TOPIC 1 – TUNED MASS DAMPER

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 Chapter1

Introduction
1.1 Genereral

Fig1.1: Tuned mass damper

A tuned mass damper (TMD), also known as a harmonic absorber or seismic damper, is a
device mounted in structures to reduce the amplitude of mechanical vibrations. Their
application can prevent discomfort, damage, or outright structural failure. They are frequently
used in power transmission, automobiles, and buildings.

A tuned mass damper (TMD) consists of a mass (m), a spring (k), and a damping device
(c), which dissipates the energy created by the motion of the mass (usually in a form of
heat). In this figure, M is the structure to which the damper would be attached. From
the laws of physics, we know that F = ma and a = F/m. This means that when an external
force is applied to a system, such as wind pushing on a skyscraper, there has to be
acceleration. Consequently, the people in the skyscraper would feel this acceleration. In
order to make the occupants of the building feel more comfortable, tuned mass dampers
are placed in structures where the horizontal deflections from the wind’s force are felt
the greatest, effectively making the building stand relatively still When the building
begins to oscillate or sway, it sets the TMD into motion by means of the spring and,
when the building is forced right, near zero. If their frequencies were significantly
different, the TMD would create pushes that were out of sync with the pushes from the
wind, and the building’s motion would still be uncomfortable for the occupants.

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 Fig. 1.2: Tuned mass damper operating principles
TMD simultaneously forces it to the left Ideally, the frequencies and amplitudes of the
TMD and the structure should nearly match so that EVERY time the wind pushes the
building, the TMD creates an equal and opposite push on the building, keeping its
horizontal displacement at or If their amplitudes were significantly different, the TMD
would, for example, create pushes that were in sync with the pushes from the wind but
not quite the same size and the building would still experience too much motion.

The effectiveness of a TMD is dependent on the mass ratio (of the TMD to the structure
itself), the ratio of the frequency of the TMD to the frequency of the structure (which is
ideally equal to one), and the damping ratio of the TMD (how well the damping device
dissipates energy). Wide span structures (bridges, spectator stands, large stairs, stadium
roofs) as well as slender tall structures (chimneys, high rises) tend to be easily excited
to high vibration amplitudes in one of their basic mode shapes, for example by wind or
marching and jumping people.Low natural frequencies are typical for this type of
structures, due to their dimensions, as is their low damping. With GERB Tuned Mass
Dampers (TMD), these vibrations can be reduced very effectively.

Tuned mass dampers stabilize against violent motion caused by harmonic vibration. A
tuned damper reduces the vibration of a system with a comparatively lightweight
component so that the worst-case vibrations are less intense. Roughly speaking,
practical systems are tuned to either move the main mode away from a troubling

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excitation frequency, or to add damping to a resonance that is difficult or expensive to
damp directly. An example of the latter is a crankshaft torsional damper.

Fig1.3: Bode plot of displacements in the system with (red) and without (blue) the 10% tuned
mass.

In the plots at right, the black line shows the baseline response. Now considering, the
blue line shows the motion of the damping mass and the red line shows the motion of
the primary mass. The amplitude plot shows that at low frequencies, the damping mass
resonates much more than the primary mass. The phase plot shows that at low
frequencies, the two masses are in phase. As the frequency increases moves out of
phase with until at around 9.5 Hz it is 180° out of phase with maximizing the damping
effect by maximizing the amplitude of , this maximizes the energy dissipated into and
simultaneously pulls on the primary mass in the same direction as the motor mounts.

1.2 Types Based On Control Mechanism

Passive, Active and Hybrid TMD Systems
One of the limitations to the TMD design is the sensitivity related to the narrow bandwidth of
the frequency tuned control it provides and the resulting potential fluctuation in tuning the
TMD frequency to the controlled frequency of a structure. If the frequency of the disturbing
force shifts even slightly, then the effect of the TMD is diminished. In some cases, poor tuning
can even amplify the vibration, rather than suppress it. Mis-tuning or off-optimum damping
can thus significantly reduce the effectiveness of the TMD, which means that the TMD is not
entirely reliable or robust despite its passive nature. In addition, a TMD is more effective when
the ground motion has significant spectral content at the TMD fundamental mode frequency.

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Further away from this frequency, a TMD may have much less effect rendering it less
effective for same ground motions. Therefore, it is difficult to draw general conclusions
characterising the seismic effectiveness of a TMD system, especially when the structure
includes inelastic behaviour (Chey 2000) The passive TMD (PTMD) is undoubtedly a
simple, inexpensive and some what reliable means to suppress the undesired vibrations.
However, its performance is limited because of the fixed damper parameters.

Fig1.4: passive and active tuned mass damper

In an attempt to increase the performance of the TMD without incurring the problems
noted above, active TMD (ATMD) systems have been proposed. Chang and Soong
(1980) introduced an active force to act between the structure and the TMD system.
Abdel-Rohman (1984) proposed a process for designing an effective ATMD system to
control a tall building subjected to stationary random wind forces by using the pole-
assignment control design method. The results suggested that the design of an optimal
ATMD required at least a parametric study to select the ATMD parameters.
Furthermore, common feedback control methods using displacement, velocity, full
state, and acceleration feedback for the ATMD have been studied by many researchers
(Chang and Yang 1995; Li et al. 2003; Nagashima 2001; Yan et al. 1999). However,
while these systems avoid many issues of PTMD systems, fully active systems require
significant power sources and entail significant complexity.

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Semi-Active TMD System

Fig1.5: Semi-Active TMD System

It has been reported that ATMDs can provide better suppression of structural vibrations
than PTMDs. However, ATMDs have the disadvantages of added complexity, high
operational and maintenance costs, and high power requirements. Hence, they are
considered less reliable than passive systems, limiting implementation of to special
certain cases. Recognising both performance benefits, as well as the limitations of active
systems, a new class of semi-active tuned mass dampers (SATMDs) has been
introduced using controllable variable damping or stiffness devices. Since only a small
amount of active energy is required to modulate the damping of such devices, the need
for the large energy supply required by the ATMD is eliminated. In addition, its
adoptive response to structural response sensor feedback provides the wide bandwidth
of control, unlike narrowly tuned PTMDs. Hence, it provides an extremely promising
alternative to PTMDs and ATMDs.
Hrovat et al. (1983) used semi-active TMDs with variable damping components for
the control of wind-induced vibrations in tall buildings. Abe (1996) studied a variation
of semi-active TMDs with pulse generators for the seismic protection of civil structures.
Setareh (2001) studied the application of semi-active ‘ground hook’ dampers, which
have been used for vehicle body vibration control, as an element of TMD systems. He
also adopted semi-active dampers for the reduction of floor vibrations due to human
movements (Setareh 2002). Pinkaew and Fujino (2001) presented a SATMD with
variable damping under harmonic excitation and it showed that the semi-active optimal

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control becomes a clipped optimal control law.Meanwhile, an empirical algorithm for
the optimization of the properties of SATMDs based on the measured response of the
main structure has been presented by Ricciardelli et al. (2000). Their numerical example
showed that the optimization of the TMD damping did not bring a reduction of the main
structure response, but rather to a reduction of the displacement of the added mass. This
result can be explained by the low sensitivity of the response of the main system to the
TMD damping. (2001) developed a semi-active control scheme using a functional
switch which is able to finely adjust stiffness and damping for the TMD system.
Aldemir (2003) studied the optimal performance of a magnetorheological (MR)
damper, as is used in a tuned mass damper to reduce peak responses of a single-degree-
of-freedom structure subjecte to a broad class of seismic inputs. It was numerically
shown that the optimal performance of the MR damper is always better than the
equivalent passivetuned mass damper for all the investigated cases, and that the MR
damper has a great potential in suppressing structural vibrations over a wide range of
seismic inputs. The effectiveness of a semi-active variable stiffness tuned mass damper
(SAIS-TMD) in response control of 76-storey tall buildings was studied and its
performance was evaluated analytically (Varadarajan and Nagarajaiah 2004). The
SAIS-TMD system had the distinct advantage of continuously retuning its frequency
due to real time control, hence, the system was robust to changes in building.
Finally, Mulligan et al. (2006; 2007) investigated spectral analyses and design of
SATMD systems for suites of probabilistically scaled events. Their results indicated
that resetable devices allowed for simpler tuning design that was very robust to
variation in structural parameters. They also showed that resetable SATMD systems
were more robust to variations in ground motion input than equivalent PTMD systems
1.3 Types of Tuned Mass Damper (TMD)
Horizontal Tuned Mass Damper (TMD)
It is normally found in slender buildings, communication towers, spires and the like.
Horizontal tuned mass damper (TMD) as shown in Fig. 1 composed of viscodampers

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 and leafsprings or pendulum suspensions. it eats horizontal and torsional excitations.

Fig1.6: Horizontal tuned mass damper

Vertical Tuned Mass Damper (TMD)
It is usually applied in long span horizontal structures such as bridges, floors and
walkways. Vertical tuned mass damper (TMD) as shown in Fig. 2 is a combination of
coil springs and Viscodampers and it declines vertical vibrations

Fig1.7:Vertical Tuned Mass Damper.

1.4 Applications of Tuned Mass Dampers

Tuned mass dampers are mainly used in the following applications:

o Tall and slender free-standing structures (bridges, pylons of bridges, chimneys, TV

towers) which tend to be excited dangerously in one of their mode shapes by wind,

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o Stairs, spectator stands, pedestrian bridges excited by marching or jumping people.
These vibrations are usually not dangerous for the structure itself, but may become very
unpleasant for the people,
o Steel structures like factory floors excited in one of their natural frequencies by
machines , such as screens, centrifuges, fans etc.,
o Ships exited in one of their natural frequencies by the main engines or even by ship
motion.

Tuned Mass Dampers may be already part of the structure’s original design or may be
designed and installed later.

1.5Mass dampers in automobiles

Motorsport
The tuned mass damper was introduced as part of the suspension system by Renault, on
its 2005 F1 car (the Renault R25), at the 2005 Brazilian Grand Prix. It was deemed to
be legal at first, and it was in use up to the 2006 German Grand Prix.

At Hockenheim, the mass damper was deemed illegal by the FIA, because the mass was
not rigidly attached to the chassis and, due to the influence it had on the pitch attitude
of the car, which in turn significantly affected the gap under the car and hence
the ground effects of the car, to be a movable aerodynamic device and hence as a
consequence, to be illegally influencing the performance of the aerodynamics.

The Stewards of the meeting deemed it legal, but the FIA appealed against that decision.
Two weeks later, the FIA International Court of Appeal deemed the mass damper
illegal.

Production cars
Tuned mass dampers are widely used in production cars, typically on
the crankshaft pulley to control torsional vibration and, more rarely, the bending modes
of the crankshaft. They are also used on the driveline for gear whine, and elsewhere for
other noises or vibrations on the exhaust, body, suspension or anywhere else. Almost
all modern cars will have one mass damper, some may have 10 or more.

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The usual design of damper on the crankshaft consists of a thin band of rubber between
the hub of the pulley and the outer rim. This device, often called a harmonic damper, is
located on the other end of the crankshaft opposite of where the flywheel and the
transmission is. An alternative design is the centrifugal pendulum absorber which is
used to reduce the internal combustion engine's torsional vibrations on a few modern
cars.

All four wheels of the Citroen 2cv incorporated a tuned mass damper (referred to as a
"Batteur" in the original French) of very similar design to that used in the Renault F1
car, from the start of production in 1949 on all four wheels, before being removed from
the rear and eventually the front wheels in the mid 1970s.

Mass dampers in spacecraft

One proposal to reduce vibration on NASA's Ares solid fuel booster was to use 16 tuned
mass dampers as part of a design strategy to reduce peak loads from 6g to 0.25 g, the
TMDs being responsible for the reduction from 1 g to 0.25 g, the rest being done by
conventional vibration isolators between the upper stages and the booster.

Dampers in power transmission lines

Fig 1.8:Stockbridge dampers on a 400 kV power line near Castle Combe

High-tension lines often have small barbell-shaped Stockbridge dampers hanging from
the wires to reduce the high-frequency, low-amplitude oscillation termed flutter.

Dampers in wind turbines

A standard tuned mass damper for wind turbines consists of an auxiliary mass which is
attached to the main structure by means of springs and dashpot elements. The natural
frequency of the tuned mass damper is basically defined by its spring constant and the

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damping ratio determined by the dashpot. The tuned parameter of the tuned mass
damper enables the auxiliary mass to oscillate with a phase shift with respect to the
motion of the structure. In a typical configuration an auxiliary mass hung below the
nacelle of a wind turbine supported by dampers.

1.6 Dampers in buildings and related structures

Fig 1.9: Location of Taipei 101's largest tuned mass damper

Typically, the dampers are huge concrete blocks or steel bodies mounted
in skyscrapers or other structures, and moved in opposition to the resonance
frequency oscillations of the structure by means of springs, fluid or pendulums.

Example of Tuned Mass Damper Application

ATC Tower Delhi Airport in New Delhi, India — a 50-ton tuned mass damper installed
just beneath the ATC floor at 90m.

Fig 1.10: ATC Tower Delhi Airport in New Delhi

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Statue of Unity in Gujarat, India - a 400-ton tuned mass damper located at the chest
level of Sardar Patel statue.

Fig 1.11:Statue of Unity in Gujarat, India

Taipei structure has TMD of weight 730 tonnes and has the largest diameter in the
world

Fig.1.12: Tuned mass damper of Taipei structure

Tuned Mass Damper of Burj Al Arab and Emirate Tower respectively.

Fig. 1.13: Tuned mass damper of Burj Al Arab

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 Fig. 1.14: Tuned mass damper of Emirate towers

1.7 Sources of vibration and resonance

Unwanted vibration may be caused by environmental forces acting on a structure, such
as wind or earthquake, or by a seemingly innocuous vibration source causing resonance
that may be destructive, unpleasant or simply inconvenient.

Earthquakes
The seismic waves caused by an earthquake will make buildings sway and oscillate in
various ways depending on the frequency and direction of ground motion, and the
height and construction of the building. Seismic activity can cause excessive
oscillations of the building which may lead to structural failure. To enhance the
building's seismic performance, a proper building design is performed engaging various
seismic vibration control technologies. As mentioned above, damping devices had been
used in the aeronautics and automobile industries long before they were standard in
mitigating seismic damage to buildings. In fact, the first specialized damping devices
for earthquakes were not developed until late in 1950.

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Mechanical human sources

Fig 1.15: Dampers on the Millennium Bridgein London. The white disk is not part of the damper.

Masses of people walking up and down stairs at once, or great numbers of people
stomping in unison, can cause serious problems in large structures like stadiums if those
structures lack damping measures.

Wind
The force of wind against tall buildings can cause the top of skyscrapers to move more
than a meter. This motion can be in the form of swaying or twisting, and can cause the
upper floors of such buildings to move. Certain angles of wind
and aerodynamic properties of a building can accentuate the movement and
cause motion sickness in people. A TMD is usually tuned to a certain building's
frequency to work efficiently. However, during their lifetimes, high-rise and slender
buildings may experience natural frequency changes under wind speed, ambient
temperatures and relative humidity variations, among other factors, which requires a
robust TMD design.

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References

1. Bishop, Matt (2006). "The Long Interview: Flavio Briatore". F1

Racing (October): 66–76.
2. Jump up^ "FIA bans controversial damper system". Pitpass.com.
Retrieved 2010-02-07.
3. Jump up^ "Ares I Thrust Oscillation meetings conclude with encouraging data,
changes". NASASpaceFlight.com. 2008-12-09. Retrieved 2010-02-07.
4. Jump up^ "Shock Absorber Plan Set for NASA's New Rocket". SPACE.com.
2008-08-19. Retrieved 2010-02-07.
5. Jump up^ "On the hysteresis of wire cables in Stockbridge dampers". Cat.inist.fr.
Retrieved 2010-02-07.
6. Jump up^ "Cable clingers - 27 October 2007". New Scientist. Archived from the
original on 5 May 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-07.
7. Jump up^ Reitherman, Robert (2012). Earthquakes and Engineers: An
International History. Reston, VA: ASCE Press. ISBN 9780784410714.
Archived from the original on 2012-07-26.
8. Jump up^ ALY, Aly Mousaad (2012). "Proposed robust tuned mass damper for
response mitigation in buildings exposed to multidirectional wind". The
Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings. doi:10.1002/tal.1068.

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TOPIC 2 – STAINLESS STEEL

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 CHAPTER 2

Introduction

2.1General
'Stainless' is a term coined early in the development of these steels for cutlery
applications. It was adopted as a generic name for these steels and now covers a
wide range of steel types and grades for corrosion or oxidation resistant
applications.

Stainless steels are iron alloys with a minimum of 10.5% chromium. Other
alloying elements are added to enhance their structure and properties such as
formability, strength and cryogenic toughness. These include metals such as:

 Nickel
 Molybdenum
 Titanium
 Copper
Non-metal additions are also made, the main ones being:

 Carbon
 Nitrogen
The main requirement for stainless steels is that they should be corrosion resistant
for a specified application or environment. The selection of a particular "type"
and "grade" of stainless steel must initially meet the corrosion resistance
requirements. Additional mechanical or physical properties may also need to be
considered to achieve the overall service performance requirements.

Fig1.1:Stainless steel cladding is used on the Walt Disney Concert Hall

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In metallurgy, stainless steel is a steel alloy with a minimum of
10.5% chromium content by mass.
Stainless steels are notable for their corrosion resistance, which increases with
increasing chromium content. Additions of molybdenumincrease corrosion
resistance in reducing acids and against pitting attack in chloride solutions. Thus,
there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and
molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless
steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre
make it an ideal material for many applications where both the strength of steel
and corrosion resistance are required.
Stainless steels are rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used
in: cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances; construction
material in large buildings, such as the Chrysler Building; industrial equipment
(for example, in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment); and storage tanks
and tankers for chemicals and food products (for example, chemical
tankers and road tankers).

2.1.1. Corrosion resistance

Fig1.2: Stainless steel (bottom row) resists salt-water corrosion

Stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion, like carbon steel, when exposed
to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to the
combination of air and moisture. The resulting iron oxide surface layer (the rust)
is porous and fragile. Since iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original
steel this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away exposing the underlying
steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium
to undergo passivation, spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert
surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in air and even the
small amount of dissolved oxygen in water. This passive film prevents further
corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents
corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. This film is self-repairing if
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it is scratched or temporarily disturbed by an upset condition in the environment
that exceeds the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade.
However, stainless steels may suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to acidic
or basic solutions. Whether a stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and
concentration of acid or base, and the solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is
typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easy to
perform laboratory corrosion testing.
However, stainless steels are susceptible to localized corrosion under certain
conditions, which need to be recognized and avoided. Such localized corrosion is
problematic for stainless steels because it is unexpected and difficult to predict.

2.1.2 Acids

Acidic solutions can be categorized into two general categories, reducing acids
such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid, and oxidizing acids such as
nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum
contents provide increasing resistance to reducing acids, while increasing
chromium and silicon contents provide increasing resistance to oxidizing acids.
Sulfuric acid is one of the largest tonnage industrial chemical manufactured. At
room temperature Type 304 is only resistant to 3% acid while Type 316 is
resistant to 3% acid up to 50 °C and 20% acid at room temperature. Thus Type
304 is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904L and Alloy 20 are
resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature.
Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid and
thus silicon bearing stainless steels also find application.
Hydrochloric acid will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be avoided.
All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at
room temperature. At high concentration and elevated temperature attack will
occur and higher alloy stainless steels are required.

2.1.3.Bases

Stainless steels Type 304 and 316 are unaffected by any of the weak bases such
as ammonium hydroxide, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures.
The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as sodium

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hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience
some etching and cracking.
Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increasing resistance.

2.1.4 Organics

All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines, though in the latter case
Type 316 is preferable to 304; cellulose acetate will damage 304 unless the
temperature is kept low. Fats and fatty acids only affect Type 304 at temperatures
above 150 °C (302 °F), and Type 316 above 260 °C (500 °F), while Type 317 is
unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for processing of urea.

2.1.5 Localized corrosion

Localized corrosion can occur in a number of ways, e.g. pitting corrosion, crevice
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. Such localized attack is most common in
the presence of chloride ions. Increasing chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen
contents provide increasing resistance to localized corrosion and thus increasing
chloride levels require more highly alloyed stainless steels. Design and good
fabrication techniques combined with correct alloy selection can prevent such
corrosion.
Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many
factors including:

 Chloride ion concentration (However, even when the chloride solution

concentration is known, it is still possible for chloride ions to concentrate,
such as in crevices (e.g. under gaskets) or on surfaces in vapor spaces due to
evaporation and condensation.)
 Increasing temperature increases susceptibility
 Increasing acidity increases susceptibility
 Stagnant conditions increase susceptibility
 The presence of oxidizing species, such as ferric and cupric ions

2.1.6Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion (also called ' dissimilar metal corrosion') refers to corrosion
damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive
electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from fresh water to

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seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes
the anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes
the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. Stainless steel, due to its
superior corrosion resistance relative to most other metals, including steel and
aluminum, becomes the cathode accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal.
An example is the corrosion of aluminum rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in
contact with water.

2.1.7 High temperature corrosion (scaling)

At elevated temperatures all metals react with hot gases. The most common high
temperature gaseous mixture is air, and oxygen is the most reactive component
of air. Carbon steel is limited to ~900 °F (480 °C) in air. Chromium in stainless
steel reacts with oxygen to form a chromium oxide scale which reduces oxygen
diffusion into the material. The minimum 10.5% chromium in stainless steels
provides resistance to ~1,300 °F (700 °C), while 26% chromium provides
resistance up to ~2,200 °F (1,200 °C). Type 304, the most common grade of
stainless steel with 18% chromium is resistant to ~1,600 °F (870 °C). Other gases
such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, etc. also
attack stainless steel.

2.2 Properties

Physical properties

Tables below from "Raccolta di Tabelle Techniche', compiled by Centro Inox , Italy. It
has subsequently been re-published in English with permission from Centro Inox.

Electricity and magnetism

Fig 2.1 left nut is not in inox and is rusty

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Like steel, stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with
significantly lower electrical conductivity than copper.
Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are magnetic.
Annealed austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic. Work hardening can make
austenitic stainless steels slightly magnetic.

Galling

Galling, sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear which
can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under
heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to
thread galling, although it also occurs in other alloys that self-generate a
protective oxide surface film, such as aluminum and titanium. Under high
contact-force sliding this oxide can be deformed, broken and removed from parts
of the component, exposing bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are the
same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse together. Separation of the
two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal
components or fasteners.

2.3 Chemical compositions

Though they can be strengthened by cold working, but this is limited to thin sheet
and small diameter bar. Their austenitic microstructure gives them excellent
formability and weldability and they are essentially non-magnetic and maintain
their ductility at cryogenic temperatures.

They can be further subdivided into two sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series:

 200 Series are chromium-manganese-nickel alloys, which maximize

the use of manganese and nitrogen to minimize the use of nickel. Due
to their nitrogen addition they possess approximately 50% higher yield
strength than 300 series stainless steels. Type 201 is hardenable through
cold working; Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing
nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion
resistance.
 300 Series are chromium-nickel alloys, which achieve their austenitic
microstructure almost exclusively by nickel alloying, some very highly
alloyed grades include some nitrogen to reduce nickel requirements.

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 300 series is the largest group and the most widely used. The best
known grade is Type 304, also known as 18/8 and 18/10 for its
composition of 18% chromium and 8%/10% nickel, respectively. The
second most common austenitic stainless steel is Type 316. The
addition of 2% molybdenum provides greater resistance to acids and to
localized corrosion caused by chloride ions.
Low-carbon versions, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion
problems caused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the
alloy is below 0.03%, which prevents sensitization (precipitation
of chromium carbides at grain boundaries) caused by the high temperatures
involved in welding.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as Allegheny Technologies' alloy AL-
6XN and Outokumpu’s alloy 254 SMO, possess even greater resistance to
chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of their
high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen additions. They possess useful
service to seawater applications.

Chemical composition of Ferritic Stainless Steels from EN 10088-1:2005

Standard

Common ferritic grades are: Type 430 with 17% chromium, which is used in
washing machine drums, dishwasher interiors and refrigerator exteriors. Type
409 with 11% chromium is used extensively in the manufacture of automotive
exhausts.Chemical composition of major martensitic and precipitation hardening
stainlesss steels, from EN 10088-1:2005 standardIn addition, there are a number
of proprietary grades, most of them being close to standardized one

Heat Treatment of martensitic Stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels form a family of stainless steels that can be heat
treated to provide the adequate level of mechanical properties.
The heat treatment typically involves three steps

 Austenitizing, in which the steel is heated to a temperature in the range 980 -

1050 °C -depending on the grades. The austenite is a face centered cublc phase
 Quenching (a rapid cooling in air, oil or water). The austenite is transformed
into martenisite, a hard a body-centered tetragonal crystal structure. The as-

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 quenched martensite is very hard and too brittle for most applications. Some
residual austenite may remain.
 Tempering, i.e. heating around 500 °C, holding at temperature, then air
cooling. Increasing the tempering temperature decreases the Yield and
Ultimate tensile strength but increases the elongation and the impact
resistance.
The annealed condition, allow easy machining and forming, whereas the QT
condition is required for strength (shafts, valve stems, mechanical components...)
The above standard provides also guidelines for the heat treatment required to
obtain the right mechanical properties
It should be pointed out that there are a number of proprietary grades that are not
listed here.
Martensitic stainless steels, especially those with a High Carbon ( i.e. above about
0.4%) are mostly used for cutting tools: Cutlery, Razor blade steel, Blender
blades, etc..
The graph below represents the position of a number of common martensitic
stainless steels grades used for cutting tools.
For cutting ability, a high hardness is required. The higher the PREN the higher
the corrosion resistance.

Fig2.2: Hardness vs corrosion resitance of culterty grades

Note: Modified PREN

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▪ The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) is a measure of the relative
pitting corrosion resistance of a stainless steel grade in a chloride- containing
environment. The higher the PREN value, the more corrosion resistant the grade
will be. It is defined for austenitic grades by PREN = %Cr+3.3%Mo+16%N.
▪ In martensitic stainless steels, however, some of the Cr may be tied up in
Carbides, reducing thereby the amount of available Cr for the passive film.
Aperam suggested the following formula: PREN = %Cr+3.3%Mo+16%N-5%C
Creep-resisting Martensitic stainless steels Creep-resisting martensitic stainless
steels are not included in the EN 10088-1:2005 standard (compositions listed
above). The EN 10302:2008 standard "Creep-resisiting steels, nickel and cobalt
alloys" includes in Table 1 some special martensitic stainless steels

2.4.Production Process
Most of the world stainless steel production is produced by the following process
EAF (Electric Arc Furnace) in which stainless steel scrap, other ferrous scrap and
ferro alloys (Fe Cr,Fe-Ni, Fe Mo, Fe Si ...) are melted. The molten metal is then
poured into a ladle and transferred into the AOD
AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarburization) allows the removal of carbon in the
molten steel and other composition adjustments to achieve the desired chemical
composition of the steel
CC (Continuous Casting) in which the molten metal is solidified into slabs
(typical section is 20cm thick and 2 m wide) for flat products or blooms (sections
vary widely but 25cmx25cm is about the average).
HR (Hot Rolling) The slabs and blooms are reheated in a fournace and then hot
rolled. Hot rolling reduces the thickness of the slabs to produce about 3mm thick
coils. Blooms on the other hand are hot rolled into bars (that are cut into lengths
at the exit of the rolling mill) or wire rod which is coiled.
CF (Cold finishing) . This is a very simplified overview
Hot rolled coils are pickled in acid solutions to remove the oxide scale on the
surface, then subsequently cold rolled (Sendzimir rolling mills), annealed in a
protective atmosphere, until the desired thickness and surface finish is obtained.
Further operations such as slitting, tube forming, etc..... can be carried out in
downstream facilities.

25
Hot rolled bars are straightened, then machined to the required tolerance and
finish.
Wire rod coils are subsequently processed to produce
cold finished bars on drawing benches
fasteners on boltmaking machines
wire on single or multipass drawing machines
Further information can be obtained on the websites of most producers. An
example is provided here

2.5.Applications

Fig 2.3: art of Niagara-Mohawk Power building in New York

Architecture

Stainless steel is used for buildings for both practical and aesthetic reasons.
Stainless steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example
of this is the upper portion of the Chrysler Building Some diners and fast-food
restaurants use large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture.
Because of the durability of the material, many of these buildings still retain their
original appearance. Stainless steel is used today in building construction because
of its durability and because it is a weldable building metal that can be made into
aesthetically pleasing shapes. An example of a building in which these properties
are exploited is the Art Gallery of Alberta in Edmonton, which is wrapped in
stainless steel.

26
Bridges
Stainless steel is quite frequently used for pedestrian and for road bridges. Product
forms are tubes (Helix bridge), plates (Cala Galdana bridge), or reinforcing
bar (Champlain Bridge)

 The Helix Bridge is a pedestrian bridge linking Marina Centre with Marina
South in the Marina Bay area in Singapore.

 Cala Galdana Bridge in Menorca (Spain) was the first stainless steel road
bridge.
 Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge (Catalonia, Spain), arch pedestrian bridge.
 Padre Arrupe Bridge (Bilbao, Spain) links the Guggenheim museum to the
University of Deusto.
 Oudesluijs bridge in Amsterdam, a 3D printed stainless steel bridge
using Construction 3D printing
 Champlain Bridge, Montreal, Canada
 Stonecutter's bridge, Hong Kong, China
Monuments and sculptures

 Unisphere, constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964 New York World's
Fair, is constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a spherical framework with
a diameter of 120 feet (37 m) (New York City)
 Gateway Arch (pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804
metric tons) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless
steel.[51] (St. Louis, Missouri)
 United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural
skin (Arlington, Virginia)
 Atomium was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in a renovation
completed in 2006; previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad
in aluminium (Brussels, Belgium)
 Cloud Gate sculpture by Anish Kapoor (Chicago, Illinois)
 Sibelius Monument is made entirely of stainless steel tubes (Helsinki,
Finland)
 The Kelpies (Falkirk, Scotland)
 Man of Steel (sculpture) under construction (Rotherham, England)
 Juraj Jánošík monument (Terchova, Slovakia)

27
Airports
Stainless steel is a modern trend for roofing material for airports due to its low
glare reflectance to keep pilots from being blinded, also for its properties that
allow thermal reflectance in order to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient
temperature. The Hamad International Airport in Qatar was built with all
stainless steel roofing for these reasons, as well as the Sacramento International
Airport in California.

Water

Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water due to
their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions
from plumbing, potable and waste water treatment to desalination.
Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are:

 choose the correct grade for the chloride content of the water;
 avoid crevices when possible by good design;
 follow good fabrication practices, particularly removing weld heat tint;
 drain promptly after hydrotesting.
A wide range stainless steels are used throughout the paper making process. For
example, duplex stainless steels are being used in digesters to convert wood chips
into wood pulp. 6% Mo superaustenitics are used in the bleach plant and
Type 316 is used extensively in the paper machine.

Chemical Processing and Petrochemical

Stainless steels are used extensively in these industries for their corrosion
resistance to both aqueous, gaseous and high temperature environments, their
mechanical properties at all temperatures from cryogenic to the very high, and
occasionally for other special physical properties.

Food and Beverage

Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, in particular Type 304 and 316, is the
material of choice for the Food & Beverage industry. Stainless steels do not affect
the taste of the product, they are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial
contamination of the food, and they are durable. Acidic foods with high salt
28
additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soya sauce
may require higher alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to
prevent pitting corrosion by chloride.
Automobiles
The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept
cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate
the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a
stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DeLorean DMC-12 production
automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced
plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially
made of stainless steel. The aft body panel of the Porsche Caymanmodel (2-door
coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. It was discovered during early body
prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking (due to
the many curves and angles in that automobile). Thus, Porsche was forced to use
stainless steel on the Cayman.
Passenger rail cars
Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel
panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during
the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the
early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling
stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to
Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many
railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel, unlike
other countries who have shifted away.

Aircraft
The first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the Franklin Institute,
being the longest continuous display of an aircraft ever, since 1934. The RB-
2 Was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at
the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base.
The American Fleetwings Sea Bird amphibious aircraft of 1936 was also built
using a spot-welded stainless steel hull.
The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive
weight compared to other materials, such as aluminium.

29
Energy

Stainless steels are extensively used in all manner of power stations, from
nuclear to solar. Furthermore, stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical
supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are
required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural
supports in electrolytic power generation.
Recycling and reusing
Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. An average stainless steel object is composed
of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-
of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes. There is a
secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The
product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-
prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The
material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current
specifications.

30
TOPIC 2 – CATHODIC PRODUCTION
METHOD

31
 CHAPTER 3
Introduction
3.1 Generel
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal
surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell A simple method of
protection connects the metal to be protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial
metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the
protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive galvanic
cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is
used to provide sufficient current.

Fig 1.1: Aluminium sacrificial anodes mounted on a steel jacket structure.

Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various

environments. Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and
steel storage tanks such as home water heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat
hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings; offshore wind
farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and
structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a
sacrificial coating of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust.

3.2 History
Cathodic protection was first described by Sir Humphry Davy in a series of

32
papers presented to the Royal Society in London in 1824. The first application
was to HMS Samarang in 1824. Sacrificial anodes made from iron attached to
the copper sheath of the hull below the waterline dramatically reduced the
corrosion rate of the copper. However, a side effect of cathodic protection was
the increase in marine growth.

Thomas Edison experimented with impressed current cathodic protection on

ships in 1890, but was unsuccessful due to the lack of a suitable current source
and anode materials. It would be 100 years after Davy's experiment before
cathodic protection was used widely on oil pipelines in the United States athodic
protection was applied to steel gas pipelines beginning in 1928 and more widely
in the 1930s.

3.3 Types

Fig 1.2: Galvanic sacrificial anode attached to the hull of a ship, showing corrosion.

Galvanic Sacrificial anode

In the application of passive cathodic protection, a galvanic anode, a piece of a
more electrochemically "active" metal, is attached to the vulnerable metal surface
where it is exposed to an electrolyte. Galvanic anodes are selected because they
have a more "active" voltage (more negative electrode potential) than the metal
of the target structure (typically steel). For effective cathodic protection, the
potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the surface
has a uniform potential. At that stage, the driving force for the corrosion reaction
with the protected surface is removed. The galvanic anode continues to corrode,
33
consuming the anode material until eventually it must be replaced.
Polarization of the target structure is caused by the electron flow from the anode
to the cathode, so the two metals must have a good electrically
conductive contact. The driving force for the cathodic protection current is the
difference in electrode potential between the anode and the cathode.

In order for galvanic cathodic protection to work, the anode must possess a lower
(that is, more negative) electrode potential than that of the cathode (the target
structure to be protected).

Fig 1.3:galvanic anode system

Impressed current systems

Fig 1.4: Simple impressed current cathodic protection system. A source of DCelectric current
is used to help drive the protective electrochemical reaction.

For larger structures, or where electrolyte resistivity is high, galvanic anodes

cannot economically deliver enough current to provide protection. In these

34
cases, impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems are used. These
consist of anodes connected to a DC power source, often a transformer-rectifier
connected to AC power. In the absence of an AC supply, alternative power
sources may be used, such as solar panels, wind power or gas powered
thermoelectric generators.

Anodes for ICCP systems are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Common
anodes are tubular and solid rod shapes or continuous ribbons of various
materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal
oxide, platinum and niobium coated wire and other materials.

For pipelines, anodes are arranged in groundbeds either distributed or in a deep

vertical hole depending on several design and field condition factors including
current distribution requirements.

Cathodic protection transformer-rectifier units are often custom manufactured

and equipped with a variety of features, including remote monitoring and control,
integral current interrupters and various type of electrical enclosures. The output
DC negative terminal is connected to the structure to be protected by the cathodic
protection system. The rectifier output DC positive cable is connected to
the anodes. The AC power cable is connected to the rectifier input terminals.

The output of the ICCP system should be optimised to provide enough current to
provide protection to the target structure. Some cathodic protection transformer-
rectifier units are designed with taps on the transformer windings and jumper
terminals to select the voltage output of the ICCP system. Cathodic protection
transformer-rectifier units for water tanks and used in other applications are made
with solid state circuits to automatically adjust the operating voltage to maintain
the optimum current output or structure-to
electrolyte potential. Analog or digital meters are often installed to show the
operating voltage (DC and sometime AC) and current output. For shore structures
and other large complex target structures, ICCP system are often designed with

35
multiple independent zones of anodes with separate cathodic protection
transformer-rectifier circuits.

3.4Applications

Pipelines

Fig1.5: An air cooled cathodic protection rectifier connected to a pipeline.

Hazardous product pipelines are routinely protected by a coating supplemented

with cathodic protection. An impressed current cathodic protection system
(ICCP) for a pipeline consists of a DC power source, often an AC powered
transformer rectifier and an anode, or array of anodes buried in the ground (the
anode groundbed).

The DC power source would typically have a DC output of up to 50 amperes and

50 volts, but this depends on several factors, such as the size of the pipeline and
coating quality. The positive DC output terminal would be connected
via cables to the anode array, while another cable would connect the negative
terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline, preferably through junction boxes to allow
measurements to be taken.

Anodes can be installed in a groundbed consisting of a vertical hole backfilled

with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the
anodes) or laid in a prepared trench, surrounded by conductive coke and
backfilled. The choice of groundbed type and size depends on the application,
location and soil resistivity.

36
The DC cathodic protection current is then adjusted to the optimum level after
conducting various tests including measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials
or electrode potential.

It is sometimes more economically viable to protect a pipeline using galvanic

(sacrificial) anodes. This is often the case on smaller diameter pipelines of limited
length. Galvanic anodes rely on the galvanic series potentials of the metals to
drive cathodic protection current from the anode to the structure being
protected.Water pipelines of various pipe materials are also provided with
cathodic protection where owners determine the cost is reasonable for the
expected pipeline service life extension attributed to the application of cathodic
protection.

Ships and boats

Fig1.6: The white patches visible on the ship's hull are zinc block sacrificial anodes.

Cathodic protection on ships is often implemented by galvanic anodes attached

to the hull and ICCP for larger vessels. Since ships are regularly removed from
the water for inspections and maintenance, it is a simple task to replace the
galvanic anodes.

Galvanic anodes are generally shaped to reduced drag in the water and fitted flush
to the hull to also try to minimize drag.

Smaller vessels, with non-metallic hulls, such as yachts, are equipped with
galvanic anodes to protect areas such as outboard motors. As with all galvanic

37
cathodic protection, this application relies on a solid electrical connection
between the anode and the item to be protected.

For ICCP on ships, the anodes are usually constructed of a relatively inert material
such as platinised titanium. A DC power supply is provided within the ship and
the anodes mounted on the outside of the hull. The anode cables are introduced
into the ship via a compression seal fitting and routed to the DC power source.
The negative cable from the power supply is simply attached to the hull to
complete the circuit. Ship ICCP anodes are flush-mounted, minimizing the effects
of drag on the ship, and located a minimum 5 ft below the light load line in an
area to avoid mechanical damage. The current density required for protection is
a function of velocity and considered when selecting the current capacity and
location of anode placement on the hull.

Some ships may require specialist treatment, for example aluminium hulls with
steel fixtures will create an electrochemical cell where the aluminium hull can act
as a galvanic anode and corrosion is enhanced. In cases like this, aluminium or
zinc galvanic anodes can be used to offset the potential difference between the
aluminium hull and the steel fixture.[23] If the steel fixtures are large, several
galvanic anodes may be required, or even a small ICCP system.

Marine
Marine cathodic protection covers many
areas, jetties, harbors, offshore structures. The variety of different types of
structure leads to a variety of systems to provide protection. Galvanic anodes are
favored, but ICCP can also often be used. Because of the wide variety of structure
geometry, composition, and architecture, specialized firms are often required to
engineer structure-specific cathodic protection systems. Sometimes marine
structures require retroactive modification to be effectively protected

38
Steel in concrete
The application to concrete reinforcement is slightly different in that the anodes
and reference electrodes are usually embedded in the concrete at the time of
construction when the concrete is being poured. The usual technique for concrete
buildings, bridges and similar structures is to use ICCP, but there are systems
available that use the principle of galvanic cathodic protection as well, although
in the UK at least, the use of galvanic anodes for atmospherically exposed
reinforced concrete structures is considered experimental.

For ICCP, the principle is the same as any other ICCP system. However, in a
typical atmospherically exposed concrete structure such as a bridge, there will be
many more anodes distributed through the structure as opposed to an array of
anodes as used on a pipeline. This makes for a more complicated system and
usually an automatically controlled DC power source is used, possibly with an
option for remote monitoring and operation.[31] For buried or submerged
structures, the treatment is similar to that of any other buried or submerged
structure.

Galvanic systems offer the advantage of being easier to retrofit and do not need
any control systems as ICCP does.

For pipelines constructed from pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP), the
techniques used for cathodic protection are generally as for steel pipelines except
that the applied potential must be limited to prevent damage to the prestressing
wire.

The steel wire in a PCCP pipeline is stressed to the point that any corrosion of the
wire can result in failure. An additional problem is that any excessive hydrogen
ions as a result of an excessively negative potential can cause hydrogen
embrittlement of the wire, also resulting in failure. The failure of too many wires
will result in catastrophic failure of the PCCP.[33] To implement ICCP therefore

39
requires very careful control to ensure satisfactory protection. A simpler option
is to use galvanic anodes, which are self-limiting and need no control.

Internal cathodic protection

Vessels, pipelines and tanks which are used to store or transport liquids can also
be protected from corrosion on their internal surfaces by the use of cathodic
protection. ICCP and galvanic systems can be used. A common application of
internal cathodic protection is water storage tanks and power plant shell and tube
heat exchangers.

Galvanized steel
Galvanizing generally refers to hot-dip galvanizing which is a way of coating
steel with a layer of metallic zinc or tin. Galvanized coatings are quite durable in
most environments because they combine the barrier properties of a coating with
some of the benefits of cathodic protection. If the zinc coating is scratched or
otherwise locally damaged and steel is exposed, the surrounding areas of zinc
coating form a galvanic cell with the exposed steel and protect it from corrosion.
This is a form of localized cathodic protection - the zinc acts as a sacrificial anode.

Galvanizing, while using the electrochemical principle of cathodic protection, is

not actually cathodic protection. Cathodic protection requires the anode to be
separate from the metal surface to be protected, with an ionic connection through
the electrolyte and an electron connection through a connecting cable, bolt or
similar. This means that any area of the protected structure within the electrolyte
can be protected, whereas in the case of galvanizing, only areas very close to the
zinc are protected. Hence, a larger area of bare steel would only be protected
around the edges.

Automobiles
Several companies market electronic devices claiming to mitigate corrosion for

40
automobiles and trucks. Corrosion control professionals find they do not
work. There is no peer reviewed scientific testing and validation supporting the
use of the devices. In 1996 the FTC ordered David McCready, a person that sold
devices claiming to protect cars from corrosion, to pay restitution and banned the
names "Rust Buster" and "Rust Evader."

3.5 Problems
Production of hydrogen

A side effect of improperly applied cathodic protection is the production of

atomic hydrogen, leading to its absorption in the protected metal and
subsequent hydrogen embrittlement of welds and materials with high hardness.
Under normal conditions, the atomic hydrogen will combine at the metal surface
to create hydrogen gas, which cannot penetrate the metal. Hydrogen atoms,
however, are small enough to pass through the crystalline steel structure, and lead
in some cases to hydrogen embrittlement.

Cathodic disbonding

This is a process of disbondment of protective coatings from the protected

structure (cathode) due to the formation of hydrogen ions over the surface of the
protected material (cathode).Disbonding can be exacerbated by an increase in
alkali ions and an increase in cathodic polarization. The degree of disbonding is
also reliant on the type of coating, with some coatings affected more than
others. Cathodic protection systems should be operated so that the structure does
not become excessively polarized, since this also promotes disbonding due to
excessively negative potentials. Cathodic disbonding occurs rapidly in pipelines
that contain hot fluids because the process is accelerated by heat flow.

Cathodic shielding

Effectiveness of cathodic protection (CP) systems on steel pipelines can be

impaired by the use of solid film backed dielectric coatings such as polyethylene
41
tapes, shrinkable pipeline sleeves, and factory applied single or multiple solid
film coatings. This phenomenon occurs because of the high electrical resistivity
of these film backings.[47] Protective electric current from the cathodic protection
system is blocked or shielded from reaching the underlying metal by the highly
resistive film backing. Cathodic shielding was first defined in the 1980s as being
a problem, and technical papers on the subject have been regularly published
since then.

A 1999 report concerning a 20,600 bbl (3,280 m3) spill from

a Saskatchewan crude oil line contains an excellent definition of the cathodic
shielding problem:

"The triple situation of disbondment of the (corrosion) coating, the dielectric

nature of the coating and the unique electrochemical environment established
under the exterior coating, which acts as a shield to the electrical CP current, is
referred to as CP shielding. The combination of tenting and disbondment permits
a corrosive environment around the outside of the pipe to enter into the void
between the exterior coating and the pipe surface. With the development of this
CP shielding phenomenon, impressed current from the CP system cannot access
exposed metal under the exterior coating to protect the pipe surface from the
consequences of an aggressive corrosive environment. The CP shielding
phenomenon induces changes in the potential gradient of the CP system across
the exterior coating, which are further pronounced in areas of insufficient or sub-
standard CP current emanating from the pipeline's CP system. This produces an
area on the pipeline of insufficient CP defense against metal loss aggravated by
an exterior corrosive environment."

Cathodic shielding is referenced in a number of the standards listed below. Newly

issued USDOT regulation Title 49 CFR 192.112, in the section for Additional
design requirements for steel pipe using alternative maximum allowable
operating pressure requires that "The pipe must be protected against external

42
corrosion by a non-shielding coating" (see coatings section on standard). Also,
the NACE SP0169:2007 standard defines shielding in section 2, cautions against
the use of materials that create electrical shielding in section 4.2.3, cautions
against use of external coatings that create electrical shielding in section 5.1.2.3,
and instructs readers to take 'appropriate action' when the effects of electrical
shielding of cathodic protection current are detected on an operating pipeline in
section 10.9.

43
References

 A.W. Peabody, Peabody's Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 2nd Ed., 2001,

NACE International. ISBN 1-57590-092-0
 Davy, H., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 114,151,242 and 328 (1824)
 Ashworth V., Corrosion Vol. 2, 3rd Ed., 1994, ISBN 0-7506-1077-8
 Baeckmann, Schwenck & Prinz, Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion
Protection, 3rd Edition 1997. ISBN 0-88415-056-9
 Scherer, L. F., Oil and Gas Journal, (1939)
 ASTM B843 - 07 Standard Specification for Magnesium Alloy Anodes for
Cathodic Protection
 ASTM B418 - 09 Standard Specification for Cast and Wrought Galvanic
Zinc Anodes
 Roberge, Pierre R, Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 1999 ISBN 0-07-
076516-2
 NACE International Paper 09043 Coatings Used in Conjunction with
Cathodic Protection - Shielding vs Non-shielding Coatings
 Covino, Bernard S, et al., Performance of Zinc Anodes for Cathodic
Protection of Reinforced Concrete Bridges, Oregon Dept of Transport &
Federal Highway Administration, March 2002
 UK Highways Agency BA 83/02; Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
Vol.3, Sect.3, Part 3, Cathodic Protection For Use In Reinforced Concrete
Highway Structures. [4] (Retrieved 2011-01-04)
 Gummow, RA, Corrosion Control of Municipal Infrastructure Using
Cathodic Protection. NACE Conference Oct 1999, NACE Materials
Performance Feb 2000
 EN 12473:2000 - General principles of cathodic protection in sea water
 EN 12499:2003 - Internal cathodic protection of metallic structures

44
 NACE RP0100-2000 Cathodic Protection of Prestressed Concrete
Cylinder Pipelines
 BS 7361-1:1991 - Cathodic Protection

45