I fl 
51
2
Tst I 
Or  x 2  sc   Sfl 3.33
Tfl  Ifl 
2
In an induction motor, torque  (voltage)
2
Starting torque with reactor or resistor starting  xV1 
     x 2 3.34
Starting torque with direct starting V
 1 
Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower
energy loss and is more effective in reducing the voltage, because the induction-
motor power factor at starting is quite low.
c. Autotransformer starting
A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V1 is applied to the stator terminals at the
time of starting, by means of an autotransformer as shown in Figure 3.39.
Figure 3.39 pertaining to auto-transformer starting of squirrel cage induction

motor
This reduces the motor current and also the current drawn from the supply. After
the motor has accelerated near to its operating speed, auto-transformer is
disconnected and full line voltage is applied to the induction motor by connecting it
directly across the supply mains. Note that here x is less than 1. With
autotransformer, per phase starting current in motor winding is
xV1
  x I sc 3.35
Z1
If no-load current of autotransformer is neglected, then per phase output VA of an
autotransformer must be equal to its per phase input VA. That is
I stV1  xV1 (per phase starting current in motor winding)

Or I st V1  xV1 (x I sc )
 Per phase starting current from the supply mains,
I st  x 2 .I sc 3.36
52
Eq. (3.35) shows that the motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x
times the direct switching current Isc ; but the per phase starting current from the
supply mains is reduced to x2 times the direct switching Isc .
Now
Tst (per phase starting current in motor winding) 2

 .Sfl
Tfl (per phase motor full  load current) 2
From Eq.(1.35)
Tst xI sc 2
 .S fl
Tfl I 2fl
I sc 2
 x2 .Sfl 3.37
I fl2
Per phase staring current, Ist, from the supply mains can be calculated in Eq. (3.37)
with the help of Eq. (3.36). Substitution of the value of Isc in terms of Ist gives
2
Tst  1 I 
 x 2  2  st  .S fl
T fl x I 
 fl 
2
I 
 x 2  st  .S fl 3.38
I 
 fl 
The ratio of the starting to full-load torque in terms of both Ist and Isc can be
obtained from Eq. (3.37) as follows.
Tst x 2 I sc I sc
 .S fl
T fl I 2fl
I st I sc
  S fl 3.39
I 2fl
Per phase motor starting current in terms of Ist, from Eq. 3.35, is given by
1
x I sc  x  I st
x2
1 3.40
 I st
x
For an induction motor, torque  (voltage) 2
2
Tst with an autotransformer  xV1 
    x 2 3.41
Tst with direct switching  V1 
53
It is from above that with an autotransformer, the starting current Ist from the
mains and the starting torque Tst are reduced to x2 times their corresponding values
with DOL starting, see Eqs (3.36) and (3.41).
d. Star-Delta Method
A Star-Delta method starting may also be employed to provide reduced voltage of
start. In this method, the normal connection of the stator windings is delta while
running (Figure 3.40).
Figure 3.40 pertaining to the star-delta starting of a 3-phase cage induction motor
If these windings are connected in star at start, the phase voltage is reduced,
resulting in less current of starting. As the motor approaches its full-speed, the
windings will be connected in delta.
Thus, the line current under each of these connection are:
Vph VL
IY   with the windings connected in Star ;
Z ph 3 Z ph
VL
I  3 with the windings connected in Deta
Z ph
So that the ratio of the current is
I V Z
Y  L ph 1
 
I 3Z 3V 3
 ph L
Showing that the current drawn from the line under a star connection is only one-
third ( 1 ) of that under delta connection. On the other hand, the ratio of the
3
current in the stator windings is
V ph
I ph Y Z ph 1
 
I ph  3 Vph 3
Z ph
2
 VL 
Also  
Tst with Star  Delta Starter  3 1
 2

Tst with direct switching in Delta VL 3
54
This shows the star-delta starter also reduce the starting torque to one-third of that
produced by direct switching in delta.
Example 3.10 A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The
motor starting current at rated voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the
tapping on the auto-transformer starter which should give full-load at start. Also find
the line current at starting in terms of full-load current.
Solution
Here , motor starting or short-circuit current Isc is 6Ifl.
2
Tst I 
 x 2  sc  .S fl
T fl  I fl 
 1  x 2  6 2  0.05
1
x  0.745
Or 1.8
or 74.5% tappings
The starting line current is
I st  x 2 I sc  0.7452  6 I fl
 3.33 I fl
Example 3.11 A small 3-phase induction motor has a short-circuit current 5
times of full load current and full load slip 5%. Determine the starting torque and
starting current if starting resistance starter is used to reduce the impressed voltage
to 60% of normal voltage.
Solution
Starting current,
Ist  0.6ISC  0.6  5I fl  3I fl
Starting torque,
2
I 
Tst  Tfl  st   Sfl  Tfl 3  0.05  0.45Tfl i.e. 45% of full load torque.
2
 Ifl 
3.13.2. Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors

The methods used for starting squirrel cage motors can also be employed for
starting wound-rotor motors, but it is usually not done so because then the
advantages of wound-rotor induction motors can't be fully realized.The simplest and
cheapest method of starting wound-rotor induction motors is by means of added
rotor resistance, with full-line voltage across the stator terminals. It has already
been discussed that at the time of start, the addition of external resistance in the
rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction motor.
i. decreases its starting current
ii. increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and
iii. Improves its starting power factor.
At the time of start, the entire external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. As
the rotor speeds up, the external resistance is decreased in steps so that motor
torque tends to remain maximum during the accelerating period. Finally, under
normal operation, the external resistance is fully cut off and the slip rings are short-
circuited so that motor now develops full-load torque at low value of slip for which it
is designed.
Calculation of Resistance of elements (or sections)
Consider one phase of the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r2
and standstill leakage reactance x2. Let R1, R2 ,R3 …….Rn be resistance of the n
resistance elements (or sections) and R1’ , R2’, R3’,….Rn’, Rn+1’ be the total
resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit on 1st ,2nd ,3rd ,…,nth and (n+1)th stud
respectively as shown in Figure 3.40(a) , such that
R1= R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R2 = R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R3’ = R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
:
:
Rn+1= r2.
(a)
(b)
56
Figure 3.41 (a) pertaining to the design of starter for wound-rotor IM; (b) Variation
of input current with time
Note that Figure 3.41(a) illustrates n-elements starter, n-section starter, (n+1) stud
starter or n-step starter. For calculation of the section resistances, the following
assumptions are made:
i. During starting time , a constant load torque is assumed
ii. The stator leakage impedance and its no-load current are neglected
iii. Stator current is taken to fluctuate between fixed limits I1max (maximum
value) and I1min (minimum value) as shown in Figure 3.41(b).
At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor circuit resistance
is R1’. When the supply is switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I1max
and its value is given by
V1
I 1 max  3.42
2
 R 1' 
   x 2
 S1 
Note that at the time of start, slip S1 = 1
On first stud, R1’ remains in the circuit until the motor has started and the current
has fallen from I1max to I1min . At the same time the slip falls from S1 to S2
V1
 I 1 min  3.43
2
 R1' 
   x 2
 S2 
As soon as I1min is reached at stud 1, resistance R1 is cut out by moving the handle
from stud 1 to stud 2. During the notching process (the process of moving the
handle from one stud to the next), the speed is assumed to remain constant, i.e. the
slip remains as S2 but current at stud 2 becomes I1max as illustrated in Figure
3.41(b).
V1
 I 1max  3.44
2
 R'2 
   x 2
 S2 
At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip becomes S3 and current decreases to I1min,
V1
 I 1 min  3.45
2
 R'2 
   x 2
 S3 
During the next notching process, i.e., at the third stud when R2 is cut out,
V1
 I 1 max  3.46
2
 R3' 
   x 2
 S3 
and
57
V1
 I1 min  . 3.47
2
 R '3 
   x2
 S4 
 


and so on
From Eqs. (3.42), (3.44), (3.46) etc, we get

V1
I1 max 
2
 R1' 
   x2
 S1 
 
V1

2
 R '2 
   x2
 S2 
 
V1
  ................
2
 R '3 
   x2
 S3 
 
From the above it follows that
R1' R '2 R '3

 
S1 S2 S3
R' R' r
 .........  n  n 1  2
Sn Sn 1 Sfl
3.48
Where Sfl = Sn+1 is the slip under normal operating conditions when all external
resistance in rotor circuit is reduced to zero and the input current is I1max .
From Eqs. (3.43), (3.45), (3.47), etc., we get
R1' R'2 R3'

 
S 2 S 3 S4
3.49
Rn' 1 Rn' R'
 .........    n
S n Sn1 S fl
From Eq. (3.48), we get
58
S2 S3 S4
 
S1 S2 S3
S S S
 ......  n  n 1  fl
Sn 1 Sn Sn
R '2 R '3 R '4
  
R 1' R '2 R '3
R 'n 1 R 'n
 .......  
R 'n  2 R 'n 1
R 'n 1 r
  2   (say ) 3.50
R 'n R 'n
Since the slip S1=1, the total resistance in rotor circuit on the first step (or first
stud) from Eq. (3.48), is
S1 r
R1'  r2  2 3.51
S fl S fl
From Eq. 3.50,
R '2  R 1'  , R '3  R '2   R '2  2

R '4  R '3  R '2 2  R 1' 3

R 'n 1  R 1'  n
or r2  R 1'  n
3.52
Substituting the values of R1’ from Eq. (3.51) in Eq. (3.52), we get
r 
r2   2  n
 Sfl 
or  n  Sfl
1
or   (Sfl ) n 3.53
Therefore, resistances of the sections are:
R 1  R 1'  R '2  R 1' 1    3.54

R '2 R '2  R '3
 R '2 1    R 1' 1    R 1
R 3  R '3  R '4  R '3 1  
 R '2 1     2 R 1
Similarly
59
R 4   3R 1

R n  n 1R1 3.55
The slip Sfl provided I1max=Ifl. In case I1max is different from Ifl, slip Sfl should be
calculated accordingly and then from Eq. (3.53), α can be obtained. Once R1’is
determined by using Eq.(3.51), first the resistance element R1 is obtained by using
Eq.(3.54) and then R2, R3, R4……. Can be calculated from Eq. (3.55).
Example 3.13 Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter
for a 3-phase, 400-V, wound-rotor induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the
maximum starting current is limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase
is 0.015-Ω.
Solution
For a 4-step starter, there are 4-sections i.e. n=4.
Here, Sfl=3%=0.03
1 1
  ( S fl ) n  0.03 4  0.416
The total resistance of rotor circuit at the moment of starting
r2 0.015
R1'    0.5 
S fl 0.03
The resistances of various elements are:
R1=R1’(1-)= 0.5(1-0.416)=0.292 
R2=R1=0.416 x 0.292 = 0.121 
R3=2R1=R2=0.416 x 0.121 = 0.051
R4=3R1=2R2=R3=0.416 x 0.051 = 0.021
Checking :
R’1=R1+R2+R3+R4+r2 =0.292+0.121+0.051+0.021+0.015= 0.5 
3.14. APPLICATIONS OF POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
For loads requiring low starting torques and substantially constant speeds,
squirrel-cage induction motor is the best choice, because of its ruggedness,
simplicity, low cost and reduced maintenance charges. Squirrel cage motor may
be designed with low rotor resistance or with high rotor resistance. As stated
before, a high rotor resistance gives better starting conditions but poor running
performance. On the other hand, a cage motor with low rotor resistance gives
poor starting conditions but better running performance. In view of this, the
rotor-circuit resistance should be chosen judiciously at the design stage so that
there is a compromise between its starting conditions and running performance.
Squirrel cage motors with relatively low rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 5%)
are used for fans, centrifugal pumps, most machinery tools, wood-working tools
etc. Cage motors with relatively high rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 7%)
are used for compressors, crushers, reciprocating pumps. Squirrel cage motors
with still higher values of rotor-circuit resistance (full-load slip 7 to 16%) are
used for intermittent loads like punching presses, shears, hoists, elevators etc.
A wound-rotor induction motor is used for loads requiring severe starting
conditions or for loads requiring speed control. A wound rotor induction motor is
60
more expensive than a squirrel cage motor and also it requires more
maintenance because of the brushes and slip rings. A wound-rotor motor, also
called slip-ring motor, may be used for hoists, cranes, elevators, compressors
etc.
The relative advantages of cage motor over a wound-rotor motor of the same
power rating are given below.
i) A cage rotor requires considerably less conductor material than a wound
rotor, consequently I2 R loss in cage rotor is less. Therefore, cage motor is
a little more efficient than a wound-rotor motor.
ii) Wound-motor construction requires slip rings, brushes, short-circuiting
devices etc. As a result of it, a wound-rotor motor is costlier than a cage
induction motor.
iii) A squirrel-cage rotor has very small length of overhang; therefore, it has
low rotor overhang leakage flux. This has the effect of resulting in low
leakage reactance x2 for a cage rotor than for a wound rotor.
Consequently, the diameter of circle diagram for a cage motor is greater
than for a wound-rotor motor. This shows that a cage motor has more
pull-out torque, greater maximum power output and better operating
power factor as compared to a wound-rotor induction motor.
iv) Cage motor is more rugged and requires no slip rings, brushes etc.
therefore, its maintenance charges are low.
v) Cage rotor can be cooled better because of its bare end-rings.
The disadvantages of cage motor as compared to a wound rotor motor are its
small starting torque for very large starting current and its poor starting power
factor. In addition to it, the total energy lost during starting of cage motor is
much more than with the wound-rotor motor and this fact is very important
where frequent starting of large number of motors is required.
61
PROBLEMS ON INDUCTION MACHINES

3.1. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, 7.5 kw induction motor runs at 1,440 rpm.
Determine: i) the slip, ii) the slip-speed. Ans.i) 0.04 ;
ii) 60 r.p.m
3.2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 rpm. For this
motor , calculate the following:
a) Number of poles
b) Full-load slip and rotor frequency
c) Speed of stator field with respect to
i. Stator structure and
ii. Rotor structure and
d) Speed of rotor field with respect to
i. Rotor structure
ii. Stator structure
iii. Stator field
Ans. a) 4; b) 4% & 2Hz; c)1500rpm; 60rpm; d) 60rpm; 1500rpm; 0
3.3. A 3-phase, 4-pole alternator driven at 1500 rpm is supplying an induction
motor which has full load speed of 960 r.p.m: Determine (i) the number of
poles and (ii) the percentage slip.
Ans.i) 6 ; ii) 4%
3.4. A 4-pole, 50Hz induction motor runs at 415 rpm Deduce the frequency of the
curree rotor windings and the slip. Ans. 1.584 Hz ; 3.167%
3.5. A 4-pole. 50Hz induction motor has an emf in the rotor, the frequency of which
is 2 Hz. Determine (i) the synchronous speed (ii) the slip iii) the speed of the
motor.
Ans.i)1500rpm;ii) 4%; iii) 1440 r.p.m
3.6. A 200-Kw, 3300-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz star-connected slip-ring induction motor has
a star connected rotor. Stator to rotor turns ratio is 3.2.rotor resistance and
leakage reactance are 0.1-Ω and 1-Ω respectively. Neglecting stator
impedance ,find
a) Current and torque at starting on rated voltage with slip-rings short
circuited and
b) The external resistance required to reduce the starting current to 50-A
with across-the line starting. Compare starting torque under these
conditions.
Ans. a)185.14A; 1005.5N.m b) 35.681 ; 3.484; 2628.8
N.m
3.7. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 1440 rpm, 50 Hz induction motor has star connected rotor
winding , having a resistance of 0.2 per phase and a standstill leakage
resistance of 1 per phase. When the stator is energized at rated voltage and
frequency, the rotor induced emf at standstill is 120-V per phase.
a) Calculate the rotor current, rotor power factor and torque both at starting
and at full-load and compare these results.
b) If an external resistance of 1 per phase is inserted in rotor circuit,
calculate rotor current, rotor power factor and torque at the time of
starting.
62
Ans. a) at starting:117.67A; 0.196 lagging; 52.36N.m. and at full-load:

23.53 A ; 0.98 lagging; 52.87 N.m. b) at starting: 76.82 A ; 0.768
lagging; 135.25 N.m.
3.8. In s 6-pole, 3-phase. 50Hz induction motor with a star-connected rotor, the
rotor resistance per phase is 0.3, the reactance at standstill is 1.5 per
phase, and the emf between slip rings on open circuit is 175 V. Calculate :
(i) slip (ii) rotor emf per phase (iii) rotor reactance per phase if full load
speed is 960rpm. Ans.(i) 4% (ii) 4.05 V (iii) 0.06
3.9. A 50 Hz, 8-pole induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. The rotor resistance
and standstill reactance are 0-01 and 0.1 per phase respectively. Find the
ratio of maximum to full load torque and the speed at which the maximum
torque occurs. Ans.1.45; 675 rpm
3.10. An induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.02 and a standstill reactance
of 0.1. How much external resistance must be added in the rotor circuit so as
to get the maximum torque at starting. Ans. 0.08 
3.11. For an induction motor, the starting torque is 1.6 times the full load torque and
the rnaximum torque is 2 times the full load torque. Determine the percentage
reduction in the rotor circuit resistance so that the full load slip is 0.04%.
Neglect the stator impedance.
Ans.70%
3.12. A 3-phase induction motor is fed with a power of 48 kw. If the stator losses
are 1.2 kw, find the mechanical power developed and copper losses in the
rotor, when the slip is 3%. Ans.
45.396kW; 1.404kW
3.13. The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor
running at 975 rpm is 40kW . The stator losses are 2 kw and the friction and
windage losses total 2 kw. Calculate (i) the slip (ii) the copper loss (iii) the
output power and (iv) the efficiency. Ans. i) 2.5%; ii)
950W; iii) 35.05kW ; iv) 87.6%
3.14. A 20Kw, 6-pole, 400V, 50Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a full-load slip of
0.02. If the torque lost in mechanical (friction & windage) form constitutes
about 20 N.m., find the rotor ohmic loss, motor input and efficiency. The total
stator losses are 900 Watts. Ans. 450W; 23.4kW;
85.47%
63
3.15. A 3-phase , 400 V, 50Hz star-connected induction motor gave the following
test results:
No load: 400 V, 7.5A, 0.135 power factor
Blocked rotor: 150 V, 35A, 0.44 power
factor
The ratio of standstill leakage reactance of stator and rotor is estimated as 2.
If the motor is running at a speed of 900rpm, determine
a) Net mechanical power output
b) The net torque and
c) Efficiency of the motor
Assume stator to rotor copper losses to be equal.
Ans. P sh=8648.98 W; Tsh=86.033 N.m;= 86.23%
3.16. Design the 5-sections of a 6-stud starter for a 3-phase slip-ring induction
motor. The full-load slip is 2% and the maximum starting current is limited to
twice the full-load current. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.03-Ω.
Ans. 0.356 Ω; 0.187 Ω; 0.098 Ω; 0.052 Ω;0.027 Ω
3.17. A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting
current at rated voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the
auto-transformer starter which should give full-load at start. Also find the line
current at starting in terms of full-load current. Ans. 74.5%; 3.33 Ifl
3.18. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a short-circuit current of 5 times
the full-load current. Its full-load slip is 5%. Calculate the starting torque as
percentage of full-load torque if the motor is started by
a) Direct-on-line starter
b) Start-delta and
c) Auto-transformer starter, limiting the motor starting current to twice
the motor full-load current.
d) What is the percentage auto-transformer tapping under (c) case?
Ans. a) 1.25%; b) 0.417; c) 0.20; d)
40%
3.19. Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase,
400-V, wound-rotor induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum
starting current is limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase is
0.015-Ω.
Ans. 0.291 Ω; 0.121 Ω; 0.051 Ω; 0.021 Ω
64

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Chapter Three

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion

5. it requires minimum of maintenance

Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM

Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction machine

Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor

iii) θ  120 iv) θ  180

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Figure 3.10 a graph of the rotating flux

Figure 3.11 pertaining to principle operation of induction motor

3.6. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

to 5 percent in transformers. Moreover, the leakage reactance X1 is large because of

Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase

E2'  aE2  E1 R2' a 2 R2

Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

Figure 3.16 Thevenin Equivalent circuit

Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x 2  5  3  8

Rotor current per phase,

Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,

Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by  R2 

Maximum torque, Tmax  2.6 T fl

Starting torque, Tst  T fl

Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,

Or 0268 2  S 2fl  4  0.268  0

Or S fl  0.072 rejecting higher value.

Full load speed,

N  N S 1  S fl   N s 1  0.072   0.928 N s i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed

Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed

Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed

Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor

jX m ( R1  jX1 ) j30( 0.25  j0.5 )

vi) Air gap power

P2  sPag  0.0333  30,746.2  1023.9 W

2  1  s Pag  1  0.0333  30,746.2  29,722.3 W

Pout  Pmech  Prot  29 ,722.3  1700  28 ,022.3W

i) From Eq. 3.16

ii) From Eq.1.17

R '2  R 'ext R '2  R '

or I '2 N1'  I 2 N '2

Figure 3.24 pertaining to the induction motor phasor diagram

Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, V1 jI x

Figure 3.27 operating characteristics of an induction motor

Figure 3.28 Improvement of power factor with increase in load

Figure 3.29 Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test

Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.

PRot  m( Pnl  I nl2 R1 )

Figure 3.31 Variation of rotational loss with voltage

From blocked-rotor test:

(a) Eight pole (Series)

(b) Four pole (parallel) consequent pole

(a) Series-star (Y) connection (b)

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

1. For series-delta ( ) connection (Figure 3.34(a))

PY Y  2 3 (VI Cos YY )  3.46 (VI Cos YY )

(b)Parallel-star (YY) connection

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –

Figure 3.36 Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages

torque-speed characteristic is also shown by dashed line. By varying the external