Bumbuli

Bumbuli
Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

January Y Makamba
1
Bumbuli has a very young population. Once you set foot there, as in
almost everywhere in rural Tanzania, you easily notice that children
constitute a big part of the population. 76% of Bumbuli population is
below the age of 35, and 55% below the age of 20.
2 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

Table of Contents
Introduction 5
Data sources and methodology 9
Part 1: Yesterday 10
1.0 A natural history of the Usambara Mountains 11

1.1 A human history of the Usambara Mountains 12
Part 2: Today 16
2.0 The People of Bumbuli 17

2.1 Population profile 17
2.2 Population density 19
2.3 Demographic profile 19
3.0 Bumbuli’s economy 23
3.1 Main economic occupations in Lushoto District and rural Bumbuli 23
3.2 Land use in Bumbuli 26
3.3 Bumbuli’s soil has low natural fertility. 28
3.4 Diversity of agricultural production 30
4.0 Social services in Bumbuli 36
4.1 Education 36
4.2 Disease burden 41
4.3 Water sources and toilet facilities 43
4.4 Energy 44
4.5 Roads and transportation 46
5.0 The ‘typical’ resident of Bumbuli 49
BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 1

6.0 Key insights about Bumbuli 50
7.0 Talking about Bumbuli in Bumbuli 52
8.0 Government initiatives 57
Part 3: Tomorrow 62
9.0 Bumbuli Transformation Framework 63

10.0 Objective 1: Raising farmers’ income 65
11.0 Objective 2: Creating new job and income opportunities 67
12.0 Objective 3: Transforming Bumbuli’s construction economy 68
13.0 Objective 4: Improving access to financial services 69
14.0 Objective 5: Bumbuli Development Corporation 70
Endnotes 72

List of figures
Figure 1. Population growth in Bumbuli (1988-2025) 17
Figure 2. Bumbuli’s population by ward (1988-2002) 18
Figure 3. Bumbuli age-sex distribution (2010 est.) 19
Figure 4. Bumbuli sex ratio by age group (2010, est.) 20
Figure 5. Migration patterns in Bumbuli (1988-2002) 21
Figure 6. Main occupations in Lushoto (2002) 23
Figure 7. Activities of the economically active adult population (Lushoto, 2002) 24
Figure 8. Economic participation by children and elders in Lushoto (2002) 25
Figure 9. Land use in Bumbuli 26
Figure 10. Intensity of land use in Bumbuli and Lushoto 27
Figure 11. Major household crops in humid, warm agro-ecological zone 30
Figure 12. Major household crops in dry warm agro-ecological zone 31
Figure 13. Average annual income per hectare - Mgwashi division (2005-08) 32
Figure 14. Education levels in Lushoto (2002) 36
Figure 15. Number of students per primary school in Bumbuli (2010) 37
Figure 16. Primary school students by class in Bumbuli (2009 & 2010) 38
Figure 17. Main outpatient diagnoses in Lushoto (2009) 41
Figure 18. Causes of disease-related deaths in Lushoto (2009) 42
Figure 19. Sources of water in Lushoto (2002 43
Figure 20. Sources of energy for lighting in Lushoto (2002) 44
Figure 21. Sources of energy for cooking in Lushoto (2002) 45
Figure 22. Lushoto’s road network 46
Figure 23. Means of transportation in Lushoto district 48
Figure 24. Lushoto District Council Spending (2008) 60

The Usambara Mountains are very old. They arose in a period
of rifting between Africa and Madagascar 290-180 million
years ago. Two blocks slid against each other along a fault or
split in the earth. One block was uplifted to be the Usambaras,
and another slumped to form the depression along which the
Pangani River now flows.

Introduction
In May 1984, towards the end of the holy month of Ramadhan, my grandfather Mzee Rajab Makamba, a devout Muslim,
fell ill and had to end his mandatory dawn-to-dusk fast. Diarrhoea and vomiting caused him to dehydrate quickly. There
was no health facility in our village, Mahezangulu, in the mountainous Lushoto District. The roads were non-existent and my
grandfather could not get to a distant dispensary in one of the main centres in the District. We were able to get a Medical
Assistant from one of the villages further up the mountains to come, by bicycle, to my grandfather’s bedside. He had some
rehydration kits, but no diagnosis was made and no medication was prescribed. My grandfather died three days later. He
was 63. Many thought he had succumbed to cholera, and to avoid its spread, food was not served during his funeral.
In June of 1836, Nathan Rothschild, one of the richest men in the world at the time, fell ill on his way from London to Frankfurt
to attend his son’s wedding. He left London suffering from an inflammation in his lower back which a physician diagnosed
as a boil. A reputable doctor in London could not cure the problem. A leading German surgeon was called in to open and
clean the wound. This also did not work, and Nathan Rothschild died on 28 July 1836. He was 59. He may have died of
staphylococcus or streptococcus septicaemia – what used to be called “blood poisoning”. Or the secondary contamination
from the surgeons’ knives may have killed him as this was an era in which neither bactericides nor antibiotics existed. The
man who could buy anything died of a routine infection that is easily cured today.
What is similar between my grandfather and Nathan Rothschild? Very little. My grandfather was poor and illiterate. Rothschild
was immensely rich. But, despite being worlds apart in wealth and station, neither could be saved by medicine. Rothschild
died because, at the time, there was no way to know what his ailment was, and medicine was more luck than science. My
grandfather died even though it was possible to treat him and save his life.
The world has changed since 1836 and 1984, but some things have remained the same. Rothschild’s descendants are less
likely to meet their patriarch’s fate. But diarrhoea still claims the lives of many people in many parts of Tanzania, including
my village, Mahezangulu. Rothschild descendants live longer than my grandfather’s not just because of better medicine

but because of clean water and sanitation. The stream that my father
bathed in as a boy and my grandfather drank water from in 1984, is the
same one we depend on for all our water needs today. Cholera and other
gastrointestinal infections are frequent killers in rural Tanzania. Few things
demonstrate the poverty of a people than constant raids and deaths by
cholera.
In these two stories lies my motivation to understand the nature and

drivers of human progress. Over the years, we have pushed the frontiers
of our knowledge to detect and conquer bacteria, but the lives of the
majority of humanity, as my grandfather’s fate demonstrates, are ravaged
by these parasites.
This is an indictment against the nature and shape of the progress we

have pursued. It challenges our approach to social transformation. My
reflections on this issue and quest to understand the drivers of social
transformation inspired me to write this book. I decided to ground this
work on the land of my grandfather: Bumbuli, in Lushoto district because
I believe that deliberate efforts at social transformation must be based
on evidence and a deep understanding of the local context. As a primer
for policymakers and future leaders of Bumbuli, this book provides an
opportunity to thoroughly understand the pathologies and impediments to
development of Bumbuli and the drivers and unique opportunities leading
to the path of social transformation.
During the first six months of 2010, I talked to the people of Bumbuli
in Bumbuli, to understand their hopes and fears, their expectations and
aspirations. I made use of some professional advisers to collect and
analyse almost every available statistics and data – on almost everything. I

wanted to understand everything there is to understand about Bumbuli
– its people, its social and physical evolution, and the state of its
economic and social development. I conducted workshops and focus-
group discussions with select group of people in Bumbuli in seeking to
confirm or contradict what we found in initial data analysis.
This book is intended to be a profile of Bumbuli, a conceptual framework

for Bumbuli’s transformation; the basis for a contract between political
leaders and voters and a guide for investors, donors, visitors and
other partners. It is organised into three sections. Yesterday takes a
look at the natural and human history of Bumbuli and its people to
understand the cultural dynamics and make sense of the current
situation. Today, analyses the current state of affairs in all spheres of life
to illuminate impediments and possibilities. And Tomorrow, introduces
the framework for Bumbuli’s social transformation.
The findings in this book are illuminating and some are counterintuitive.
One thing is clear: the future of Bumbuli that its people hope to attain
cannot be imagined without bold new thinking from its leaders. More
importantly, Bumbuli’s transformation is impossible without inspiring in
the people a belief in their ability to change the course of their fortunes,
an appreciation of the limits of outside “agency” to transform their lives,
and a resolve to act and live in a manner that recognizes the strength
of their community.
While central government has a role to play in changing the quality of

life in Bumbuli, and it indeed has done a lot particularly in the past five
years, and will need to scale up investments in social services, I have

focused on what can be achieved through the people’s own effort and energy, private investment and social entrepreneurship
to expand job-creating and income-generating entrepreneurial activity in Bumbuli. The bold ambition is to create a working
sustainable local enterprise network, an ecosystem of ‘for-profit businesses, local communities, not-for-profit organisations
and other actors working in a self-organising way to create value in economic, social, human and ecological terms’. I envision
Bumbuli with hundreds if not thousands of thriving enterprises creating jobs and wealth and changing lives. These ideas are
inspired by Nobel Laureate, Muhammad Yunus, and his ‘social business’ model. They are also informed by the research on
sustainable local enterprise networks by York University’s Schulich School of Business in Toronto Canada, and a wide range
of emerging analysis on the effectiveness of incentive-driven models for social transformation.
The strategic objectives of the Bumbuli transformation initiative through the creation of a local enterprise network are as
follows:
1. To raise Bumbuli’s farmers’ incomes from existing crops by improving post-harvest handling, adding value and
aggregating agricultural output for better pricing.
2. To create new job and income opportunities in Bumbuli by attracting private investment in new training institutions
that will ‘import’ consumers in the form of students, teachers and administrative staff.
3. To transform the construction economy in Bumbuli by adopting new building material technologies that create jobs
and incomes while protecting the environment.
4. To bring some basic financial services to Bumbuli, either through the establishment of a community bank, or by
attracting an existing financial institution to establish a local presence.
5. To create a dedicated, self-sustaining Bumbuli Development Corporation (BDC) to initiate, coordinate, promote and
monitor the execution of the activities described above. BDC will act as the anchor for the Bumbuli sustainable local
enterprise network (Bumbuli-SLEN) and will engage in businesses with social objectives.

While it is important that the people of Bumbuli remain the main drivers of change in their community, these objectives will
benefit greatly from international partnership. Private individuals and foundations, charity organisations, non-governmental
organisations, foreign governments, Corporate entities and other partners will easily find roles to play in different aspects of
this important undertaking.
It may not be possible, in the foreseeable future, for the people of Bumbuli to enjoy the lives of the Rothschild descendants.
But they can escape my grandfather’s fate. Given the right leadership, and the commitment of the people, Bumbuli’s
transformation is both possible and achievable.
January Makamba
July 2010
Data sources and methodology
This analysis is based on an extensive review of existing literature and data sources on the Usambara Mountains, Lushoto District and Bumbuli. Additional literature
from global sources was also consulted to inform the conceptualisation of the Bumbuli transformation framework. These sources are indicated below the charts
and in the footnotes.
Numerous interviews were held in April and May 2010 with key public officials in Lushoto and in eleven of the twelve wards of Bumbuli constituency. A two-day mini-
scenario workshop was held in Soni ward with twenty members of the Bumbuli community on May 7-9, 2010 to discuss the initial data analysis, provide qualitative
and contextual inputs and reflect on alternative possible futures that the community may encounter to 2020.

Part 1:
10
Yesterday
Yesterday
1.0 A natural history of the Usambara Mountains1
The Usambara mountains are part of the Eastern Arc Mountains, a crescent of eleven individual ancient mountain blocks,
that run parallel to the Tanzanian coast. All lie in Tanzania except for the Taita Hills in Kenya. Some of the better known are
the Ulugurus, towering over Morogoro, and the Udzungwas, most of which is now a National Park.
The Usambaras are very old. They arose in a period of rifting between Africa and Madagascar 290-180 million years ago.
Two blocks slid against each other along a fault or split in the earth. One block was uplifted to be the Usambaras, and
another slumped to form the depression along which the Pangani River now flows. The rock types are gneisses, meta-
anorthisites and some marble. These mountains are not inherently fertile, when compared with the fertile volcanos that are
Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru further to the west.
There is exceptional biodiversity in the Usambaras. Occupying only 400 000 hectares, the mountains house 684 indigenous
tree species and sub-species. By comparison the whole of western Europe hosts only 71 species of trees. That means 9.6
times as many tree species in the Usambaras as compared to Europe2. Of the 684 tree species, 195 were endemic or near
endemic, which means they are found only in the Usambara mountains. The little forest at Mazumbai is estimated to have
more species of plants than the entire Congo Basin.
The Usambaras are so biologically rich because of stability in geology and climate. There have been no major geological
upheavals for 30 million years. Furthermore, the southeasterly trade winds shed their moisture here, and have been doing so
for 30 million years. Due to this stability, the forests here have had a long time to evolve and form many species. The forests
of the Usambaras were once continuous with those of the Central African rainforests, but became isolated from them millions
of years ago. So this little refuge in the clouds, left undisturbed by climate change that occurred elsewhere, could continue
with its evolution of many and unique species.

1.1 A human history of the Usambara Mountains
It’s unclear exactly when the first humans lived in the Usambaras, but is likely that people have been here for at least 2000
years. The evidence is from the early iron-smelting furnaces excavated by researchers. The forests must have been exploited
at this early stage by people who hunted, gathered fruits, cultivated sorghum and millet, and had livestock.
An important event in the Usambara history was the arrival of the banana plant from Asia about 1000 years ago. Harvests
from bananas were more reliable than from millet and sorghum, so this agricultural revolution must have boosted human
population growth.
The WaMbugu are Cushites who migrated south from Ethiopia to settle in the Usambara Mountains in the 1700’s. The
WaMbugu were well known as beekeepers and honey producers. Their neighbours were the WaSambaa, and from the
WaMbugu they purchased beehives.
The first king of the WaSambaa was Mbegha, who, from the mid 1700’s started the Kilindi dynasty. Mbegha’s son, Bughe made
his capital at Vuga, on a hilltop. The kingdom reached its height under Kimweri ya Nyumbai who ruled between early 1800’s
to the 1860’s. The kingdom extended from the Pare mountains, down to the coast at Tanga and Pangani, and out onto the
plains in the south and east. Early European travelers such as Johann Krapf (1848) and Burton and Speke (1857) called at
Kimweri’s capital.
19th century Sambaa farmers: masters of diversification3
German botanists who visited the Usamabaras in the 1980s estimated that 80% of the farmland was under bananas, and a
large variety of other crops were grown inside the banana groves. Men were responsible for irrigated banana home gardens
that produced much of the staple food, whereas women were allocated more remote fields where they grew mostly maize.
Farmers diversified crops, locations and seasons in order to minimize risk of hunger and ensure a year-round supply of food.
‘In Usambara…a cultivator had to take advantage of three different rainy seasons: March-May, November-December and
August. He or she had to decide which crops to plant in the nyika, which in Shambaai and which in the higher zone near the
forest. Although it was possible to plant most grains and beans in all seasons and in all zones, it was better to plant in the

nyika and in the south Shambaai (Vugha and Bumbuli) in the longer rainy season (March-May), in north Shambaai (Mlalo and
Mlola) in November-December and in higher Shambaai in August.’
Research shows that early European travelers describe the Sambaa as skilled farmers; growing bananas in the mountains
and maize in the plains; combining many indigenous plants and tubers; keeping cattle and sheep and using manure for
fertilizer; building long irrigation systems and sophisticated ways of soil conservation and fertility improvement.
New forces: guns, colonialists and cash
The second half of the 19th century was a difficult time for the people of the Usambaras. Trade had brought firearms into the
area and the Kilindi fought many wars with rebelling groups and neighbouring tribes. As their military control broke down, the
mountain were raided for slaves, cattle and food. In 1885, the Sambaa chief, Kibanga, signed away his territory to a Herr
Juhlke representing a colonial association from Frankfurt. Otto von Bismark, the German Chancellor declared Tanganyika a
colony in 1891, suppressed opposition with force and hanged Chief Kimweri’s grandson, Mputa in 1895 at Mazinde. The
kingdom effectively ended in 1898 when a fire destroyed the capital at Vuga.
Scientists and settlers followed missionaries and soldiers into the mountains to see how best to exploit the forests and
plant export crops. Mistakenly, they thought that the lush green forest vegetation indicated high soil fertility. Coffee estates
covering thousands of hectares were established before it was realized that the soils were actually not so good for coffee
and not particularly fertile at all.
Loss of diversity in farming
The violence that preceded and accompanied colonization had reduced the Sambaa population and farming practices
started to deteriorate. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were reports of forest conversion into farmland, overgrazing
and degradation of hilltops. The complexity, diversity and sustainability of Sambaa subsistence agriculture has been in
decline ever since.

The introduction of the cash economy may have changed the farmers’ outlook. When there had been limited trade with
food crops and little need for money, the diversity of perennial crops in the banana groves ensured that there was always
something to be harvested.
The colonial administrations introduced taxation, markets and paid labour on their plantations and tried to make the growing
of cash crops compulsory for small farmers, who began increasingly depending on annual cash crops. Large quantities of
maize were exported from the mountains to the sisal plantations in the lowlands. With men working as wage labourers on
the plantation, they withdrew their labour from the banana groves and irrigation schemes.
Slash-and-burn farming became the quickest way to earn money as monocultures of maize and potatoes were planted in
the thick layers of forest topsoil. This pattern of forest conversion during and after the colonial period caused major loss of
fertile topsoil.
Soil conservation schemes
The government began to pay attention to the problem of land degradation in the 1930s. In 1945, the Mlalo Basin Rehabilitation
Scheme started. Population pressure was seen as the root cause of degradation and the Scheme, which aimed at soil
conservation and agricultural intensification also wanted to resettle people from ‘overpopulated’ areas to the lowlands.
Behind the interest in soil conservation was a strategy to reduce the number of subsistence farmers in the mountains and
encourage market-oriented production.
The Scheme had few benefits for farmers. Enforced removal of livestock (de-stocking) and afforestation of overgrazed land
looked like robbery to elders whose lifelong savings were under threat; prohibiting farming on steep slopes meant poor
farmers and women lost the land they depended on for subsistence; arbitrary application of the Scheme’s by-laws further
discredited it.
During the struggle for Tanganyika’s independence political leaders took advantage of resistance to the Scheme to promise
an end to soil conservation, and when that day came in 1961, it was abandoned and forgotten.

New strategies
The problems of land scarcity, deforestation, overgrazing, erosion and

deteriorating water catchments did not go away with independence, but new
soil conservation schemes were unthinkable. Instead, the new government
tried to mitigate the pressure for land with a simple administrative decision in
1962 to give our 13,000 hectares of the Shumbe-Magamba forest reserve in
Mlalo Division to farmers. The allocation process was not without controversy.
Village leaders and local politicians continued to demarcate much of the
unallocated forest and clearing of reserved forest was in effect legitimised for
several years.
As apart of the Siasa ni Kilimo (Politics is Agriculture) campaign, farmers were

encouraged to rid their plots of trees and shrubs, and plant hybrid maize
in rotation with beans. The diverse subsistence-oriented banana farming
was seen as backward. Modern farmers grew maize; used heavy hoes that
reached deep into the soil and their open fields were clean-weeded. The
government invested in large-scale irrigation schemes in the lowlands; a new
generation of Tanzanian foresters were schooled in the rational management
of softwood plantations. Monocultures took over and locally adapted crop
varieties were lost.
Ujamaa policy implemented after 1967 resulted in positive education and

social service outcomes. While farmers may have had little purchasing power
as consumers, their children went to school and basic health care was free.
However, they resisted Ujamaa’s insistence on cooperative production. A
colonial coffee farm that was nationalised and given to a village to run as a
cooperative saw production decline in the 1970s and 1980s. Eventually the
land was divided up among individual farmers who uprooted the coffee and
grew maize or many years until they sold the land to a religious institution.

Part 2:
Today
Today
2.0 The People of Bumbuli
2.1 Population profile

In 2010, Bumbuli has an estimated
Figure 1. Population growth in Bumbuli (1988-2025)
population of 167,000 people. This is a
38% increase from 121,000 people in 1988
and a 19% increase from a population of
141,000 in 2002. On current projections,
Bumbuli’s population may grow to 221,000
by 2025.
The overall rate of Bumbuli’s population

growth is slowing down substantially. From
an annual rate of 1.8% between 1978 and
1988, the population growth almost halved
to just 1.0% between 1988 and 2002.
During the same period, Tanga region’s
population grew by 2.2% annually.
It is important to point out that the

Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Lushoto District projections between 2002 and 2025
Projections are based on the national authorities’
assumptions that the population will have

a growth rate in excess of 2.0% to 2014, and slow down only gradually to 1.8% in 2025. However, Bumbuli’s population
growth rate fell by almost half to 1.0%, which is well below the growth rate of 2.1% expected in 2010. Therefore, while
Bumbuli’s population will continue to expand, it will do so at a much slower pace than has been projected.
Bumbuli’s average household size declined from 5.5 people per household in 1988 to 4.7 people in 2002. However despite
this decline, Bumbuli had the larger households in Tanga region.
Figure 2 below shows how each ward’s population numbers evolved between 1988 and 2002. It shows that all wards,
except one, grew slower than Tanga’s 2.2%. Mgwashi grew by slightly more than 2.5% annually. Furthermore, two wards,
Vuga and Mbuzii, saw their population numbers shrink during the period. In sharp contrast, Soni ward grew quite quickly as
an urban centre. It’s share of Lushoto district’s urban residents jumped from 19% in 1988 to 26% in 2002.
Figure 2. Bumbuli’s population by ward (1988-2002)
Source: Population and Housing Census 1988 and 2002, NBS

2.2 Population density
Despite the slowing rate of population growth, Bumbuli is the most densely populated constituency in Lushoto. It has an
estimated population density of 309 people per square kilometre compared to Lushoto district’s 142 and Tanzania’s 49. It is
home to 34% of Lushoto’s residents.
2.3 Demographic profile
Reflecting Tanzania’s overall youthful demographic profile, Bumbuli has a predominantly young population, with 55% of its
population under the age of 20 and 76% under the age of 35.
Figure 3. Bumbuli age-sex distribution (2010 est.)

Source: National Bureau of Statistics Lushoto District Population Projections

Figure 3 shows a significant drop in Bumbuli’s male population after the age of 19. The fact that Bumbuli has more women
than men from then on is even more clearly illustrated in the figure below. The sharp increase in the ratio of women to men
continues to age 30-34 where it peaks at over 1.6. After that it begins to decline towards parity.
Figure 4. Bumbuli sex ratio by age group (2010, est.)

Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Lushoto District Projections
However, in the 15-64 age-group overall, Bumbuli has 79 men for every 100 women. Almost half of all households are
headed by women and the elderly.

Figure 5. Migration patterns in Bumbuli (1988-2002)
Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS and Lushoto District Profile
Bumbuli is experiencing a high rate of out migration. Figure 5 above shows that every ward had a negative annual migration
rate – meaning people were leaving between 1988 and 2002. As noted earlier, negative population growth rates combined
with large the negative out migration rates shown above, caused the populations of Vuga and Mbuzii shrink during this
period.

As evidenced by the high female-to-male ratio in Figure 4 earlier, it is mostly young men who are leaving in search of
opportunities elsewhere. Further evidence of this is provided later in the education data. However, the net outmigration from
Bumbuli’s is not an untypical experience in rural Lushoto.
‘In June 2000, the population of Kibaoni Longoi was 3,288 persons according to the statistics kept in the village
office. Sixty-two percent were children under 18 years old. Inspite of having such a young population, the annual
population growth rate since the 1977 census has been only 1.6 percent, which indicates that many people have
moved from the village…Lots of young people…have moved for education or employment. Every farming family
we interviewed had teenage children who had moved. Many adult men work in towns or farm in other parts of the
country for long periods leaving wives and children to look after the plots in the village…The bottom line is that it is
still hard to make a living from farming in Kibaoni Longoi. The land holdings are too small to be divided among many
heirs, and young people will take any opportunity to move to the towns.’iv
While this described a village in Mlalo division, north of Lushoto town, there is little to distinguish it from Bumbuli’s reality.

3.0 Bumbuli’s economy
3.1 Main economic occupations in Lushoto District and

rural Bumbuli
Given that Bumbuli is almost entirely rural, the data for rural Lushoto District can
safely be assumed to represent Bumbuli’s reality.
Figure 6. Main occupations in Lushoto (2002)
Over 94% of the population in rural

Lushoto is engaged in farming. A
very small minority of Lushoto’s rural
population is engaged in the natural
resources sector (3.4%), public
sector (0.9%), commerce (0.8%),
manufacturing or construction
(0.6%) or infrastructure and other
Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS activities (0.3%).

Figure 7. Activities of the economically active adult population (Lushoto, 2002)
Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS
The majority (58%) of the economically active adult population in Lushoto is made up of women. Ninety percent of women
are engaged in agriculture, compared to 83 % of men, who are three times more likely than women to be engaged in paid
employment (5.7% against 2% of women). However, men are also twice as likely to be unemployed than women although
the unemployment figures are quite low at 2.7% and 1.6% for men and women respectively. Interestingly, men and women
are engaged in home maintenance in equal proportions (approximately 14% each).

Figure 8. Economic participation by children and elders in Lushoto (2002)
Children and elders are also engaged in economic activities. Between the ages of 5 and 14, children are mostly engaged in
home maintenance activities, presumably when they are not attending school. Sixty-three percent of the economically active
adults aged 65 and over are engaged in agriculture.

3.2 Land use in Bumbuli
Figure 9. Land use in Bumbuli
Source: Lushoto District Profile
The total land area of Bumbuli constituency is estimated at almost 54,000 hectares, which represents just 14% of Lushoto
District’s total land area. At over 39,000 hectares, agricultural land accounts for 73% of Bumbuli’s land area, but this is just
16% of Lushoto’s agricultural land of 240,000 hectares. Forestry takes up 16% of Bumbuli’s area with 8,805 hectares, and
the remaining 5,748 hectares (11%) is taken up by water, roads, buildings and other areas unsuitable for use.
Bumbuli, with 34% of Lushoto’s population accounts for just 14% of its land area, which explains its relatively high population
density. The intensity of land use in Bumbuli, compared to Lushoto as a whole, is illustrated in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Intensity of land use in Bumbuli and Lushoto
Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS and Lushoto

District Profile
Bumbuli has more than four people per hectare of agricultural land, compared to just over two per hectare for Lushoto as a
whole. The same intensity is repeated with respect to agricultural labour, as Bumbuli has more than two workers per hectare
compared to one worker per hectare for Lushoto. The population density is putting heavy pressure on agricultural land

3.3 Bumbuli’s soil has low natural
fertility.
According to the soil classification map prepared by the

Mlingano Agricultural Research Institute in 2006, much
of Bumbuli’s soil is of the type known as humi-umbric
acrisols. An acrisol is a type of soil as classified by the
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). It is clay-rich,
and is associated with humid, tropical climates, such as
those found in Brazil, and often supportsforested areas.v
The FAO describes acrisols as ‘one of the most inherently

infertile soils of the tropics, becoming degraded chemically
and organically very quickly when utilised.’vi Humi-umbric
acrisols are described as having ‘low natural fertility, with
aluminium toxicity and strong phosphate fixation.’ They
could support ‘adapted cropping systems with complete
fertilisation and preservation of surface soil.’
Therefore, contrary to expectations, the lush vegetation

in Bumbuli is not a sign of inherent soil fertility. The soil
is fragile and requires substantial care in the form of
fertilisation and conservation if it is to be productive. It
would seem that pre-colonial Sambaa farmers were
acutely aware of this reality, which they embedded in their
farming practices. The various initiatives to modernize
agricultural techniques may have overlooked this fact in a
bid to optimise output and financial returns.

Source: Lushoto District Socio-Economic Profile, UCLAS (2004)

3.4 Diversity of agricultural production
There are two agro-ecological zones in Bumbuli – the humid warm and the dry warm zones. The humid warm zone is
generally found in areas around Bumbuli and Soni divisions, its area elevated at an altitude of between 800-1500 meters
above sea level. These areas receive about 800-1700mm of rainfall and have long rains between March and June.
The zone experiences an annual mean temperature of about 18 centigrade.
As Figure 11 shows, more than half of the households produce fruits, maize and vegetables in this zone. Tea is grown only
in the Bumbuli constituency of Lushoto district by as many households as grow bananas and beans. Cassava and coffee
are also grown, but by a smaller proportion of households. The major types of farming practice are contour farming, which
is used by 90% of households and monoculture that is used by almost 80% of households.
Figure 11. Major household crops in humid, warm agro-ecological zone

Source: Lushoto District Socio-Economic Profile, UCLAS

The dry warm zone covers Mgwashi division and lies at an altitude between 800-1800 meters above sea level. The area
receives low amount of rainfall that ranges between 500-800 mm and its mean temperature is 20 centigrade. The area
experiences four months of dry period and northeast trade winds, which causes short rains between October to December.
Figure 12. Major household crops in dry warm agro-ecological zone

Fewer crops are grown in Bumbuli’s dry warm zone. Well over half of the households grow maize, beans and cassava. Less
than 30% grow vegetables, potatoes and bananas. Most households (87%) practice bottom valley farming and fewer use
crop rotation (44%) and monoculture (33%) methods.
Returns to farming

Figure 11. Major household crops in humid, warm agro-ecological zone
Annual income varies widely across a number of crops as the data from Mgwashi division above illustrate. The traditional
cash crops of tea and coffee generate lower returns per hectare than the food crops of beans, vegetables and bananas.
The challenge of tea production in Bumbuli
It should be noted that although all of the tea grown in Lushoto is in Bumbuli, very little of it is actually grown in Mgwashi
Division, so the returns above are not representative of the crop’s performance.

Table 1. Comparing tea production in Bumbuli and Rungwe
Lushoto (Bumbuli) Rungwe
Production 1,840 ha smallholder land and 5,000 3,000 ha smallholder land and 13,400
farmers (0.38 ha/farmer) yielding 700- farmers (0.22 ha/farmer) yielding
1,000 kg of processed tea per hectare 1,000-1,330 kg processed tea per
hectare
74% potential tea land used
92% potential land used
Highest smallholder fertilizer usage in

Tanzania at 50 kg per farmer (4 bags
per ha)
Factories Bombay Burmah, New Mponde Tea WATCO (x2 – one closed), Mohammed
Co. Enterprises
Support services Four TRIT extension officers serve 12 tea extension officers (1,333
3,000 smallholders (750 farmers per farmers per officer)
officer)
Mponde factory also provides credit TRIT also provides credit for inputs
for inputs and production coordination
Climatic conditions Poor rainfall and regular drought High altitude (1,800-2,300m) is good
years, and though altitude of 1,500m for tea
is reasonable the terrain is very steep
High well spread rainfall of 1900-
2,250 mm

Table 1. Comparing tea production in Bumbuli and Rungwe
Lushoto (Bumbuli) Rungwe
Potentia Without irrigation tea growing here is High productivity of good quality tea
unsustainable, and even then unlikely Aging tea farmer population -
to repay the cost of irrigation alternative crops attracting young
l farmers
Caveats Report in 2008 that 17% of tea farms Shortfall in fuel tree production
had been abandoned – TSHDA have
now rehabilitated some
Overall there is low interest in tea

farming with many competing cash
crops
Table 1 above compares tea production in Lushoto (Bumbuli) and Rungwe in southwestern Tanzania.
Bumbuli’s tea farmers each use 40% more land than their Rungwe counterparts. However, with yields of between 800 and
1,000 kilograms of processed tea per hectare they are less productive than Rungwe’s (1,000 – 1,330 kg/ha). Furthermore,
recent value chain analysis shows that the price paid to Rungwe’s tea farmers of US$ 0.47/kg (Tshs 650-700/kg) in 2009, is
four or five times more than the Tshs 130/kg paid to Bumbuli’s farmers.
Rungwe’s performance is partly explained by better climatic conditions with high, well-spread rainfall, suitable altitude for tea
growing and better farm management - the fact that their smallholder tea farmers have the highest use of fertiliser per hectare
in the country. Bumbuli’s tea farmers are on a slightly lower altitude and they experience occasional drought conditions, so
reliable irrigation is central to improving productivity. In sharp contrast to Rungwe’s farming practices, the Tea Research

Institute of Tanzana (TRIT) found that ‘low or no use of fertiliser by most farmers in their tea for over ten years, including
the 2007/08 season has significantly affected the soil and plant nutritional status. This has negatively affected [tea] bush
productivity and hence the low tea production in Lushoto district.vii’
The future of tea production in both Bumbuli and Rungwe depends on whether it can address the challenge of competing
with alternative crops to attract and retain new, young farmers. TRIT recommends that the Mponde Tea Factory ‘launch [a]
campaign to engage youths in tea production activities in order to ensure sustainability of smallholder tea in Lushoto district.’
Even though they generate better returns than tea and coffee, Bumbuli’s other crops are not fulfilling their full potential to
raise farmers’ incomes. The farmers’ lack of timely and accurate market information means that many may be growing lower
value crops than the possible alternatives. Their power to bargain for better prices is also curtailed.
Secondly, poor post-harvest handling of relatively high-value but perishable products such as fruits and vegetables is
reducing the farmers’ potential earnings. Experience in other parts of Tanzania such as Karatu and Mto wa Mbu shows that
when farmers clean, sort, grade and package these crops before they are shown and sold to traders and others they are
able to command higher prices and incomes without necessarily increasing production.
Third, informal ways of weighting and measuring produce using recycled paint buckets, large wicker baskets (matenga)
and sacks (rumbesa, magunia) essentially cheat farmers of the fair value of their produce. The correct use of weights and
measures can have a positive impact on prices and incomes without increasing the level of agricultural output.
Finally, Bumbuli’s broader infrastructural challenges, especially that of a network of poor quality roads also serves to increase
production and marketing costs and reduce the potential returns to the farmers.

4.0 Social services in Bumbuli
4.1 Education
Figure 14. Education levels in Lushoto (2002)
Source: National Bureau of Statistics 2002 Census
As noted earlier, Bumbuli is an entirely rural constituency of Lushoto district. The

chart above, drawn using data from 2002, shows how Lushoto’s rural areas have
a lower level of performance across a number of education indicators. Literacy
rates are 70% compared to86% for urban Lushoto; 28% of rural residents have
no schooling, compared to 13% of urban residents, and less than a third (31%)
have completed schooling compared to almost (46%) half of Lushoto’s urban
residents.

Almost 96% of had no secondary education in 2002. Of the 4% who did, the vast majority were men (71%). The government
has put in place a policy of ensuring that every ward has a secondary school. There is strong evidence of a good response
by Bumbuli’s parents who have contributed to building the schools. The impact of that policy on Bumbuli’s secondary school
enrolment, completion and achievement rates will take some time to measure.
Primary education in Bumbuli
Figure 15. Number of students per primary school in Bumbuli (2010)
Source: Education department, Lushoto District Council

Bumbuli had 44,544 primary school students in 89 schools in early 2010. The average number of schools per ward was
seven and the average number of students per school was 500. However, Mamba ward had over 800 students per school,
while Tamota had the lowest with 365 per school.
A closer look at Tamota’s data for 2010 shows that 4,336 students were enrolled in 12 primary schools and being taught
by a total of 65 teachers. The total number of classrooms was 58, implying that there were five classrooms per school. The
number of students per teacher (the student - teacher ratio) was estimated at 67. In order to achieve the student-teacher
ratio of 35 that is mandated by national policy, Tamota’s primary schools need an additional 44 teachers.
A total of 5,548 students were in Standard Seven. If they were all to transition into secondary school, almost 160 new Form
1 classrooms would be needed to accommodate them. A more realistic assumption is that 8-10% of them (or between 450
and 550 students) may pass into Form 1, and half of this number may complete their secondary education to reflect the rate
of secondary school completion for Lushoto.
Bumbuli’s primary school dropouts
Source: National Bureau of Statistics 2002 Census

There chart above shows the rate at which Bumbuli’s primary school students transition from one class to the next between
2009 and 2010. It shows that over 7,500 children were enrolled in Standard I in each of the two years, but reveals the
following disturbing trends:
a) A total of almost 3,500 of Bumbuli’s children dropped out of primary school in 12 months.
b) Almost 600 children (8% of the class) who were enrolled in Standard 1 in 2009 dropped out of school that same
year and did not make it to Standard 2.
c) 346 students (5% of the class) dropped out between Standards III and IV.
d) 713 students (11% of the class) dropped out between Standards IV and V.
e) 547 students (9% of the class) dropped out between Standards V and VI.
f) 1,286 students (19% of the class) dropped out between Standards VI and VII.
g) Boys accounted for 57% of the dropouts overall, but over 71% of the dropouts between Standards VI and VII.

If 2009 and 2010 are representative of the past experience the data
provides a powerful explanation for why so few of Bumbuli’s children
make it into secondary school and beyond. It also provides further
strong evidence behind the exodus of young men from Bumbuli that
was observed earlier. Boys account for the majority of the children
who are dropping out, and they are not staying in the villages once
they stop going to school.

4.2 Disease burden
Figure 17. Main outpatient diagnoses in Lushoto (2009)
Source: Lushoto District Council annual health report, 2009
The chart above shows the distribution of the main diseases diagnosed in 2009
for over 90% of the outpatients in Lushoto district. The top three diagnoses were
malaria (42% of all patients), acute respiratory infections (25%) and pneumonia
(10%). Children under the age of five accounted for 50% of patients with acute
respiratory infections, 58% of those with diarrhoea and 60% of cases of pneumonia.
Given it overwhelmingly rural character, Bumbuli’s disease burden is likely to mirror
Lushoto’s overall picture.

Figure 18. Causes of disease-related deaths in Lushoto (2009)
Source: Lushoto District Council annual health report, 2009
As the chart above shows, malaria, in both its severe and uncomplicated forms,
killed 43% of the 340 people whose disease-related deaths were recorded by
Lushoto district’s medical authorities. Acute respiratory disease, pneumonia and
anaemia killed an additional 41%. Children under five accounted for all of those
who died from acute respiratory disease, and the majority of the deaths from
‘uncomplicated’ malaria (59%) and pneumonia (57%).

4.3 Water sources and toilet facilities
Figure 19. Sources of water in Lushoto (2002
Data from 2002 shows that just over half of Lushoto’s population accessed water
from rivers and unprotected wells, while less than a quarter accessed water from
protected wells or water pipes respectively.
According to a recent official report, 54.5% of Lushoto district’s population now have
access to safe and clean water through water pipes and shallow wells. There are
58 water supply schemes and 76 shallow wells, 80 villages have water accounts,
152 water committees have been formed in the villages and a Water Board has
been established in Lushoto townviii. 55% of Lushoto district’s population
have access to safe and clean water
With respect to toilet facilities, 2002 data for Lushoto shows that over 96% of the through water pipes and shallow
population used traditional pit latrines. Data on water and toilet facilities that is wells.
specific to the three Bumbuli divisions was not available.

4.4 Energy
Energy sources for lighting

Figure 20. Sources of energy for lighting in Lushoto (2002)
As Figure 20 shows, Lushoto’s rural population, such as that in Bumbuli, relied

heavily on kerosene fired wick lamps and hurricane lamps in 2002. Just one
percent of the rural population used electricity for lighting, compared to 24% of
the urban population. It is not clear whether this situation has changed markedly
during the last eight years.

Energy sources for cooking
Figure 21. Sources of energy for cooking in Lushoto (2002)
Figure 21 reveals that the population in rural Lushoto, Bumbuli

included, relied almost exclusively (99%) on firewood for cooking in
2002. Urban residents also depended heavily (70%) on this source
of energy for cooking. Charcoal, kerosene and electricity provided
less than a third of the energy used for cooking. Again, it is not likely According to the 2002 census data,
that there has been any dramatic movement away from the use of 99 percent of the population in rural
firewood for cooking purposes by the rural population during the Lushoto, Bumbuli included, rely on
firewood for cooking.
eight years since 2002.

4.5 Roads and transportation
Distribution of regional, district and feeder roads

Figure 22. Lushoto’s road network
Bumbuli has 300 kilometres, a 41% share of Lushoto’s total road network length
of 725 kilometres.
Sixty-six kilometres or 22% of the regional roads that connect Lushoto to other
places in the district pass through Bumbuli. Built to a minimum standard of earth
and gravel surface with culverts, bridges and storm water drainage systems,
regional roads are maintained by Tanroads and are passable throughout the year.

Bumbuli has 54% (158km)
of the 292 kilometres of
district roads. District roads
link various areas within the
district and are maintained
by the District Council. Made
of gravel (75%) and earth
(25%) with some culverts
and bridges, 30% of these
roads are totally impassable
throughout the year while
the rest are impassable only
during the rainy season.
The District Council also

maintains feeder roads that
connect villages to district
roads. They are made of earth
surface and have no culverts
or storm water drainage
systems. Many of these are
completely impassable year-
round. Bumbuli’s share of the
feeder road network is 57%.

Means of transportation
Figure 23. Means of transportation in Lushoto district
Source: Lushoto District Socio-economic profile, UCLAS 2004
Figure 23 shows that human energy powers the walking and bicycles that are the
predominant means of transportation for accessing farms (used 84% of the time), water
(55%), markets (60%) and health services (56%).
Motorcycles and public buses are also important means of accessing water (used 46%
of the time), and in combination with private cars, motorised transportation is used to
access markets and health services (41%).
Cars and buses dominate as a means of transportation for social (53% of the time) and
administrative activities (76% of the time). The predominant use of motorised transport
for administrative activities suggests that these services may be located quite far from
most of Lushoto’s residents.

5.0 The ‘typical’ resident of Bumbuli
Based on the analysis of the available data in the

preceding sections, it is possible to create the
following composite picture of the ‘typical’ resident
of Bumbuli.
She will most likely to be a woman aged under 35

who is engaged in farming and home maintenance
activities. She has no more than a little primary
education. She produces a diverse set of crops
including fruits, vegetables, maize and beans.
She trades what she does not use in the household

at one of the many market days but has little power
to bargain over the prices of her produce, nor of any
consumer goods she buys. She fetches water from a
stream, river or other unprotected source, cooks the
family’s meals with firewood and lights the home with
a small kerosene lamp.
She walks almost anywhere but may occasionally

get an uncomfortable, bumpy ride on a bicycle,
motorcycle or public bus, when the distance to a
health facility or public office is too great for her to
reach on foot.

Bumbuli is the most densely
populated constituencies in Lushoto
District. In 2010, population density
in Tanzania was 49 people per square
kilometer, in Lushoto District it was
142 people per square kilometer, but
in Bumbuli constituency, it was 309
people per square kilometer.
6.0 Key insights about Bumbuli
A number of key insights emerge from a careful consideration of the current status of Bumbuli natural, human, economic
and social conditions in 2010.
If the lesson implicit in the proverb ‘all that glitters is not gold’ is that one must not be fooled by appearances then it should
be applied with particular vigour to Bumbuli. The lush green vegetation that meets the eye fooled the early colonialists into
thinking the soil was very fertile. The poor performance of Lushoto’s early coffee plantations (compared to that grown on the
volcanic soils around Mounts Kilimanjaro and Meru), and the struggling tea farms today (compared to that in Rungwe’s more
favourable agro-climatic conditions) underscore the fragility of the soils in the Usambaras.
The WaSambaa people thrived on the Usambaras for over 150 years from the mid-1700s to the 1900s due in large measure
to the fact they had an inherent understanding of their ecology and they practiced farming in a manner that looked after
the environment. It repaid them with relatively prosperity. The modern pressure to maximise the economic and financial
returns from the land which inspired plantation agriculture and the ‘mining’ of the fragile soils have overwhelmed this ancient
wisdom, which is being lost with the passing of the older generations.

How realistic is it to ground Bumbuli’s twenty-first century agricultural
practices on the lessons and wisdom of her 18th century ancestors? Is it
possible to realise higher value from Bumbuli’s agricultural output without
mining its soils, depleting its water and cutting down its trees? Can the
much-needed increase in Bumbuli’s agricultural productivity be measured not
only by how many more kilograms of produce are harvested per person, or
hectare of land or bag of fertiliser or can of pesticide, but more importantly,
by the increase in the value of the crops at the existing levels of production?ix
Bumbuli’s population is growing slower than the projections indicate, but its
pace is fast enough to continue putting pressure on the land and natural
environment. One important result is that the real incomes from farming
smaller, steeper and less productive land are stagnating or falling.
Another result is the alarming rate at which Bumbuli’s young men, seeing little
future in farming, and even smaller prospects of obtaining a good education
or skills for employability, leave the area as soon as they are able, in search
of opportunities and a better life in Lushoto, Tanga, Dar es Salaam or further.
Lushoto has attracted a number of schools and training institutions that

rank among the best in the country. Bumbuli is blessed with some of the
most stunning landscapes in Tanzania. How realistic is it to ‘import’ higher
income, longer-staying consumers to Bumbuli, and with them create the job
opportunities for Bumbuli’s residents, and the multiplier effects that such new
spending brings? What can and should be done to attract investors in the
education and training sector to build and run institutions in the Bumbuli?

7.0 Talking about Bumbuli in Bumbuli
In May 2010, a group of twenty prominent members of the Bumbuli community from all three divisions met to reflect on the
past, present and future of their constituency. Among them were farmers, traders, medical officers, and a retired diplomat.
During a discussion that lasted for two days, and that was informed by an analysis of the current status of Bumbuli, they
expressed their hopes, fears and expectations for the future. A number of deep insights emerged from the conversation.
Exodus of young men - psychological drivers and social impact
The group discussed whether the sense of self-esteem among Bumbuli’s young boys and men was in fact eroding. Primary
education is not enough to secure employment, secondary and tertiary education seems out of reach, farm sizes are not
enough to provide sustenance throughout the year and job opportunities are essentially non-existent. The difficult prospects
for young men of achieving sufficient economic independence in Bumbuli through farming, in order to start their family appear
to be insurmountable. There was empathy for the decision of Bumbuli’s young men to disappear into the survival struggle
and urban anonymity rather than face the embarrassment of being known as ‘not having amounted to much’ in the village.
The social impact of the exodus of Bumbuli’s young men was cause for serious concern. The traditional practice of gunda
or msalagambo - temporary communal work on farms, road maintenance, construction or other activity which required
collective labour to accomplish - was suffering tremendous decline because there were few young men to carry out the
heavy work. Indeed, what was primarily a male activity, has now been left to be done almost exclusively by the women.
Practical problem, forgotten solution
Prompted by a retired teacher’s observation that when he was in primary school, the student-teacher ratio never exceeded
35, in contrast to the current reality of a ratio that is twice as large, the discussion explored how best this problem might be
addressed. One obvious way was to increase the number of teachers. However, it was clear that the public resources to hire
and pay for dozens of new teachers, even for one ward alone (Tamota) were not available.

The more radical and long-term approach that
was discussed was to reduce the number of
children who needed to be enrolled in primary
school through a lower rate of childbirth. It was
acknowledged that the major change in Bumbuli’s
social and family dynamics that could lead to
a smaller number of children being born per
household, would be difficult to achieve, until
one of the elders reminded the discussion about
the way in which, just two generations ago, the
healthy spacing of children was enforced by social
sanction. Parents who conceived too soon after
the birth of the previous baby faced biting criticism
and ridicule from their peers and the community.
It was only after the previous child felt too old
to be breastfed (as old as three years), that the
mother could feel comfortable and socially justified
to conceive again. However, this social sanction
seems to have lost its power.
Legitimacy and leadership in

Bumbuli
This prompted a discussion about where the

leadership and legitimacy to appeal for such a
difficult social change as a reduction in the number
children per couple could come from. It was agreed
that legitimacy in such issues could not come
For people in Bumbuli, the elderly
are a repository of wisdom
from people relying solely on administrative or political designations (an
MP or District Commissioner). Indeed there was a wide range of personal
attributes and characteristics that were valued by the Bumbuli community,
and which were expected to be found in acceptable leaders (regardless of
designation). These included:
a) Wisdom and experience, that was often, but not solely, manifested
by a person’s advanced age (over 50);
b) Talent, skill and ability which was demonstrated by the successful
accumulation of assets such as money, property and well educated,
independent adult children;
c) Expertise in a profession or speciality (civil service, teaching,
medicine, farming, business) that demonstrated accomplishment
in the formal education system;
d) The depth and sincerity of one’s faith (Islam and Christianity) which
was demonstrated by one’s standing in the church or mosque;
e) Special skills in the traditional art and science of physical and
spiritual healing as evidenced by the level of one’s reputation and
client visits
f) Artistic and cultural talents (music, drumming and dance),
demonstrated by the demand for their contribution/performance
at important social events;
An important lesson emerged from this discussion was that Bumbuli

Lushoto is famous for its fresh
vegetables and fruits. Once in Soni had a rich leadership ‘ecosystem’ into which it could tap to mobilise and
market, it is difficult to miss the sight address its major challenges. The importance of the legitimacy and social
of a range of delicious-looking fresh ‘authority’ that emanated from these attributes was at least comparable to
fruits and vegetables on sale.
that conferred by official positions and titles.

Imagining Bumbuli’s future: economy, services, leadership
Having reflected on Bumbuli’s current status and understood some of the implications, the discussion looked to the future by
imagining what Bumbuli could be like in 2020 in terms of its economy, quality of social services and leadership. This future
was imagined through the eyes of farmers, youth, parents and entrepreneurs.
The hope was that the economic future would be broadly positive. Driven by significant improvements in infrastructure,
agricultural productivity, output and value improves significantly. Farming generates sufficient income and becomes more
attractive to young people, who slow their migration to the towns and cities. One particularly optimistic view imagined that
many large, modern houses are visible in the hills as evidence of the farmers’ prosperity. This relatively positive economic
future for Bumbuli was challenged by the view that on current evidence, there was little to support the expectation that the
investment required to raise agricultural productivity would be made and sustained. Indeed, farmers experience a decade of
falling incomes as their crop yields from shrinking farm sizes stagnate and decline. The result is a Bumbuli in which beggars,
young and old, were a common sight.
The optimism continued to be reflected in the anticipated future of social services in Bumbuli. The quality of primary and
secondary education improves significantly as Bumbuli’s Form 6 leavers and college graduates return to teach their younger
peers. A new, international standard hotel is inaugurated by the country’s President, having been attracted, not only by
Bumbuli’s breathtaking landscapes, but also by the newly skilled, competent and hospital people of the area. But tragedy
could also strike Bumbuli in 2020 as thousands of children die from infectious diseases, because there was no prior investment
made to improve the local health systems capacity to vaccinate and respond to epidemics.
Finally, the imagined future of Bumbuli’s leadership was centred on the performance of their parliamentary representative
years leading to 2020. While entrepreneurs praise the MP for improving the business environment in Bumbuli, farmers
celebrate the parliamentarian’s appointment to the Cabinet as agriculture minister. Alternatively, a deepening demand for
accountability is demonstrated when parents across Bumbuli publically admonish the MP for ignoring the constituency and
appearing only during the 2020 election campaign season. Furthermore, many young people emerge to contest in local
government elections and succeed in securing 80% of the seats.

Specific expectations for 2011 – 2015
The two-day discussion concluded by outlining some specific activities to be carried out between 2011 and 2015, that are
deemed crucial to begin addressing the challenges faced by Bumbuli.
Good leadership was the first priority. The expectation is that elected leaders in particular, will inspire citizen participation
in the planning and implementation of development activities and secure their full cooperation. Citizens would commit
themselves to keeping leaders informed about, and accountable for, the performance outcomes of these and other activities.
They are also willing to volunteer time and labour in the various gunda and msalagambo events.
In the economic domain, there was strong agreement that the private sector be deliberately invited and encouraged to market
and distribute agricultural inputs. Cooperative societies should be revived, and Bumbuli’s Form Six graduates be trained as
extension officers. Improving the economic infrastructure – roads, electricity and water – was a key priority for government to
engage with. Specific roads were recommended for priority rehabilitation and upgrading (Soni – Bumbuli – Funta – Tamota –
Mahezangulu – Magoma and Mgwashi – Milingano – Mashewa) as they facilitated inter-district connections. There was also
a desire expressed to see financial services made available in each of Bumbuli’s three divisions in the form of Saccos, bank
branches, ATMs and mobile banking.
Health services are expected to improve by upgrading the three health centres at Mgwashi, Tamota and Soni into hospitals,
and the various dispensaries into health centres. Electricity should be provided to the health centres using solar, generator
or connection to the national grid. Every Bumbuli’s villages should be provided with a dispensary.
On education, the secondary schools in Bumbuli, Soni, Mbelei, Mayo and Mgwashi need to be provided with science
teachers and laboratories. Bumbuli’s students who pass secondary education should be given preferential access to the
higher learning institutions in Lushoto district, such as the Bumbuli Clinical Officers Training Centre and the Institute of
Judicial Administration in Lushoto town.

8.0 Government initiatives
The central government has initiated a significant

number of national development programmes and
projects to improve Tanzanians living standards.
The ones which are particularly important for
Bumbuli include the Agricultural Sector Development
Programme (ASDP), the Primary Education
Development Programme (PEDP), Secondary
Education Development Programme (SEDP), the
Primary Healthcare Development Programme (PHDP)
and road funds managed by the district council. Given
Bumbuli’s overwhelming dependence on agriculture
a closer look at the government’s intentions for this
sector is warranted.
Agriculture
The objectives of the Agricultural Sector Development

Strategy (ASDS) and its operational program (ASDP),
are to ‘achieve a sustained agricultural growth rate In the entire Lushoto District, tea is
of 5 percent per annum, through the transformation grown only in Bumbuli.
from subsistence to commercial agriculture. The
The future of tea production in both
transformation is to be private sector led through an Bumbuli will depend on whether it can
improved enabling environment for enhancing the address the challenge of competing
productivity and profitability of agriculture, facilitated with alternative crops to attract and
retain new, young farmers.
through public/private partnerships with participatory
implementation of the District Agricultural Development

Plans (DADPs). The underlying themes of the ASDS is to create of a favorable environment for commercial activities; delineate
public/private roles including continued public financing for core public (agricultural) services with increased private delivery
(through contracting arrangements); decentralize service delivery responsibilities to local governments; and focus on the
preparation and implementation of District Agriculture Development Plans (DADPs).’x
In line with the ASDP, Lushoto has articulated the objectives of its District Agricultural Development Plan as follows; ‘increasing
agricultural productivity and production by promoting integrated and sustainable use and management of natural resources
through adoption of improved technologies, (ii) strengthening institutional and human capacities of local authorities to plan
and implement community agricultural development initiatives, (iii) strengthening the capacity of rural communities to identify,
plan, implement, monitor and evaluate demand driven agricultural development initiatives, and (iv) enhancing private service
providers in input and output market and in the provision of services to rural communities.’xii
The DADP also notes that ‘overall, the district target is to increase the farmer’s income and in turn optimise the Council’s
revenue as a whole.’ To that end it aims to achieve the following specific targets by June 2013:
a. Cultivated area under irrigation increased from 7,500 to 9,000 hectares

b. Agriculture production and processed products increased from 35% to 50%
c. Agriculture facilities and capacities improved
d. Conducive working environment to 137 staff ensured
e. Public-private partnership improved
f. Livestock production and processed products increased from 30% to 50%
g. Fish production increased from 5% to 10%
h. Cooperative facilities improved from 9% to 15%
The budget required to achieve these targets is estimated at over Tshs 891 million and it expected to be financed through
grants from the central government.

Three things are notable in the summary of the ASDP and DADP objectives Some of the faces of the young
and targets. First is the role envisaged for the private sector as a contractor people ask questions about the
future.
for the delivery of core public agricultural services and as a provider in input
and output markets. This explicit invitation of private sector participation
presents a valuable opportunity to refine and deepen the partnership
between business and government in the agricultural sector. Indeed the
national ASDP targets an annual increase in private sector investment in
agriculture of at least 5%. It is incumbent upon the private sector to respond
with energy, enthusiasm and creativity.
Second, the specific targets to be achieved by 2013, particularly in the

areas of agriculture, livestock and fisheries refer exclusively to increased
production. If the objective is to increase farmers’ incomes, it will be at least
as important to increase the value of their output by ensuring they capture
a greater share of improving prices for their crops. Improved post-harvest
handling and market information can play a major role in achieving this.
Finally, in order to provide a useful basis against which to monitor progress,

the specific targets need to state the start and finish points more explicitly.
Education, health, roads and water
Government programmes in primary and secondary education have focused

on raising the proportion of the relevant age group of students completing
primary and secondary education, improving the learning outcomes of
students (through better performance at examinations) and strengthening
the ability of local public administration to manage education more effectively.

Figure 24. Lushoto District Council Spending (2008)
Source: LGA Expenditures for Lushoto, Tanga, accessed on www.

logintanzania.net
For example since 2005, it has been government policy to ensure every
ward builds a secondary school, a target that Bumbuli has made significant
effort towards achieving. In the health sector, a specific initiative has been to
build a dispensary in every village and a health centre in every ward.
In 2008, Lushoto District council spent a total of Tshs 5.54 billion on other
charges (operations and maintenance, excluding personnel costs) and
development, with almost exactly half allocated to each of the two items.
Figure 24 shows that Lushoto District Council spent 66% of other charges
and 57% of development funds on education and health in the 2007/08
fiscal year.

Women wait for service in one of
health facilities. In the 15-64 year
age group, there are only 79 men to
every 100 women in Bumbuli.
Interestingly, the funds earmarked for investing in road development (Tshs 273 million) was spent almost entirely on the
maintenance of existing roads (Tshs 235 million), while Tshs 339 million or just 43% of the Tshs 785 million allocation for water
investments was used.
Government is taking major steps to improve the quality of life of the citizens in Lushoto district and in Bumbuli. However, as
the analysis that has formed a major part of this publication shows, the impact on the ground, in terms of a transformational
improvement in people’s lives, does not reflect the effort expended. The growth and reliability of farmers’ incomes remains
stubbornly low and livelihood opportunities from non-farm activities especially for young people are elusive.
Government has a crucial role to play, but in Bumbuli at least, it is clear that bold new thinking, action and partnerships are
needed to begin to create a more promising future for its people.

Part 3:
62
Tomorrow
Tomorrow
9.0 Bumbuli Transformation Framework
As the people of Bumbuli review the achievements of the recent past, and prepare, alongside other Tanzanians, to elect their
local and national leaders in October 2010, the time is right to focus on designing the priority initiatives which can begin to
change life in Bumbuli for the better.
These priority initiatives will form the basis of a framework for Bumbuli’s transformation that is rooted in the core principle of
harnessing, catalysing and channelling the energy and creativity of the local, national and international private sector. These
initiatives will complement, rather than compete with, government efforts.
At the centre of the Bumbuli transformation agenda is to catalyse, nurture and expand job-creating and income-generating
entrepreneurial business activity in the constituency. The bold ambition is to create, in Bumbuli, a working sustainable local
enterprise network.
Creating a Sustainable Local Enterprise Network in Bumbulixii
Sustainable local enterprise networks (SLENs) were analysed in a case study published in 2005. They are described as
‘dense networks of for-profit businesses, local communities, not-for-profit organisations and other actors working in a self-
organising way to create value in economic, social, human and ecological terms.’
Elements of successful SLENs include the presence of at least one business enterprise which ‘anchors the network and
secures its financial sustainability.’ These anchors need not necessarily be pure private businesses. An example is cited
in which an international NGO ‘helped to organise subsistence farmers into commercial groups to facilitate the sale of

vegetables to the UK market. It also worked with a commercial exporter to create another enterprise that provided training,
technical support and marketing assistance to farmer groups on a fee-for-service basis.’
SLENs also provide an opportunity for participants to work towards achieving a set of sustainable outcomes ‘which fall into
the following four broad categories: (1) profits and reliable returns on investment, (2) local economic development and trade,
(3) enhanced quality of life including human development and ecological enhancement, and (4) individual and community
economic self-reliance.’
The strategic objectives of the Bumbuli transformation initiative through the creation of a local enterprise network such as
that described above are as follows:
1. To raise Bumbuli’s farmers’ incomes from existing crops by improving post-harvest handling, adding value and
aggregating agricultural output for better pricing.
2. To create new job and income opportunities in Bumbuli by attracting private investment in new training institutions that
will ‘import’ consumers in the form of students, teachers and administrative staff.
3. To transform the construction economy in Bumbuli by adopting new building material technologies that create jobs
and incomes while protecting the environment.
4. To bring some basic financial services to Bumbuli, either through the establishment of a community bank, or by
attracting an exiting financial institution to establish a local presence.
5. To create a dedicated, self-sustaining Bumbuli Development Corporation (BDC) to initiate, coordinate, promote and
monitor the execution of the activities described above. BDC will act as the anchor for the Bumbuli sustainable local
enterprise network (Bumbuli-SLEN).

10.0 Objective 1: Raising farmers’ income
Raising farmers’ incomes from existing crops by improving post-harvest handling, adding value to existing
and aggregating output.
The Usambaras are well known for their high quality food crops. This reputation for the natural goodness and freshness of
its produce can be harnessed into a valuable ‘Fresh from Lushoto’ brand and marketing strategy.
Bumbuli’s farmers could be trained to specialise in premium quality fruits and vegetables for the national and regional
(Nairobi and Mombasa) markets, with a clear-eyed focus on ensuring that they receive a ‘fair’ share of the premium price/

value of their output. The target is to reach 10,000 farmers between 2011 and 2015 and raise the average price they achieve
for their produce by a minimum of 10-15%xiii.
This initiative will be made up of the following components:
a) Conducting detailed value-chain analysis for all of Bumbuli’s fruits and vegetables to map the flow of produce from
production through marketing to consumption and value (cash) in the other direction. This will reveal where the value
of Bumbuli’s is being captured or lost. Match Makers Limited is a well-regarded firm based in Arusha with specialist
expertise in value-chain analysis.
b) Helping farmers to improve post-harvest handling by cleaning, sorting and grading their fruits and vegetables on the
farm or before sale. TechnoServe Inc. is a global leader in assisting farmers to raise their incomes. They train farmers
to improve the quality of their produce and capture a greater share of the higher price/value that is achieved at the
marketplace.
c) Working closely with local and district authorities to enforce weights and measures standards. The current use of
buckets, wicker baskets, recycled paint cans and sacks depresses the true value of agricultural produce as it is
traded in ‘bunches’ rather than by weight.
d) Consolidating the small volumes produced by individual farmers into larger quantities that are more efficient to
transport and attractive to large buyers. Mobile phone text-messaging combined with the Ushahidi web platform
could be used to collect and visualise data on individual farmers’ output resulting in ‘virtual’ consolidation before it
is actually done physically.

11.0 Objective 2: Creating new job and income opportunities
By attracting private investment in new learning institutions that will ‘import’ consumers in the form of students,
teachers and administrative staff.

The lack of alternative job and income opportunities are at the heart of the exodus of Bumbuli’s young men. Such opportunities
could be ‘imported’ to Bumbuli and this is the central objective of this second initiative.
Learning institutions such as schools, colleges and training centres, are ‘centres of consumption’ which generate predictable
ongoing demand for food and other supplies and local labour (especially support staff). This imported demand has potentially
significant multiplier effects on the local economy payments and wages circulate and stimulate further consumption. The
construction period also generates demand for local labour and local building materials, albeit temporarily.
This initiative will take advantage of Bumbuli’s natural beauty and tranquillity to attract private (and public) schools, colleges
and training institutions. This has already been done in other parts of Lushoto with schools such as Kifungilo and Mazinde
Juu, the Sebastian Kolowa University College, the Institute of Judicial Administration in Lushoto and the Bumbuli Clinical
Officers Training Centre
This initiative will offer prospective learning institutions a package of incentives, (especially land) which will attract their
investment to Bumbuli. Working closely with the district and central government, special attention will be focused on
improving the road(s) that lead to the most desirable location(s).
The target is to attract at least one new school or learning institution with a student and staff population of at least 300 people
to Bumbuli between 2011 and 2015.
12.0 Objective 3: Transforming Bumbuli’s construction economy
Adopting new building material technologies that create new businesses, jobs and incomes while protecting the
environment.
A construction boom is expected in Bumbuli, driven primarily by the government’s stated plans to build schools, clinics and
health centres and other economic, social and administrative infrastructure. Currently, most buildings use burnt clay bricks
for the primary construction material. These bricks are made in environmentally destructive ways: extensive digging to mine

the clay, stream-diversion for water to make the clay mud,
and tree-cutting for firewood to burn the bricks.
Brick-making technology is available which does not

require extensive use of water nor any firewood, but which
produces high quality, inter-locking bricks which need little
or no cement for construction. Such technology can be
imported from India, China and South Africa and used to
create small brick-making businesses across Bumbuli to
supply the expanding building activity.
13.0 Objective 4: Improving access to

financial services
Bringing some basic financial services to Bumbuli

by either through the establishment of a community
bank, or by attracting an existing financial institution
to establish a branch in Bumbuli.
Given that the National Microfinance Bank (NMB) is the only

bank in Lushoto district, and with a single branch in Lushoto
town, means that Bumbuli’s population is effectively denied
access to the formal financial services infrastructure.
Community banks have been successfully established in

various parts of Tanzania including Dar es Salaam14, Mufindi,
Mwanga, Kilimanjaro and Kagera. A detailed assessment
will be carried out of the commercial feasibility of establishing

a community bank modelled on the experience of these banks. Detailed negotiations will be held with selected existing
commercial banks or microfinance institutions to understand what factors would encourage them to invest in a physical
presence in Bumbuli.
Some of the objectives of linking Bumbuli to the financial infrastructure include:
1. Reducing the cost and inconvenience to teachers and other public employees of receiving they monthly salary
payments.
2. Improving the efficiency and safety of payments for agricultural produce
3. Introducing products to allow people to save money conveniently and securely.
4. Offering loan and other credit products.
14.0 Objective 5: Bumbuli Development Corporation
Creating a dedicated, self-sustaining Bumbuli Development Corporation to initiate, promote, coordinate and
monitor the execution of the activities described above.
The core of BDC’s mission will be to catalyse private enterprise in Bumbuli, by attracting domestic and foreign investment
into the region, facilitating and coordinating technical assistance and technology transfer, and building strong collaborative
links with the local, district and central government.
BDC could also be directly engaged in developing, promoting and marketing ‘Brand Lushoto’. It will also drive the process of
engaging Bumbuli’s farmers by organising their training on value-addition techniques through cleaning, sorting, grading and
packaging of their crops. BDC will work hard to establish a mechanism for aggregating and marketing the ensuing premium
quality produce, through ‘proof of concept’ experiments, clarifying the business model and encouraging its adoption by
private business.

BDC will also promote investment in training institutions and financial services by commissioning relevant feasibility studies. It
will negotiate with Bumbuli’s local and district governments about location choices, priority infrastructure improvements and
other elements of attracting investment to the region.
BDC is envisaged as a private company, limited by guarantee. It will be a commercially viable social enterprise, structured
to meet its operational costs, and to reinvest any surplus income towards meeting the strategic objectives of the Bumbuli
Transformation Framework.

Endnotes
i Source: http://www.elct-ned.org/index.php/projects/19-irente-biodiversity-reserve/2262-the-usambara-mountains-
of-tanzania?showall=1
ii Johansson, Lars (2001) Ten Million Trees Later, GTZ
iii Johansson, Lars (ibid) and Kimambo, Isaria (1996), Environmental Control & Hunger, Mkuki na Nyota/James Currey
iv Johansson, Lars (ibid), p. 29
v Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrisol
vi FAO, Appendix V: Major tropical soils and their susceptibility to land degradation
vii Amos J., Makweta et al., Smallholder tea extension activities in Lushoto district., Tea Research Institute of Tanzania
Annual Report 2007/2008
viii Lushoto District Agricultural Development Plan, 2010/2011
ix The idea is to focus as much (if not more) effort on increasing the ‘value’ per kg of Bumbuli’s produce (through a value-
addition strategy) as on increasing the quantity of output per unit of input (labour hours, hectares, water, fertiliser, etc)
x http://www.fao.org/righttofood/inaction/countrylist/Tanzania/Tanzania_ASDP_GovernmentProgramnmeDocument.
pdf
xi Lushoto District Agricultural Development Plan 2010
xii This section draws heavily from an article entitled ‘Creating Sustainable Local Enterprise Networks’ by David Wheeler,
Kevin McKague, Jane Thomson, Rachel Davies, Jacquiline Medalye and Marina Prada. It was published in Vol. 47 No.
1 of the MITSloan Management Review in 2005.
xiii Recent (2010) analysis by Monitor Group of similar models in Kenya has reported income effects of between 6% and
12%. More sophisticated models looked at in Uganda and Ghana (and involving flows of inputs, credit and extension
services to farmers) saw income effects of 30-40%.
xiv In September 2009, the Dar es Salaam Community Bank posted a net income of TZS 1.3 billion for the July –
September period, on an asset base of TZS 48 billion and deposits of TZS 26.5 billion.


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Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

2 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

1.0 A natural history of the Usambara Mountains 11

2.0 The People of Bumbuli 17

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 1

9.0 Bumbuli Transformation Framework 63

2 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 3

4 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 5

In these two stories lies my motivation to understand the nature and

This is an indictment against the nature and shape of the progress we

6 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

This book is intended to be a profile of Bumbuli, a conceptual framework

While central government has a role to play in changing the quality of

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 7

8 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

Data sources and methodology

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 9

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 11

19th century Sambaa farmers: masters of diversification3

12 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

New forces: guns, colonialists and cash

Loss of diversity in farming

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 13

Soil conservation schemes

14 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

The problems of land scarcity, deforestation, overgrazing, erosion and

As apart of the Siasa ni Kilimo (Politics is Agriculture) campaign, farmers were

Ujamaa policy implemented after 1967 resulted in positive education and

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 15

2.1 Population profile

The overall rate of Bumbuli’s population

It is important to point out that the

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 17

Figure 2. Bumbuli’s population by ward (1988-2002)

Source: Population and Housing Census 1988 and 2002, NBS

18 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

2.3 Demographic profile

Figure 3. Bumbuli age-sex distribution (2010 est.)

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 19

Figure 4. Bumbuli sex ratio by age group (2010, est.)

20 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 21

22 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

3.1 Main economic occupations in Lushoto District and

Figure 6. Main occupations in Lushoto (2002)

Over 94% of the population in rural

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 23

Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS

24 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 25

Figure 9. Land use in Bumbuli

Source: Lushoto District Profile

26 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.

Source: Population and Housing Census 2002, NBS and Lushoto

BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow. 27

According to the soil classification map prepared by the

The FAO describes acrisols as ‘one of the most inherently

Therefore, contrary to expectations, the lush vegetation

28 BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow.