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and Y. where W is shaft-work input to the test gas and v is gas velocity.
We shall also discuss isentropic analysis, relate it to polytropic For convenience we shall rewrite (2)
analysis, and show how the two can be combined to advantage.
TF ARE = H3 - Ho (2a)
In this connection we shall define a polytropic head factor, / , to
adjust polytropic head measurements for test gas deviations from
perfect-gas behavior.
T o conclude our study we shall consider a numerical example
employing the real-gas equations of polytropic analysis. A com-
parison of the results with those obtained by perfect-gas relations
will reveal the inaccuracy of the latter. Many similar instances
are regularly encountered in centrifugal compressor applications.
Nomenclature-
acoustic velocity, fps f = polytropic head factor m — polytropic temperature expo-
cP = specific heat at constant pres- 0 = standard gravitational accelera- nent
sure, ft-lb/lb deg R tion P dT ,
m = along p
cP = (dH/dT)r 0 = 32.174 ft./sec 2 T dP
Cy = specific heat at constant volume, H = enthalpy, ft-lb/lb M = impeller Mach number
ft-lb/lb deg R J rp — Joule-Thomson coefficient, M = u/a
deg R ft 2 /lb n polytropic volume exponent
CV = (bE/bT)y
=
Derivation of Equations
where absolute pressure P and specific volume T" arc related by p.
For any homogeneous gas we may regard H as a function of P
Thus (4) may be written
and T and write
J
r V
P0
1 VdP
dH dH dH
]
(4a) +
H 3 — Ho dP dP dT dp
(10)
and could be evaluated by graphic integration. dH
The result would be somewhat arbitrary, however, because p was dP )r ( dT ) „ ( dH )F
not precisely defined. A path equation would eliminate this un-
certainty and is in fact essential if our analysis is to have much The Joule-Thomson coefficient, JT, and the specific heat at con-
utility. Let us redefine p therefore by the path equation stant pressure, CP, are defined
dP dT_
J; ^
(11)
where e is that constant for which p passes through points 0 and 3. dH \
B y integrating (6) we obtain (4a), hence constant e in (6) cor-
vr )r .
responds to efficiency e in (4a), and p may be considered the path
of constant efficiency between 0 and 3. so that (10) becomes
Reviewing our previous discussion we note that (6) eliminates
dH dT
points 1 and 2 from any role in determining p. This generalizes = Cr \ (10a)
dP dp - Jt
our analysis to compressors of any number of stages and even to
individual stages themselves. Consideration of the latter topic
Among the general thermodynamic relations for any homogeneous
reveals a unique property of (6).
substance we find
Let points 0 and 1, 1 and 2, 2 and 3 in Fig. 1 be joined bj- paths
Vh Pi defined by efficiencies ei, ei, e3 in (6). Should these stage
efficiencies all be equal (6) requires that p for the over-all compres-
sor coincide with P l , p 2 , Pz for the individual stages, and that e for
\ dT Jf - V
(12)
the over-all compressor equal ei, e2, ei. Cp
Continuing our review, we note that p should coincide with the
A general equation of state for any gas is
isentrope So for Qp = 0. From the general thermodynamic rela-
tion PV = ZRT (13)
-Nomenclature-
p, = p/p Tr = T/Tc p_ / ay
P, = absolute total pressure, psf Y
T, = absolute total temperature, ~ V V dP , T
Qp = reversible heat input along p deg R Z compressibility factor
R = individual gas constant, u = impeller rim speed, fps
PV
ft-lb/lb deg R v = gas velocitj', fps Z
RT
^ 1545.4 V = specific volume, f t 3 / l b
AKE
molecular weight IF = shaft-work input to gas, ft-lb/lb
= kinetic energy increase, ft-lb/lb
S entropy, ft-lb/lb deg R
= IFp = poly tropic head, ft-lb/lb AICE
T =
absolute temperature, deg R 1FS = isentropie head, ft-lb/lb
M 2g
T 459.69 + deg F
= A' = compressibility function
Tc =
absolute critical temperature, = polytropic head coefficient
Note: =
deg R isentropie head coefficient
Multiply Btu by 778.26 to obtain
T, = reduced temperature 1' = compressibility function ft-lb.
<1H T / bZ
— ( — ) (106) 1 +¥ \bT
cIP P dP Z \bTjr L 1 (20a)
By inserting (10b) and (13) into (6) our path equation may be
z ^ bP )T_ 1 +f
/ bZ
\bT
written
P_ rfT ZR. r i jr \ ' By inserting (6b) and (20a) into (6c) our path equation may be
(6 o) written
T dP Cp L e + Z V <>T )p_
bE P dZ _ P dT P dV
c. bT , y
(16) Z dP ~ 1 T dP V dP C)
P_ dV
(6/)
V dP n
JL JL ( k ) + Z (dJ'l
(6b)
T dP T / bZ T f bZ P_ dZ^ n - 1
1 + - 1 +
Z \bT /,, lyr ~Z dP n
where
where
Cp
k (13)
Cy
and
I t-- " I"'
dF bP bT and
(20)
bP /T \ bT Jy \bV ,
\
P
/ bZ > T (bV\
- 1
From (13) we obtain V bT ,)p~ v I /p
bZ P_ / bV
F P ( bZ
(21) Y = 1 - — { (22)
,bPjT P 1 ~ Z \bP / T Z bP V \dP
By inserting (14) and (21) into (19) our path equation may be T ( bZ T ( bP
L = 1 +
written bT P \<>T/v
5"
JT — X (12b)
(1 + A ) (24)
mT = 0
From (20b) we see that one of our compressibility functions can
be eliminated. We chose to retain X and 5' so that (25)
nT =
Y
k - 1
X Y
ZR ( 1 \ where subscript T denotes constant temperature.
(1 + A") 2 In a perfect gas X = 0, Y — Z = 1, and our equations reduce to
1 k - 1 1
(6 h)
Y - m( 1 + X) ke
(1 + A') k - 1
ms =
k
— - 1 (6/1
7 7 + * e
its' = A-
and
mI{' = » ! r ' = 0
(1 + A)2 rin' = » ? ' = 1
Cp — Cy — ZR (15 c)
Y
mv' = 1 (2'a)
Recalling that p is an isentrope when e = 1, let us examine this
JT' = 0 (12c)
special case:
Cp' - Cy' = /? (15 d)
ZR , „ (k - 1 Y
»>s = — (1 + A ) = '
(1 + A) where superscript ' denotes a perfect gas. It is interesting to
(60 compare the previous real-gas equations with these perfect-gas
k
ns = Z relations. The former are entirely rigorous and hold for any
Y - ms( 1 + X) Y
homogeneous gas whatever.
where subscript S denotes constant entropj'. The result is con- Some of our results have been published before. Edmister and
firmed by the general thermodynamic relation for any homo- McGarry [I] 1 derived the equivalent of ms = {ZR/CP){ 1 + X)
geneous substance in 1949 and published generalized charts of {Z/T)X and ZR( 1 +
A") for gases in corresponding states. In 1951, Edmister [2]
dV
dP J a ) = 1
k \dP
( - )
J7
(23) ZR
derived the equivalent of m„ = —— X and theorized that an
CP
which, by (6/) and (22) may be written equation of the form m = I — + X I might represent the
CP \e J
P_ / _ 1 _
(23a) general case. Of course the equivalents of our perfect-gas rela-
V [ dP )s ~ ~ iis k tions are well known, having been published in many textbooks.
Returning to (6/) we see that none of our rearrangements of (6)
Another special case is the path of constant enthalpy for which
permits direct integration of (5) because m and n are variables.
We suspect, however, that they are relatively constant com-
ZR (k - l\ XY pared to P, V, and T. If this be the case, we can integrate (6/)
as if m and n were constants and obtain
" L " = \ ~ K ~ ) ( T T A T 2
(6j) — = constant
1 = (1 + A )
n„
Y - m „ ( l + A) Y ( l + ~ PV" = constant
(6m)
n-1
P "
where subscript H denotes constant enthalpy. = constant
A seemingly trivial case is that of constant pressure for which Z
e = 0: The three paths defined by (6m) are all approximations of path p,
becoming identical with p as m and n become constant.
(6A-) Our analysis is called "polytropic" because the polytropic proc-
ess is commonly defined by the path equation PV" = constant.
This path is called a "polytrope." One of our equations (6m)
Subscript P denotes constant pressure.
Two other paths are also described bj- (6/) although in general 1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
sir,
(266)
* = 3u2
Z,o_ (On) Individual stage coefficients p.*, can be determined from
Z (0- individual stage heads and speeds. Should these coefficients all
be equal, and should the stage efficiencies also be equal, (5), (6),
p_ and (26) require that p for the over-all compressor equal p. 1, p.2,
Po for the individual stages. This is another unique property of (6).
Perhaps our detailed discussion of polytropic analysis has ob-
and scured the simplicity of the actual test procedure which may be
= log ( T / T o ) summarized:
m log ( P / P „ ) 1 Determine P, V and H at the compressor inlet and outlet,
states 0 and 3.
log (P/Po)
(60)
2 Compute
log ( V J V )
= log ( P 3 / P c )
_ n - 1 = log (ZQ/Z) " log (F0/F3)
1'1 n log ( P / P „ )
n
IF. (P.Vz - P0F0)
Now we can integrate (5), at least approximately, by (6/), (6/1), n - 1
(60), and (13): (27)
rF c1 Z H3 - H0
W„ = VdP = R I — dT
Jpc Jt0 ">
W„
ill2 + U2'2 + W32
P , = P3 (28)
WD S 4 = S„
which from (5a) and (60) can be approximated by
V ,og w /
= log (P:,/Pc)
P_\ (PV + P„F„ log ( F 0 / F 4 )
= (In (28a)
Po
and evaluate e for our test compressor by (4a), (5a), and (60). The accuracy of TVs in (28a) depends upon the constancy of n s
Another useful test result is the polytropic head coefficient. along So.
Hi — Ho 1F„
(32) H 3 — Ho
(.P3V< - PoVo)
ffJFp
M =
which is the ratio of (28) to (28a). Multiplying the approximate i'r + + «32
TF„ of (5a) or (27) by / we approach the exact Wp of (5) inde-
pendent of the constancy of n along p. A closer approach might Equations (27a) are limited to tests of uncooled centrifugal c o m -
be obtained if / were determined along Si or but So is more pressors without side-flow. In (56) and (27a) W p is nearly inde-
convenient and should be sufficient. I11 many cases / is so near pendent of the const ancj r of n along p.
unity as to be superfluous.
We had better incorporate / into (5a) and our test procedure Compressor Design
summary. The former becomes
Relations similar to (27a) are emplo3Ted to design centrifugal
71—1 compressors when detailed thermodynamic tables or charts of
p\ « the design gas are unavailable. The problem is to determine TF,
w„ = / P 0 F„ - 1 u, the number of stages, F 0 , V3, and T3 from Po, To, and P 3 .
\n - 1 ft/ Gathering (4), (56), (6h), (6n), (13), and (26) we obtain
71-1
rp \ 17111
= ./' ZollTo
/i. - 1 L \ V ZR
m = - . . - I — + A' ) =
CP (1 + X ) 2
P_
= / 1
' \n - 1 ft.
Y - m( 1 + X)
ZT
= /
(1 + X)
ir = " + A KE dS ZR ( 1 \
e (6r)
dP p ( T - 1 )
(33«)
, . bW. for any homogeneous gas along a path of constant efficiency An
H approximate integration of (6r), using (6m), is
ZoRTo Zp - Z
FII =
Po .log (Zo/Z)
((is)
•i\ = r„{pjp„y P \ (Zo
AVo HI- In
Po
ms'
PV R (K - L\ Y
PV es_ es Ms
(34c)
CPT (1 + AT e' e M
S 4 = So
Ws
IF = A ICE
T ( AF \ (35)
gJVs
ZM2 =
Ms
V \AP )T
HS = Ho + ^
es
c _ _ (AH - FAP^
A Tjv V AT )v Values of P, V, T, H, and S for (35) are obtained from the thermo-
PF(I + xy dynamic tables or charts.
= CP When a similar compressor has been tested with the design gas
TY
es and /J.s can be inferred directly from the test data and no con-
Cp version from e and ^ is necessary. Equations (33), (33a), (336),
k =
Cv (33c), (34), (34a), (346), and (35) are limited to the design of un-
cooled centrifugal compressors without side-flow.
For (34) the values of P, F, T, and H necessary to compute mean An important application of polytropic analysis is the evalua-
values of CP, CV, k, X, and Y are obtained from the thermody- tion of equivalent performance tests where a centrifugal compres-
SP'
(36) It follows from (26), (26c), and (39) that
a = V \ - {- g
Pi | Pi
where a is acoustic velocity. By inserting (13) and (23a) into (40)
(36) we find e< ed
where p and e are the stage head coefficient and efficiency. Equa-
a = V^gPV = ^ ^ (36a) tions (4c), (26c), (39), and (40) are used with our previous relations
to separately consider impeller and diffuser performance.
The designer relates acoustic velocity to compressor speed by a
speed coefficient or impeller Mach number, M , defined
Total Pressure and Temperature
Throughout our entire discussion P and T have represented
M : (37)
"static" pressure and temperature as distinguished from "in-
t a c t " or " t o t a l " values. By total pressure and temperature, P t
At the compressor inlet .1/ becomes and T„ we mean the stagnation values resulting from an isen-
»i tropic deceleration of a flowing gas. The distinction is onlj'
il/„ = (37a) important in compressor tests where v2/'2g is appreciable com-
«o
pared to }V P ; e.g., in the testing of impellers or diffusers.
By inserting (56), ( 6 « ) , (26), and (36a) into (37a) we obtain The difficulty is that a temperature-sensing device in a gas
stream "feels" 2', rather than T and registers some intermediate
n—1 u- 1
temperature depending upon its particular characteristics. As-
p^idn - i).w ( p ^ n = =
suming that these characteristics are known we can surmount the
1 +1
problem by installing a pressure probe to measure P,. Then by
(38) combining (4), (5c), (6i), and (6n) with e = 1 we can write
for the first stage, where ns is evaluated at the inlet and m and n V2 ZRT CP{T, - T)
^
are mean values. Similar relations apply to the other stages and
2g ms T (1 + X)
to the over-all compressor.
Sometimes it is necessary to subdivide individual stages and P
consider impeller and diffuser performance separately. Referring T ~\P
( ' 'LL
(41)
again to Fig. 1, imagine we have a test point locating the thermo-
dynamic state of the gas between an impeller and its diffuser. ZR k - 1 Y
ms
Let constant-efficiency paths, pt and p,h representing the impeller k (1 + X)
and diffuser, connect this state with the stage inlet and outlet
states. The polytropic head, 1FP, or \VpJ, of the impeller or dif- For small ratios P,/P, (41) simplifies to
fuse!' is the net reversible mechanical energy input along p; or pd.
v2
Impeller and diffuser efficiencies, e, and ed, are defined by (4): (P, - P)V
2g
IF„, IF,, (41a)
" P'
T. - I P, - P>
AH; IF, - A ICE,
(4 6) r
1F„„ IF.
e,i;
AHj IF,, - AKEd Side-Flow and Cooling
In (46) the shaft-work input, IF,, to the impeller is also the Thus far none of our analysis has included compressors having
shaft-work input, IF, to the entire stage. The shaft-work input either side-flow or cooling. The treatment of side-flow requires
to the diffuser, IF,,, is zero. Thus (46) becomes that the compressor be subdivided into units of constant mass
flow rate, with due consideration given to the mixing effects when
IF the side-flow is inward. The homogeneity of such a mixture en-
W - AICE, tering the next stage may be questionable but is usually assumed
(4c) for practical purposes.
Wpd A similar procedure is employed for interstage cooling since the
c,i
- A ICEd compressor can be subdivided into uncooled units and the inter-
cooler treated separately. Most cases of liquid injection cooling
It follows from (4) and (4c) that
also fall into this category. Even diaphragm cooling can be
handled this way if most of the cooling takes place between the
+ " V _ "I, (89)
diffuser outlet and the inlet of the succeeding stage.
e, ed c If a cooled compressor is tested for over-all values of e and p.
these are only significant for the tested ratio of gas cooling to
where IFP and e are stage head and efficiency. An equation like
numerical averages with double weight given the mid-point, as m' = 0.1842 TV = 0.4794 f t ' / l b
and our errors would have been 6, 15, and 23 per cent.
k = 1.173 Now suppose it were necessary to design a compressor for this
same application but with complete thermodynamic data
The accuracy of our results could be improved slightly by re-
available. Using k = 1.167 and e = 0.749 in (34b) we would
fining these constant mean values, but perfect accuracy is im-
obtain es' = 0.701. By (35) we would find TV = 0.41801 ft 3 /lb
possible since (6m) cannot reproduce (8) perfectly.
and by (27a) e' = 0.744. Then
Now imagine it were necessary to design a centrifugal compres-
sor for the application we have just discussed, but without
benefit of detailed thermodynamic data. Suppose our only in- ~ = 0.942 and es = 0.706 in (34c)
e
formation were:
From the data of Table 1 we find the correct es = 0.707.
Po = 10 psia R = 12.779 ft-lb/lb deg R.
Alternatively we might have used (33c) to find S3 = 0.19502
Vo = 3.8861 f t y i b Pc = 596.9 psia B t u / l b deg R and T3 = 209.4 F. In Table 1 the correct values
are 0.19518 and 210.0. This is only 0.3 deg F less accurate than
T0 = -10 F T„ = 233.6 F
the preceding isentropic solution and far less complicated.
P3 = 130 psia e = 0.749 T o consider three different aspects of the same compression
process we used three different ^--values. The first, 1.173, was
k = 1.160 the mean value along So. The second, 1.160, was the mean
value along p. The third, 1.167, was the mean value between
The solution of this problem requires that we assume T3 and
So and p. Each was the most appropriate for its particular
verify our assumption by (33). To make a long story short let us
application. No single value would have produced comparable
assume the correct T3 = 210 F and observe the results. T o
accuracies in all three instances.
estimate mean values of X and Y we need a tabulation like
Table 1 and therefore we must choose an approximate mid-point
of p. A reasonable choice would be at the square root of the Conclusions and Recommendations
over-all pressure ratio and half the assumed temperature rise; The real-gas equations of polytropic analysis indicate, and our
i.e., at P = 36 psia and T = 100 F. The results are shown in numerical example confirms, that accuracies within a few per
Table 2 with A" and 7 from Figs. 2 and 3. cent require more thermodynamic data than exist for some ap-
plications. Compressor users should recognize such applications
Table 2 for what they are and not expect the impossible. Furthermore,
Inlet Middle Outlet when thermodj'namic tables or charts are prepared it would be
Pr 0.0168 0.0603 0.2178 most convenient if CP or k, X, Y, and Z were included.
Tr 0.649 0.807 0.966 Generalized compressibility data are helpful when specific data
.V 0.11 0.17 0.36
are lacking. Since compressibility functions X and Y have been
Y 1.04 1.05 1.10
defined and generalized here for the first time future investiga-
tors may be able to improve some regions in Figs. 2 and 3.
From Table 2 we compute the mean X = 0.20 and the mean Experience may disclose a need for extending these figures beyond
1" = 1.06. Assuming / = 1.000 we find by (33) Pr = 3 and Tr = 5. Investigations to improve or extend Figs.
m = 0.1559 V3 = 0.4141 ft 3 /lb 2 and 3 are recommended.
Most of the real-gas equations have also been derived and
n = 1.1455 T3 = 211.1 F published here for the first time. Future rearrangements
and derivations maj' enhance their utility. In this connection a
Wp = 16,967 ft-lb/lb
derivation to generalize the polytropic head factor, / , would be
Comparing these results with the correct data from our test quite useful.
discussion we find the errors in TFP, V3, and A71 to be 2, 1, and Finally, the A S M E Power Test Code for Centrifugal, Mixed
Vs per cent, respectively. Had we used perfect-gas relations the Flow, and Axial Flow Compressors and Exhausters (PTC10-1949)
results would have been should be rewritten to include polytropic analysis and equivalent