Binder 1

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/322437050
Practical Handbook Of Pharmacognosy
Book · October 2017
CITATION READS
1 24,140
13 authors, including:
Mrunal Krishnarao Shirsat

LSDP COLLEGE OF PHARMACY MANDAVGAN PHARATA
64 PUBLICATIONS 17 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Extraction,Isolation,characterisation of Bioactive Compounds View project
A PROJECT ON HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS - A REVIEW View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Mrunal Krishnarao Shirsat on 12 January 2018.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Practical
Handbook
Of
Pharmacognosy
(As Per PCI New Syllabus)
By-
Dr. Mrunal K. Shirsat Dr. Jayesh Dwivedi

M.Pharm. Ph.D. M.Pharm. Ph.D.
Principal Associate Professor
SVP College of Pharmacy Pacific University
Hatta, Tq. Basmat Dist. Hingoli Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research
University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Mr. Rajesh Khathuriya Mr. Amol A. Wadhave

M.Pharm. Ph.D.
M.Pharm. Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Associate Professor
SVP College of Pharmacy
Pacific University
Hatta, Tq. Basmat Dist. Hingoli
Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research
University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
May 2017
Price: / -
Published by
Mr. Rajesh M. Patne
Success Publications
Radha Krishna Apartment, 535, Shaniwar Peth,
Appa Balwant Chowk, Opp. Prabhat Talkies, Pune - 411 030.
Ph. 24433374, 24434662, 64011289. Mobile : 9325315464.
Copy Right
With the Authors
Printed at
Success Publications
S.No. 30/27, Laxmi Industrial Estate, Near Prabhat News Paper,
Dhayari, Pune-41. Mobile : 9028211751
Edition
2017
Edited By
Miss. Jyoti Bevnale
Typesetting, Layout
Miss. Jyoti Bevnale
Cover Designing
Mrs. Jyotsana kadam
ISBN NO. - 978-93-24457--

No part of this book may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means [graphic, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information retrieval systems] or reproduced
on any disc, tape, perforated media or other information storage device, etc., without the written
permission of the publishers.
Every effort has been made to avoid errors or omissions in this book. Inspite of this errors may creep
in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be brought to our Notice which shall be taken care of
in the next edition. It is Notified that publisher shall not be responsible for any damage or loss of
action to anyone of any kind in any manner, therefrom. It is suggested to all the readers, always refer
original references wherever necessary.
ii
PREFACE
This book having title (As per PCI New Syllabus) written with an intention to benefit
the Degree and Diploma students for easy understanding.
The generally acknowledged importance of study of Pharmacognosy as a branch of
useful knowledge, and the constantly increasing recognition of its extended practical as
well as scientific applications.
The work here presented will doubtless at once indicate the aim and the scope of
the science of Pharmacognosy and clearly demonstrate its intimate connection on every
hard with chemical, botanical, Macroscopically and Microscopical science.
Pharmacognostical study the active and other constituents of drugs, such as may be
obtained in crystalline from section, from extractions of small quantities of powders or
from a few an extracted solutions as obtained in assay work.
Particularly these books include PCI New Syllabus for Pharmacy Students.
Pharmacy Council of India are Prescribed by New Syllabus All over India.
By Authors
iii
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to SVP College of Pharmacy Hatta, Tq. Basmat Dist. Hingoli.
(Maharashtra) and Pacific University, Udiapur, (Rajasthan) for their appreciation, moral
support, constant encouragement, positive criticism and scientific inputs.
We are thankful to the Dr. Vedprakash K. Patil, Former Vice-Chancellor

(Marathwada Agriculture University, Parbhani, (Maharashtra), Member, Accreditation
Board I.C.A.R. Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi.
The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. A. V. Chandewar Principal, P. Wadhwani

College of Pharmacy, Yavatmal for excellent guidance and dedicated efforts.
Mr. Manesh Bodake (Campus Incharge) Shri Dheneshwari Manav Vikas Mandal’s,
At post Hatta Tq. Basmat, Dist. Hingoli for his valuable guidance and critical
suggestions.
We are grateful to our parents for their unconditional love, support and
encouragement.
We are also thankful to Publisher. We extend our thanks to supportive friends,

colleagues and for bringing out nicely printed book.
By Authors
iv
CONTENTS
Sr. No. Experiments Page No.
1. To study the macroscopical and microscopical 1-5

characters of Cinchona Bark.
2. To study the macroscopical and microscopical 6-9
characters of Cinnamon Bark.
3. To study the macroscopical and microscopical 10 - 15
characters of Senna.
characters of Clove.
characters of Ephedra.
characters of Fennel.
characters of Coriander.
8. To perform physical and chemical test for Asafoetida. 33 - 34
9. To perform physical and chemical test for Benzoin. 35 - 36
10. To perform physical and chemical test for Acacia. 37 - 38
11. To perform physical and chemical test for Agar. 39 - 40
12. To perform physical and chemical test for Gelatin. 41 - 42
13. To perform physical and chemical test for Starch. 43 - 44
14. To perform physical and chemical test for Aloe. 45 - 47
15. To perform physical and chemical test for Honey. 48 - 49
16. To perform physical and chemical test for Castor Oil. 50 - 51
17. To determine the Stomatal Number and Stomatal 52 - 54
Index of Leaf.
18. To determine the Vein-Islet and Veinlet termination 55 - 56
number of Leaf.
19. To measure the dimension of calcium oxalate crystals 57 - 58
by eye piece micrometer.
20. To measure the size of starch grains by eye piece 59 - 61
micrometer.
21. To measure the length and width of Fibers. 62 - 63
v
22. To determine the palisade ratio of the leaf. 64 - 65
23. To determine the number of starch grain by 66 - 67
Lycopodium spore method.
24. To perform preliminary phytochemical screening of 68 - 71
crude drugs.
25. To determine the total Ash value of given drug. 72 - 73
26. To determine the Acid Insoluble Ash value of given 74 - 74
drug.
27. To determine the Water Soluble Ash value of given 76 - 76
drug.
28. To determine the moisture content of given drug. 77 – 77
29. To determine the alcohol soluble Extractive value of 78 - 78
given drug.
30. To determine the Water soluble Extractive value of 79 – 79
given drug.
31. To prepare Arishta and Asava. 81 – 83
32. To determine the alcohol content of Arishta and Asava. 84 – 85
33. To determine the Swelling Index of Isapgol (Plantago 86 - 87
ovate) seeds.
34. To determine the Foaming Index. 88 – 89
35. To prepare herbal hair oil. 90 – 91
36. To Prepare Herbal Face Pack. 92 – 94
37. To Prepare Anti Wrinkle Cream. 95 – 96
38. To Prepare Cold Cream. 97 – 98
39. To Prepare Herbal Face Pack (5gm) 99 – 101
40. To Prepare Herbal Tooth Powder. 102 – 103
41. To prepare herbal hair oil. 104 - 105
42. To prepare swarooplep. 106 - 107
43. Monographs 108 - 144
vi
Experiment No.: 1
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinchona

Bark.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Cortex Cinchonae, Countess, Peruvian or Jesuit‘s bark, Cinchona
2) Biological Source:
Cinchona is the dried bark of the stem or of the root of Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona
ledgeriana, Cinchona officinalis and Cinchona succirubra or hybrids of any of the
first two species with any of the last two species, belonging to family Rubiaceae.
Fig.1.1: Cinchona Bark

3) Chemical Constituents:
More than 30 alkaloids have been reported in cinchona. The chiefly identified
alkaloids are quinidine, quinine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These constituents are
the stereoisomers of each other like quinine is stereoisomer of quinidine and
cinchonine is stereoisomer of cinchonidine. The other constituents available are
quiniarnine, cinchotine, hydroquinine, hydrocinchonidine, cinchotannic acid, etc.
Quinine and quinidine has a methoxy group in it but cinchonine and cinchonidine do
not have a methoxy group. Other than these it also consist of bitter glycoside, starch
grains, calcium oxalate crystals and crystalline acid like quinic acid.
4) Chemical Test:
a) Thalleioquin Test: To the extract of cinchona powder add one drop of dilute
~1~
Pharmacognosy
sulphuric acid and 1 ml of water. Add bromine water drop wise till the solution
acquires permanent yellow colour and add 1 ml of dilute ammonia solution, emerald
green colour is produced.
b) The powdered drug when heated with glacial acetic acid in dry test tube, evolves red
fumes, which condense in the top portion of the tube.
c) Cinchona bark, when moistened with sulphuric acid and observed under ultraviolet
light shows a blue fluorescence due to the methoxy group of Quinine and quinidine.
5) Uses:
It is mainly employed as antimalarial drug, but it is also used as analgesic,
antipyretic, protoplasmic, bitter stomachic and tonic. Quinidine is cardiac depressant
and Cinchonidine is used in rheumatism and neuralgia.
6) Macroscopic Feature:
a) Colour: The outer surface is yellowish to brown, with short fractures and the inner
surface varies in all the four species; like Cinchona calisaya and Cinchona
ledgeriana is yellowish, Cinchona officinalis is slightly brown and Cinchona
succimbra is reddish brown
b) Odour: Distinctive
c) Taste: Highly bitter and astringent.
d) Shape: Curved, quill or double quill.
e) Size: 30 cm long and 2–7 mm thick.
f) Extra Features: The outer surface consist of longitudinal and transverse cracks,
fissures, ridges
Stem Bark Root Bark

Size Length 30cm; thickness 2 to 6mm Length 2 to 7 cm
Shape Curved, quill or double quill Curved, twisted or irregularly
Outer Dull brown grey or grey in color. Dark reddish brown in color.
surface Rough mainly due to longitudinal and Scaly and shows depression.
transverse cracks, fissures, ridges, Mosses and lichens are
grayish patches of moss or lichen. absent.
Inner Striated and varying in color from Striated and reddish brown
surface yeloowish brown to deep reddish brown
Fracture Short in outer bark and fibrus in inner part Fibrous
7) Microscopy:
Transverse section of the cinchona bark shows the following tissues microscopically:
a) Periderm: It is made up of cork, phellogen and phelloderm:
i) Cork: It consists of many layers of thin-walled cells arranged in regular radial rows.
Cells appear as flat and polygonal with reddish-brown cell contents. The cell walls
are suberised.
~2~
Pharmacognosy
ii) Phellogen: It is made up of two to three layers of thin-walled rectangular cells.
iii) Phelloderm: It is placed within the cork cambium. It is made up of several (up to
eight) layers of regular, thin-walled rectangular cells with dark walls and without any
cell contents. Cork cambium is not distinctly seen in commercial samples.
b) Cortex:
This portion of the bark is wide and consists of many layers of tangentially
elongated, thin-walled cells. These are made up of cellular parenchyma and walls
are reddish brown. Some of the cells of the cortex are filled with microsphenoidal
crystals of calcium oxalate. Sometimes idioblasts, containing microcrystals (mostly
prisms) of calcium oxalate and secretary cells (cavities or secretion canals or latex
ducts), are also found as scattered in the layers of the cortex. A few cells show
presence of minute starch granules contained within them. These are mainly
observed near the inner border of the cortical parenchyma. Sometimes these are
large enough and spaced at specifi c intervals. These appear oval in the transverse
section.
Fig. 1.2: Transverse Section of Cinchona Bark

~3~
Pharmacognosy
c) Secondary Phloem: This region is made up of sieve tubes, phloem parenchyma,
phloem fibres and medullary rays:
i) Sieve Tubes:
The end walls of the sieve tubes are seen at the right angles to the axis as the
component cells are long and wide. The companion cells are narrow. Sieve tubes
are collapsed and compressed most of the time in commercial samples of the bark.
ii) Phloem Parenchyma: It resembles the cortical parenchyma in many respects. It
consists of dark reddish-brown thin walls. A few of these cells show presence of
microprisms of calcium oxalate within them.
iii) Phloem Fibres: These are many, large, fusiform, thick walled and lignified. These
phloem fibres occur as single or in irregular radial rows, as groups of two to five
fibres. These are seen as intermingled with phloem parenchyma and in between the
medullary rays. Distribution and size of the phloem fibres differ in different species of
cinchona bark and thus can indicate the specific striking, characteristic features of a
particular species and can help in identification.
Many times these groups of fibres occur as rounded, oval or spindle shaped. The
thick walls of fibres are striated and show conspicuous tubular or funnel-shaped pits.
These fibres appear yellowish in colour and have a small lumen.
iv) Medullary Rays: These rays run radially transversing the phloem parenchyma.
These are one, two or three seriate. These are narrow, thin walled and almost
straight and run up to the cortex. The cells are thin walled and somewhat radially
elongated. Some of these cells of the medullary rays contain starch grains.
8) Powder Character:
The powder of cinchona bark is reddish brown with a slight, characteristic odour and
bitter, astringent taste. The powder microscopically shows the following characters:
a) Fibres: These phloem fibres are many, yellowish, fusiform, large, lignified and
fragmented. These occur as isolated or in groups of two or three. Individual fibres
have bluntly pointed ends. The walls are thick and show striations. Walls are
strongly lignified and possess simple or branched pores. The lumen is small, uneven
and short. The walls have numerous pits which are distinct and funnel shaped and
which open into the small lumen of the fibre. Sometimes longitudinal tissues are
observed in the walls at intervals.
b) Cork: Cork cells are seen as thin walled, flat, polygonal and suberised. These cells
contain reddish-brown matter within them. Generally numerous fragments of cork
cells are observed.
c) Parenchyma: These parenchymatous cells are abundant and arise from phloem
parenchyma and medullary rays. These cells appear yellowish to reddish brown in
colour. Phloem parenchyma cells are thin walled and fragmented. Few of these cells
show presence of some colouring matter along with small starch granules, and some
~4~
Pharmacognosy
contain microprisms of calcium oxalate. The parenchymatous cells of medullary rays
are mainly associated with fibres and possess slightly thick walls.
Fig.1.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinchona Bark
d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals: These are mainly observed in some of the

parenchymatous cells. Isolated or scattered crystals are very small and irregular in
shape. Generally microprisms of calcium oxalate are observed in the powder.
e) Starch Grains: These are within some of parenchymatous cells and some as
scattered. These are small, simple and spherical or rarely compound with two to five
components.

~5~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 2
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinnamon

Bark.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Ceylon cinnamon, Cinnamon bark, Dalchini
Cinnamon consists of the dried inner bark of the shoots of coppiced trees of
Cinnamonum zeylanicum belonging to family Lauraceae. It should not could contain
less than 1.0% of volatile oil.
Fig. 2.1: Cinnamon Bark

3) Macroscopic Feature:
Cinnamon is either in single- or double-compound quills, with a size of 1 m length,
0.5 mm thickness, and 6 to 10 mm diameter. the outer surface is dull yellowish
brown while the inner surface is dark yellowish brown. Cinnamon has a fragrant
perfume; taste aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation.
4) Microscopy:
Microscopically transverse section of the cinnamon bark shows the following tissues:
a) Periderm: Few layers of cork cells can be seen in which the outer cells are thin
walled and inner cells are lignified and thick walled. Phellogen and phelloderm are
not distinguishable from each other or from cork.
b) Cortex: This is many times absent in commercial samples of the bark. If present it is
found as patches and composed of 10–15 layers of parenchyma with scattered
sclereids. Each sclereid is rectangular and pitted. Some of the parenchymatous cells
contain minute acicular raphides and abundant starch.
~6~
Pharmacognosy
c) Pericycle: In most of the samples, the outermost limit of the bark is marked by a
pericycle which produces the light coloured, wavy, longitudinal lines on the outer
layer of the bark. The pericycle is composed of a continuous ring of three to four
layers of sclereids with small groups of pericyclic fibres embedded in it at intervals.
d) Secondary Phloem: It consists of phloem parenchyma, fibres and medullary rays:
i) Phloem Parenchyma: It consists of sub-rectangular, thin-walled cells with starch
grains (both simple and compound) and numerous acicular crystals of calcium
oxalate.
Some of the phloem parenchyma cells contain tannin. Oil cells and mucilage
cells are also observed in phloem parenchyma. Idioblasts are somewhat
longitudinally elongated and contain volatile oil or mucilage. The sieve tube tissue
which is embedded in the phloem parenchyma is often obliterated.
ii) Phloem Fibres: The phloem fibres occur singly or in short tangential rows of 2–5
and are more abundant towards the inner part of the bark. These are circular and
slender and their thick lignified walls show stratifi cations. The width of phloem fi
bres and size of starch grains are important identifying characters of cinnamon,
especially a distinction from cassia bark.
iii) Medullary Rays: The secondary phloem is divided up by radial medullary rays.
These are uni- or biseriate near the cambium but become broader towards the outer
layer by tangential growth of cells. The rays are 7–14 cells high. The medullary ray
cells are radially elongated and thin walled with yellow–brown cell contents
containing numerous acicular crystals of calcium oxalate.
5) Powder Characters:
The powder of the cinnamon bark is reddish brown in colour with a characteristic,
pleasant, sweet fragrance and taste. It shows the following diagnostic characters
microscopically:
a) Fibres: These are abundant and usually occur singly. These have thick, lignified,
stratified walls and small, somewhat uneven, narrow lumen and few inconspicuous
slit-shaped pits. Occasionally fibres are found along with the sclereids of the
pericycle, and a few occur associated with the oil cells and parenchyma of the
phloem.
b) Sclereids: These are abundantly seen which occur singly or in small groups. These
are of various sizes and shapes but usually are isodiametric, with thick walls,
lignified; the outer wall is thinner than the other walls. Most of the cells are thick
walled which gives a characteristic U shape; the lumen is small. Pits are numerous
and conspicuous; striations are usually visible.
~7~
Pharmacognosy
Fig. 2.2: Transverse Section of Cinnamom Bark

c) Starch Grains: These are numerous, found scattered and inside parenchymatous
tissues or sclereids. These are commonly observed in phloem parenchyma and
medullary rays. These are small, single or compound with four or more components.
A rounded or slit-shaped hilum is observed in a few large grains. Diameter of the
grains is less than 10 μ, which is a distinguishing character from the cassia bark.
d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals: The thin-walled phloem parenchyma and medullary ray
cells of the phloem show small, numerous acicular crystals of calcium oxalate.
e) Oil Cells: Oil cells are seen as entire or as fragments. These cells are often
associated with the parenchyma or fibres of the phloem; cells are large and ovoid
and usually occur singly.
f) Cork: The cork cells are usually absent. Very occasionally fragments of cork can be
seen. These cells are thin walled and polygonal in surface view. In sectional view,
fragments show the cell layers arranged in alternating bands of thin-walled cells and
thick-walled, indistinct lignified cells.
~8~
Pharmacognosy
Fig. 2.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinnamon Bark

6) Chemical Constituents: Cinnamon bark contains about 0.5 to 1.0% of volatile oil,
1.2% of tannins mucilage, calcium oxalate, starch and a sweet substance known as
mannitol. The volatile oil is the active constituents of the drug. It is light yellow in
colour and changes to red on storage. Volatile oil contains 50 to 65% cinnamic
aldehyde, along with 5 to 10% eugenol, benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde and other
terpenes like phellandrene, pinnene, cymeme, caryophyllane etc. Cinnamon oil is
yellow to red in colour with specific Gravity 1.00 to 1.030, optical rotation 0--0.2, and
refractive index 1.562--1.582.
7) Uses: Bark is used as a carminative, stomachic and mild astringent. It is also used
as flavoring agent, stimulant and aromatic and antiseptic.

~9~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 3
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Senna.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Senna leaf, Sennae folium, Tinnevelley Senna, Indian Senna
2) Biological Sources:
Senna is the dried leaflets of Cassia acutifolia (Alexandria senna) or of Cassia
angustifolia (Indian or Tinnevelley Senna) belonging to the family Leguminoseae.
Fig. 3.1: Senna Herb
Fig. 3.2: Senna Leaves

~10~
Pharmacognosy
3) Description:
Features Alexandria senna Tinnevelley senna
Colour Pale greyish green Yellowish green
Odour Slightly characteristic Slightly characteristic
Taste Mucilaginous and slightly bitter Mucilaginous, bitter and characteristic
Size Length = 2-4 cm Length = 2.5-5cm
Width 7-12 mm Width = 3-8 mm
Shape Ovate -lanceolate Lanceolate
Texture Thin and brittle Thin and flexible
4) Microscopy:
The transverse section of a senna leaflet exhibits isobilateral structure under the
microscope.
The following tissues are observed in the lamina and midrib region:
a) Lamina:
i) Upper Epidermis:
It is composed of polygonal cells arranged in a single layer, covered on the outer
side with prominently thick, warty cuticle. Few epidermal cells contain mucilage and
straight anticlinal walls. The epidermis bears only nonglandular covering trichomes
which are unicellular, short, thick walled, conical, non-lignified, warty and often
curved at the bulbous base or with papillose walls. Paracytic stomata are seen at
regular intervals.
ii) Mesophyll:
It is differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Isobilateral structure
exhibits presence of upper palisade below the upper epidermis and lower palisade
placed above the lower epidermis:
1) Upper Palisade:
It is a single layer of elongated, narrow, columnar cells with chloroplastids. The
upper epidermis also continues over the midrib region.
2) Spongy Parenchyma:
It is made up of loosely arranged parenchymatous cells and contains rosette or
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.
3) Lower Palisade:
It extends to somewhat limited area, i.e. to the lamina region only. Cells are small
and loosely arranged and have wavy walls.
4) Lower Epidermis:
Cells possessing prominent cuticle and sunken stomata are seen. These cells are
somewhat shorter than those of the upper epidermis and have slightly wavy walls.
Non-glandular trichomes are also found on the lower epidermis.
~11~
Pharmacognosy
b) Midrib:
The transverse section through the midrib region exhibits a fl at ventral surface and
convex dorsal surface. The epidermal layers are in continuation over the midrib also.
The lower epidermis possesses small cells with thick cuticle. The upper palisade is
also made up of smaller cells particularly in the midrib region. The lower palisade is
absent in the midrib portion, and a group of collenchymatous cells is seen.
At the centre, a group of collateral vascular bundles with xylem on the upper side
and phloem beneath is seen. The vascular bundles are covered on both ventral and
dorsal sides by an arc of lignified sclerenchymatous fibres. These patches of fibres
are somewhat ovate in shape and crescent shaped below. This fibrous arc is
characteristic as these fi bres are encircled by a layer of parenchyma, with cells of
most of it containing prisms of calcium oxalate crystals.
Fibres ensheathed with crystals can be seen occasionally in the lamina portion
also. In the surface view, characteristic rubiaceous stomata, covering trichomes and
polygonal epidermal cells are seen.
Fig. 3.3: Transverse Section of Senna Leaf
~12~
Pharmacognosy
The senna leaflet powder is greyish green or yellowish green in colour with a faint,
characteristic odour and a mucilaginous, slightly bitter taste. The powder shows the
following features microscopically:
1) Fragments of Lamina:
Upper and lower epidermises of the lamina are similar, cells with thin, straight or
slightly sinuous walls and polygonal. Plenty of unicellular trichomes and paracytic
stomata are seen. Both epidermises also show cicatrices where trichomes were
attached; these consist of small circular scars from which the epidermal cells radiate
outwards in a characteristic arrangement.
Fig. 3.4: Powder Microscopy of Senna Leaf

i) Epidermis in surface view with paracytic stomata and an attached trichome
ii) Xylem elements from one of the larger veins
iii) Part of a pitted vessel from one of the larger veins
iv) Part of a group of fibres with calcium oxalate prism sheath
v) Part of the lamina In sectional view showing the upper epidermis containing
mucilage, the upper and lower palisade, spongy mesophyll cells containing cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate and the lower epidermis
~13~
Pharmacognosy
vi) Groups of fibres with calcium oxalate prism sheaths at the junction of two small
veins
vii) Part of the lamina In sectional view with a trlchome attached to the lower epidermis
viii) Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate
ix) Covering trichomes
x) Epidermis in surface view showing paracytic stomata, a cicatrix underlying pailsade
cells and the elongated cells over a vein with striated cuticle and an attached
trichome.
2) Covering Trichomes:
These are unicellular and conical with thick and warty walls, found attached to
pieces of epidermises of the lamina. Straight or curved fragments with thick papillose
walls can be seen.
3) Calcium Oxalate Crystals:
These are abundant and seen as scattered in the powder. Prisms of calcium oxalate
are seen inside the cells of the parenchymatous sheath surrounding the group of
sclerenchymatous fi bres, and rosettes are seen in the cells of spongy mesophyll.
Rosettes (cluster crystals) are of moderate size.
4) Groups of Fibres:
These are thick walled, lignified with few pits and encircled with a sheath of prisms of
calcium oxalate.
5) Fragments of spiral, annular and pitted vessels are also seen.
6) Chemical Constituents: The principle active constituents of senna are four
sennosides A, B, C and D, which are the dimeric glycosides having their aglycones
composed of either rhein and/or aloe-emodin moieties i.e.; 10, 10‘-bis (9, 10-dihydro-
1, 8-dihydroxy-9-oxoanthracene-3-carboxylic acid). The structure of the above four
glycosides are as given below:
Besides, relatively small quantities of monomeric glycosides and free
anthraquinones are also present in senna pods, such as: rhein–8-glucosides, rhein-
8-diglucoside, aloe emodin-8-glucoside, aloe-emodin anthrone diglycoside, rhein,
aloe-emodin and isorhamnetin.
It also contains kaempterol (a phytosterol), mucilage, resins, myricyl alcohol,
chrysophanic acid, calcium oxalate and salicylic acid.
7) Chemical Tests:
a) Modified Borntrager’s Test: It gives a pink to red colouration for the presence of
anthraquinone glycosides (see under section 4.2.1.1).
b) The mucilage of senna gives a distinct red colouration with Ruthenium Red solution.
Substituents and Adulterants Tinnevelley senna is invariably found to be
adulterated with the
Following three cheaper varities of senna namely:
~14~
Pharmacognosy
i) Dog senna (Cassia abovata): It contains approximately 1% of anthraquinone
derivatives
ii) Palthe senna (Cassia auriculata): It contains no anthraquinone glycosides
iii) Arabian Senna or Mecea senna or Bombay senna i.e.; wild variety of Cassia
angustifolia Vahl. from Southern Arabia: It is brownish-green in appearance.
8) Uses:
a) Senna is usually employed as purgative in habitual constipation. The glycosides are
first absorbed in the small intestinal canal after which the aglycone portion gets
separated and ultimately excreted in the large intentine (colon). The released
anthraquinones irritate and stimulate the colon thereby enhancing its peristaltic
movements causing bulky and soft excretion of faces.
b) The inherent action of senna is associated with appreciable griping , and therefore, it
is generally dispensed along with carminatives so as to counteract the undesired
effect.

~15~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 4
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Clove.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Clove flower, Clove buds, Laung (Hindi)
Clove consists of the dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus, belonging to family
Myrtaceae.
Fig. 4.1: Clove Flower Bud

3) Characteristics:
Clove is reddish-brown in colour, with an upper crown and a hypanthium. The
hypanthium is sub-cylindrical and tapering at the end. The hypanthium is 10 to 13
mm long, 4 mm wide, and 2 mm thick and has schizolysigenous oil glands and an
ovary which is bilocular. The Crown region consists of the calyx, corolla, style and
stamens. Calyx has four thick sepals. Corolla is also known as head, crown or cap; it
is doineshaped and has four pale yellow coloured petals which are imbricate,
immature, and membranous. The ovary consists of abundant ovules. Clove has
strong spicy, aromatic odour, and pungent and aromatic taste.
4) Microscopy:
In the case of clove bud, a transverse section is taken through the ovary as well as
through the hypanthium, i.e. stalks of the bud. The short upper portion present
immediately below the calyx contains bilocular ovary. The lower portion, i.e. stalk of
the bud (hypanthium) that lies at the lower part, is long, solid and sub-cylindrical.
The transverse section through the hypanthium shows the following tissues
microscopically from the periphery towards the centre:
a) Epidermis:
It is made up of a single layer of small, tabular cells with straight walls and highly
cuticularised. It shows presence of anomocytic (ranunculaceous) type of stomata.
These stomata appear as slightly raised above the epidermal surface. The
substomatal spaces are prominent and well defined.
~16~
Pharmacognosy
b) Cortex: It occupies the major portion and can be divided into three different zones:
i) Outer Zone:
It shows two to three layers of big, ellipsoidal, schizolysigenous oil glands embedded
in radially elongated parenchymatous cells. Oil glands have long radial axis and an
epithelium which is composed of two or three layers of flattened cells.
Parenchymatous cells contain tannins and thus show dark colouration with ferric
chloride solution (alcoholic). Many of the parenchymatous cells show cluster crystals
of calcium oxalate.
ii) Middle Zone:
Within the oil gland layer, a zone of thick-walled cells is seen. Within these cells, a
ring of bicollateral vascular bundles is embedded. About 20–25 bundles are present
in the ring. The ground tissue contains cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The
vascular bundles are enclosed in an incomplete ring of lignified pericyclic fibres. The
xylem is composed of three to five lignified spiral vessels.
iii) Inner Zone:
It is made up of loosely arranged parenchymatous cells (aerenchyma) composed of
air spaces. Air spaces are separated by lamellae which are thin and one cell thick.
This region supports the central columella.
Fig. 4.2: Transverse Section of Clove Flower Bud
~17~
Pharmacognosy
c) Columella:
It forms the central cylinder which is parenchymatous and contains calcium oxalate
crystals. A ring of about 15–20 small vascular bundles is seen towards the
periphery.
The transverse section through the ovary shows all tissues described above. But
instead of the central columella, a bilocular ovary is present at the centre. The
ovules are numerous, separated by an axile placentation. The dissepiments of the
ovary is parenchymatous. The placentae show cluster crystals of calcium oxalate
and vascular bundles.
The powder of the clove buds is dark brown in colour and possesses a
characteristic, spicy aroma and pungent, slightly, characteristic, aromatic taste. The
powder shows the following characters microscopically:
a) Hypanthium:
The fragments of hypanthium and the epidermis occur abundantly. The epidermis is
made up of small, polygonal, thick-walled cells. It shows circular, big, anomocytic
stomata along with large, brown, ovoid oil glands. A few cluster crystals of calcium
oxalate are also observed. The fragments of hypanthium show a thick cuticle.
b) Oil Glands:
These are numerous in the hypanthium, ellipsoidal to ovoid, large, brown and
schizolysigenous associated with other parenchymatous tissues.
c) Parenchyma:
The yellowish-brown parenchyma of hypanthium is abundant. Oil glands are found
as embedded in this area. Cells are thickened and sometimes are collenchymatous.
It shows a few small cluster crystals of calcium oxalate.
d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals:
The cluster crystals of calcium oxalate (sphaeraphides) are found in the
parenchymatous cells. These crystals are of various sizes, rarely found scattered
and made up of many small components.
e) Fibres:
These are sclerenchymatous, found singly or in groups of two to three in each
group. These are short, broad and bluntly pointed. These show lignified thick walls
with faint striations and small pits. The lumen is sometimes filled with brownish
matter. These fi bres are generally associated with parenchymatous cells or with
small groups of vessels (fibrovascular bundle).
f) Aerenchyma:
Fragments of aerenchyma (loosely packed parenchyma) of the hypanthium are
occasionally observed. These are made up of chains of two or three thick- walled
parenchymatous cells. These chains show small intercellular air spaces separated
by lamellae.
~18~
Pharmacognosy
Fig. 4.3: Powder Microscopy of Clove Flower Bud

1) Part of the filament of the anther in longitudinal section, showing the central vascular
strand and parenchymatous cells containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate
2) Part of the hypanthium in sectional view showing the thick cuticle, epidermis and
underlying parenchyma with oil glands
3) Parenchyma of the hypanthium with cluster crystals of calcium oxalate
4) Fragments of aerenchyma from the hypanthium showing pits
5) Epidermis of the hypanthium in surface view showing a stoma and underlying oil
glands
6) Parenchyma of the hypanthium showing an oil gland
7) Epidermis of a petal in surface view with underlying tissue composed of
parenchymatous cells containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, part of an oil
gland and part of a vascular strand
8) Mature Pollen grains
9) Fibrous layer of the anther in surface view
10) Part of group of immature pollen grains
11) Fibrous layer of the anther In sectional view
12) Sclereids from the stalk
13) Epidermis of the filament of the anther in surface view
14) Fibrous and associated parenchymatous cells
~19~
Pharmacognosy
g) Sclereids:
These are from stalk and appear as oval to sub-rectangular with thick, striated walls
and simple or branched pits. Some brownish matter is found inside the lumen.
h) Pollen grains:
These are small and biconvex with rounded or triangular shape and smooth exine.
The immature pollen grains are found inside the pollen sacs.
i) Starch grains:
Starch grains are not observed in the case of the powder of clove buds. If these are
observed in the powder, these come from mother cloves.
Clove contains 14–21% of volatile oil. The other constituents present are the
eugenol, acetyl eugenol, gallotannic acid, and two crystalline principles; α- and β-
caryophyllenes, methyl furfural, gum, resin, and fibre. Caryophyllin is odourless
component and appears to be a phytosterol, whereas eugenol is a colourless liquid.
Clove oil has 60–90% eugenol, which is the cause of its anesthetic and antiseptic
properties.
7) Chemical Tests:
a) To a thick section through hypanthium of clove add 50% potassium hydroxide
solution; it produces needleshaped crystals of potassium eugenate.
b) A drop of clove oil is dissolved in 5 ml alcohol and a drop of ferric chloride solution is
added; due to the phenolic OH group of eugenol, a blue colour is seen.
c) To a drop of chloroform extract of clove add a drop of 30% aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide saturated with sodium bromide; Needle and pear shaped crystals
of sodium eugenate arranged in rosette are produced immediately.
8) Uses:
Clove is used as an antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, aromatic, and as a flavouring
agent. It is also used as anodyne, antiemetic. Dentists use clove oil as an oral
anesthetic and to disinfect the root canals. Clove kills intestinal parasites and
exhibits broad antimicrobial properties against fungi and bacteria and so it is used in
the treatment of diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other digestive ailments. Clove oil
can stop toothache. A few drops of the oil in water will stop vomiting, eating cloves is
said to be aphrodisiac. Eugenol is also used as local anaesthetic in small doses. The
oil stimulates peristalsis; it is a strong germicide, also a stimulating expectorant in
bronchial problems. The infusion and Clove water are good vehicles for alkalies and
aromatics.

~20~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 5
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Ephedra.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Ma Huang
Ephedra consists of the dried aerial parts of Ephedra gerardian, Ephedra sinica,
Ephedra equisetina, Ephedra nebrodensis and other Ephedra species, belonging to
family Ephadreaceae.
Fig. 5.1: Ephedra Stem

3) Characteristics:
a) Ephedra gerardiana: It consists of cylindrical woody stem that is grey or greenish in
colour. Nodes, internodes, scaly leaves and terminal buds are present in the stems.
The distance between the internodes is 3–4 cm and the nodes bare the scaly
leaves. They are bitter in taste. The plant has stamens and pistils on separate
flowers; staminate flowers in catkins and a membraneous perianth, pistillate flowers
terminal on axillary stalks, within a two-leaved involucre. Fruit has two carpels with a
single seed in each and is a succulent cone, branches slender and erect, small
leaves, scale-like, articulated and joined at the base into a sheath.
b) Ephedra sinica: Thickness of the stem is 4–7 mm branches are 1–2 mm. Length up
to 30 cm of branches and 3–6 cm of internodes. The main stem is brown in colour.
Leaves are 2–4 mm long, opposite, decussate and subulate. Leaf, base is reddish-
brown, apex acute and recurved and lamina white in colour. A pair of sheathing
leaves present at the nodes, encircling the stem and fused at the base,
~21~
Pharmacognosy
c) Ephedra equisetina: Stems are woodier and more branched 1.5–2 mm. Length 25–
200 cm of branches and 1–2.5 cm of internodes, outer surface is grey to pale green
and smooth.
d) Ephedra nebrodensis: The stems are 15–35 cm in length; 1–2 mm thick,
cylindrical, greenish-yellow in colour, nodes are brownish and distinct and fractured
surface is fibrous in the cortex but pith contains brownish powdery mass. The leaves
are brownish to whitish-brown in colour, scaly, connate, opposite and decussate,
acute, agreeable and slightly aromatic odour and taste is astringent and bitter.
4) Microscopy:
The transverse section of the ephedra stem shows epidermis, composed of thick-
walled, quadrangular cells, covered by thick cuticle. Cortex is composed of
chlorenchyma with outer zone of radially elongated cells and inner zone of spongy
parenchyma. Pith is large with rounded cells, containing dark brown mucilaginous
substance in pigment cells. The margin appears wavy due to ridges. The following
tissues are observed from the periphery towards the centre:
a) Epidermis:
It is composed of a single layer of thick-walled, quadrangular cells with thick and
smooth cuticle. Vertical rows of sunken stomata are present between many vertical
ridges of the stem. Papillae are also present in the ridges. Below the ridges, groups
of non-lignified fibres are observed.
b) B. Cortex:
It is composed of two to three layers of chlorenchyma (loosely arranged
parenchymatous palisade cells containing chloroplasts) with outer layers of radially
elongated cells and inner zone of spongy parenchyma. Cortex shows lignified as
well as non-lignified fibres.
Unlignified fibres appear like a bunch of grapes and occur below the ridges
where no palisade cells are seen. Lignified fibres are found scattered, isolated or in
groups of two to four. These occur in the inner layers of oval, cortical parenchyma
which show chloroplasts.
c) Pericyclic Fibres:
Pericycle consists of groups of lignified fibres outside the phloem.
d) Vascular Bundles:
These are around six to ten in number radially arranged in the cortex. These are
collateral, conjoint and open. Phloem is towards the outer side and appears
distinctly.
It contains sieve tubes and companion cells. Xylem is well developed consisting
of vessels, tracheids, fibro-tracheids and parenchyma. Xylem from a mature stem
shows a well-developed continuous band.
e) Pith:
It is composed of large, thin-walled, lignified and polygonal parenchyma with
intercellular spaces. Some cells contain brownish, mucilaginous masses.
~22~
Pharmacognosy
The powder of ephedra is pale yellowish brown with faint odour and slightly bitter
taste. It shows the following characters microscopically:
a) Epidermal Cells:
Entire cells and fragments of cells are both observed. Cells are rounded to
quadrangular with thick-ridged outer walls, sunken stomata and papillae.
b) Fibres:
Lignified and non-lignified fibres appear, which are of uniform thickness, long,
slender and cylindrical (like glass rods). Entire fibres or fragments of fibres are seen.
c) Wood Elements (Xylem): It consists of tracheids only with bordered pits.
d) Brownish Matter:
It originates from pith. It is abundant, mucilaginous and of regular shape and form.
Fig. 5.2: Transverse Section of Ephedra Stem
Fibres Fragment of Vessels

Fig. 5.3: Powder Microscopy of Ephedra Stem
~23~
Pharmacognosy
Ephedra contains alkaloids Ephedrine (water-soluble salt of an alkaloid),
Pseudoephedrine (analog of ephedrine), Norpseudoephedrine (An analog of
ephedrine). The leaves and stems of ephedra also contain many potentially active
compounds, such as tannins, saponin, flavone and volatile oils.
7) Chemical Test:
To the drug (10 mg) in water (1 ml) dilute HCl (0.2 ml), copper sulphate solution (0.1
ml) and sodium hydroxide solution (2 ml) are added; the liquid turns violet. On
adding solvent ether (2 ml) and shaking vigorously, the ethereal layer turns
purple and the aqueous layer becomes blue.
8) Uses:
Ephedrine is antiallergenic, antiasthmatic, antispasmodic, decongestant, cough
suppressant, stimulant and vasoconstrictor. Pseudoephedrine is decongestant,
cough suppressant and norpseudoephedrine is peripheral vasodilator used to treat
angina. As a whole it is decongestant; it opens sinuses, increases sweating, dilates
bronchioles (antiasthmatic use), diuretic, CNS stimulant, raises blood pressure,
alleviates aches and rheumatism, alleviates hay fever/colds, etc.

~24~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 6
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Fennel.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Fennel fruit, Sweet fennel, Wild fennel, Large fennel, Saunf (Hindi)
Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare, belonging to family
Umbelliferae.
Fig. 6.1: Fennel Fruit

3) Characteristics:
The fruit is an entire cremocarps with pedicels, oval-oblong and 5 to 10 mm long, 2
to 4 mm broad. It has greenish brown to yellowish brown colour with five prominent
primary ridges and a bifid stylopod at the apex.
4) Microscopy:
The transverse section of mericarp region of fennel shows two prominent surfaces,
the dorsal and the commissural surface. The commisural surface has a carpophore
and two vittae, and the dorsal surface has a total of five ridges. The mericarp is
divided into pericarp, consisting of the epicarp and mesocarp; the testa and the
endocarp. Epicarp consists of polygonal cells of epidermis which are tangentially
elongated and covered by the cuticle. Mesocarp has parenchyma cells with five
bicollateral vascular bundles; below each primary ridge a lignified reticulate
parenchyma surrounds the vascular bundles. There are four vittae on dorsal surface
and two vittae on commisural or the ventral surface. Inner
Epidermis or Endocarp shows parquetry arrangement (a group of four to five
cells arranged parallelly at acute angles with groups of similar cells in different
direction). Testa is a single-layered tangentially elongated cell with yellowish colour.
Endosperm consists of thick-walled, wide polyhedral, colourless cells. Cells contain
fixed oil, aleurone grains, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.
~25~
Pharmacognosy
5) Microscopy:
Fennel shows features of a typical umbelliferous fruit.
Cremocarp:
Cremocarp is a variety of schizocarp (splitting fruit) which divides into two one
seeded portions, each corresponding to one carpel. This carpel itself does not open
to liberate the seed; thus, these schizocarps are indehiscent fruits. A cremocarp
consists of two parts, each of which is called a ‗mericarp‘. These two mericarps are
connected by a thick-walled sclerenchymatous central stalk called ‗carpophore‘. A
single seed is seen in each mericarp. Raphe is a single ridge of vascular bundle at
the middle of the commissural surface. The carpophore is situated just in front of the
raphe.
Transverse section of a mericarp shows two prominent surfaces: commissural
and dorsal. The commissural surface is fl at with two distinct ridges and carpophores
in the middle. The dorsal surface shows three ridges. Therefore, each mericarp
shows five primary ridges. A mericarp can be divided into pericarp and seed.
a) Pericarp: It is made up of epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp:
i) Epicarp:
The epicarp of the pericarp is also called epidermis. It surrounds the entire fruit and
consists of a layer of polygonal, tabular, tangentially elongated cells with nonstriated
and smooth cuticle and shows occasional stomata.
Fig. 6.2: Transverse Section of Fennel Fruit

ii) Mesocarp:
The bulk of the mesocarp is parenchymatous. It contains much thickened and
lignified parenchyma in the region of the vascular strands of the ribs. These
thickened walls have large, oval or rounded pits; the bands of thickening between
~26~
Pharmacognosy
them give a reticulate appearance to the walls. This is one of the characteristic
features of the fennel fruit. Mesocarp shows five vascular bundles below each ridge
(thus ridges are known as primary ridges) and six vittae. Reticulate lignified
parenchyma is seen around the vascular bundles.
Vascular bundles are five in number, bicollateral and present below each ridge.
Vittae are schizogenous oil cells, four vittae present on the dorsal side and two on
the commissural surface. Vittae are about 250 μ maximum wide and taper towards
the base and up to the apex of the fruit. Walls appear brown and each duct is
divided into chambers by transverse partitions. Vitta is lined by an epithelium of
small polygonal tabular cells. The number and position of vittae are many times
characteristic of individual umbelliferous fruits. Secondary ridges occurred between
the primary ridges. The number, distribution and arrangement of ridges and vittae
give valuable information for identification of fruits.
iii) Endocarp:
It consists of narrow elongated cells having a parquetry arrangement. In the
transverse section, these cells appear as long narrow rectangular cells with
scattered groups of very short cells.
The powder of fennel is yellowish brown to greenish brown with a pleasant, aromatic
odour and somewhat sweetish taste. It shows the following characters
microscopically:
a) Epicarp:
It is composed of a layer of colourless, thin-walled cells, polygonal in surface view
and with a smooth cuticle. It may show a very few stomata. Stomata may be
surrounded by two to four radiating cells and are found on some fragments of
epicarp. Fragments of epicarp may show slight thickening and beading of the
anticlinal walls.
b) Mesocarp:
The reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp is composed of ovoid, elongated
subrectangular cells with thick, lignified walls with conspicuous oval or rounded pits.
These parenchymatous cells of the mesocarp occur in groups and are frequently
found associated with fibrovascular tissue or with fragments of the endocarp.
c) Endocarp:
It consists of a layer of thin-walled, lignified cells, elongated in surface view and
arranged in groups of about six or more cells with their long axes parallel to each
other, i.e. parquetry arrangement of cells.
d) Vittae:
Numerous yellowish-brown fragments of vittae are observed which are composed of
thin-walled cells. These appear irregular in shape and are found scattered.
~27~
Pharmacognosy
Fig. 6.3: Powder Microscopy of Fennel Fruit

e) Endosperm:
Fragments of endosperm are abundant and are composed of polygonal thick walled
cells with fixed oil globules and aleurone grains. These cells also show presence of
micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.
f) Innermost Layer of Mesocarp:
It consists of slightly thick-walled cells, rounded to rectangular in surface view. This
layer is found associated with the endocarp.
g) Fibrovascular Tissue:
Fragments of fibrovascular tissue are found with lignified small fibres, vessels,
tracheids and a few large vessels with reticulate thickening. Some of the fragments
are associated with reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp.
~28~
Pharmacognosy
The best varieties of Fennel contain 4 to 5% of volatile oil. The primary constituents
of volatile oil are 50 to 60% of anethole, a phenolic ester; and 18 to 22% of
fenchone, a ketone. Fenchone is chemically a bicyclic monoterpene which is a
colourless liquid and the odour and taste is pungent and camphoraceous. The oil of
Fennel has β-pinene, anisic acid, phellandrine, and anisic aldehyde. Fennel also
contains about 20% fixed oil and 20% proteins.
8) Uses:
Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a
digestive, pectoral, and flavouring agent. Anethole may have estrogen-like activity
and inhibit spasms in smooth muscles. Fennel can increase production of bile, used
in the treatment of infant colic, to promote menstruation in women, can increase
lactation, act as antipyretic, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory.

~29~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 7
AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Coriander.
INTRODUCTION:
Coriander consists of dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum, belonging to family
Umbelliferae.
Fig. 7.1: Coriander Fruit

2) Characteristics:
The fruit is a cremocarp, subspherical in shape, Yellowish brown in colour. The size
of the fruit is 3 to 4 mm in diameter, with aromatic odour, and spicy, aromatic taste.
3) Microscopy:
The transverse section of coriander shows the presence of a dorsal surface and a
commissural surface. The dorsal surface consists of two vittae and a carpophore.
The dorsal surface has five primary ridges and four secondary ridges. The epicarp
consists of a single row of small thick-walled cells with calcium oxalate crystals. The
mesocarp has an outer loosely arranged tangentially elongated parenchyma cells
and the middle layer consisting of sclerenchyma.
The middle layer is again divided into; the outer region of sclerenchyma is
represented by longitudinally running fibres, whereas the inner region has
tangentionally running fibres. The vascular bundles are present below the primary
ridges. The inner layer has polygonal, irregularly arranged parenchyma cells. The
endocarp has the parquetry arrangement. In the testa it has single-layered, yellowish
cells, and the endosperm is thick, polygonal, colourless parenchyma with fixed oil
and aleurone grains.
"Mericarps usually coherent; cremocarp nearly globular, from 3 to 5 mm. in
diameter; externally light brown or rose colored; summit with 5 calyx teeth and a
short stylopodium, each mericarp with 5 prominent, straight, longitudinal, primary
ribs and 4 indistinct, undulate secondary ribs; mericarps easily separated, deeply
concave on the inner or commissural surface and showing in transverse section 2
vittae (oil tubes) on the inner surface of each.
~30~
Pharmacognosy
Under the microscope, sections of Coriander show an epidermis of small cells
with thick walls; a layer of several rows of thin-walled more or less collapsed
parenchyma separated from a broad zone of strongly lignified, sclerenchymatous
fibers which extend as a continuous ring in the mesocarp of each of the mericarps; 2
or 3 layers of large, tangentially elongated, thin-walled parenchyma cells, frequently
with numerous large lysigenous intercellular spaces; inner epidermis of large tabular
cells, the inner yellowish walls being considerably thickened and closely coherent to
the brownish cells of the seed-coat; commissural surface with 2 large, elliptical
vittae; the cells of the pericarp separated from the seed-coat and forming a large
elliptical cavity; endosperm distinctly reniform in outline and consisting of tabular or
polygonal thick-walled cells containing numerous large aleurone grains each with a
rosette aggregate or prism of calcium oxalate.
4) Powder Microscopy:
Coriander powder is light brown to brown in colour with aromatic odour and
characteristic aromatic taste. It is characterized microscopically by:
a) Numerous irregular fragments of endosperm cells containing globules of fixed oils
and aleurone grains. Calcium oxalate crystals are numerous, from 0.003 to 0.01
mm. in diameter, mostly in rosette aggregates,
b) Fragments of endocarp cells associated with hexagonal sclerenchyma of the
innermost layer of mesocarp.
c) Sclerenchymatous fibers irregularly curved, having thick, yellowish, lignified walls
and having numerous simple pores and numerous globules of fixed oil.
d) Fragments of characteristic irregularly curved yellowish pitted lignified fusiform fibres
of the mesocarp.
e) Fragments of parenchymatous cells of the mesocarp without reticulate thickening.
f) Very few fragments showing pieces of yellowish brown vittae.
g) Hairs and starch granules are completely absent.
Fig. 7.2: Powder Microscopy of Coriander Fruit

~31~
Pharmacognosy
1) A group of sclereids from the mesocarp with adjacent unlignified parenchyma.
2) Branching vittae (Shows in outline only) and underlying endocarp in surface view.
3) Covering trichomes.
4) Part of a group of fibro-vascular tissue.
5) Epicarp in surface view showing stomata and striated cuticle.
6) Part of two vittae showing transverse septa and part of the underlying endocarp in
surface view.
7) Testa in surface view.
8) Endosperm containing microspheroidal crystals of calcium oxalate.
Coriander consist of about 1% of volatile oil the chief volatile components are D-(+)-
linalool (coriandrol), along with other constituents like, borneol, p-cymene, camphor,
geraniol, limonene, and alpha-pinenes. The fruits also contain fatty oil and
hydroxycoumarins. The fatty oils include acids of petroselic acid, oleic acid, linolenic
acid, whereas the hydroxycoumarins include the umbelliferone and scopoletine.
6) Uses:
Coriander is used as Aromatic, carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic,
diaphoretic and flavouring agent. It is also used as refrigerant, tonic, appetizer,
diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic. Coriander can be applied externally for
rheumatism and painful joints. The infusion of decoction of dried fruit of cardamom is
useful for the treatment of sore-throat, indigestion, vomiting, flatulence, and other
intestinal disorders.
Coriander is a rather feeble aromatic. It is almost exclusively employed in
combination with other medicines, either to cover their taste, to render them
acceptable to the stomach, or to correct their griping qualities.

~32~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 8
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Asafoetida.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Hing (Hindi), Devil‘s dung, Food of the gods.
Asafoetida is an oleo-gum resin obtained as an exudation by incision of the rhizome
and roots of Ferula asafoetida , Ferula foetida, Ferula rubricaulis and some other
species of Ferula, belonging to family Apiaceae.
Asafoetida contains volatile oil (4–20%), resin (40–65%), and gum (25%). The
volatile oil essentially consists of some organic sulphides solely responsible for
attributing the characteristic garlic-like odour. The resin cousists of notannol,
asaresinotannol i.e., the resinalcohols, which are present partially in the free state
and partially in the combined form with ferulic acid. It also contains umbellic acid and
umbelliferone. On treatment of ferulic acid with hydrochloric acid, it is converted into
umbelliferone (a coumarin) which gives blue fluorescence with ammonia.
4) Uses:
a) Used abundantly as a common condiment and flavouring agent in food products.
b) Used as an antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant and laxative.
c) Used as a repellant [2% (w/v) suspension] against dogs, cats, deer, rabbits etc. It is
still employed in veterinary externally to prevent bandage chewing by dogs.
d) It is used as a powerful nerving stimulant especially in nervous disorders related to
hysteria.
e) Used for flavouring curries, sauces, and pickles.
5) Physical test:
a) Shape: Asafoetida occurs as a soft solid mass or irregular lumps. Tears or lumps
are rounded or flattened and about 5–30 mm in diameter.
b) Colour: Grayish-white or dull yellow or reddish brown in colour
c) Odour: Strong garlic-like odour
d) Taste: Bitter, acrid and alliaceous (garlic-like) taste
~33~
Pharmacognosy
e) Solubility: When triturated with water, it makes a milky emulsion. It should not have
more than 50% of matter insoluble in alcohol (90%)
6) Chemical Test or Observation:
Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference
No.
1. Umbelliferone Test: Blue fluorescence Asafoetida is
Boil 1 g asafoetida powder with is obtained Present
HCl (50%), filter and make the
filtrate strongly alkaline with
NH4OH (conc.)
2. To the fractured surface add Green Colour is Asafoetida is
50% nitric acid produced Present
3. To the fractured surface of the A red colour is Asafoetida is
drug, add 1 drop of sulphuric obtained which Present
acid changes to violet
on washing with
water
4. Triturate Asafoetida with water Milky emulsion is Asafoetida is
produced Present

~34~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 9
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Benzoin.
INTRODUCTION:
Benzoin in the balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin and Styrax
paralleloneurus, generally known in trade as Sumatra Benzoin; whereas, Styrax
tonkinensis or other species of the genus Styrax, known commonly in the trade as
Siam Benzoin both belong to the family: Styraceae.
The chemical constituents of the two types of Benzoin are given below:
a) Sumatra Benzoin:
It contains free balsamic acids, largely cinnamic acid (10%), benzoic acid (6%) along
with their corresponding ester derivatives. The amount of cinnamic acid is usually
double that of benzoic acid. It also contains triterpenic acids like siaresinolic acid
(19-hydroxyoleanolic acid) and sumaresinolic acid (6-hydroxy-oleanolic acid); traces
of vanillin, phenylpropyl cinnamate, cinnamyl cinnamate, and phenylethylene.
b) Siam Benzoin:
The principal constituent of Siam Benzoin is coniferyl benzoate (60–80%). Other
constituents are free benzoic acid (10%), triterpene siaresinolic acid (6%), vanillin
and benzyl cinnamate.
3) Uses:
a) Sumatra Benzoin possesses expectorant, antiseptic, carminative, stimulant, and
diuretic properties. It is valuable as an expectorant when vapourized.
b) It is used in cosmetic lotions, perfumery and to prepare Compound Benzoin.
c) It forms an ingredient of inhalations in the treatment of catarrh of upper respiratory
tract in the form of Compound Benzoin Tincture.
d) Benzoin is used as an external antiseptic and protective.
e) It is also used to fix the odour of incenses, skin-soaps, perfumes and other
cosmetics and for fixing the taste of certain pharmaceutical preparations.
f) Benzoin retards rancification of fats and is used for this purpose in the official
benzoinated lard, also used in food, drinks and in incense. Siam Benzoin has been
proved to be a better preservative for lard than the Sumatra Benzoin.
4) Physical Test:
Features Sumatra Benzoin Siam Benzoin
Colour Reddish-brown or greyish-brown Yellowish-brown or reddish-brown
externally, but milky-white or opaque
internally
~35~
Pharmacognosy
Odour Agreeable and balsamic odour Vanilla-like odour
Taste Slightly acrid taste Balsamic taste
Shape Occurs as blocks or irregular masses of Occurs as tears or in blocks of
tears having variable sizes usually variable sizes. The tears are fairly
imbedded either in an opaque or brittle but normally become soft and
translucent matrix. It is rather brittle, plastic like on being chewed.
and from within the tears are milky
white in appearance. It generally
becomes soft when warmed and gritty
when chewed
Solubility
5) Chemical test or Observation for Siam Benzoin:

Sr. No. Chemical Test Observation Inference
1. Heat Sumatra Benzoin (5 g) with 10% No odour is produced Siam Benzoin is
aqueous potassium permanganate present
solution
2. Add petroleum ether solution of Siam Benzoin Siam Benzoin is
Benzoin (0.2 g), 2-3 drops of sulphuric produces purple present
acid are added in a China dish colour
3. Add ferric chloride solution to alcoholic A green colour is Siam Benzoin is
solution of Benzoin produced due to the present
presence of phenolic
compound coniferyl
benzoate
6) Chemical test or Observation for Sumatra Benzoin:

Sr. No. Chemical Test Observation Inference
1. Heat Sumatra Benzoin (5 g) with 10% A bitter almond-like Sumatra Benzoin is
aqueous potassium permanganate odour is produced present
solution due to oxidation of
cinnamic acid
2. Add petroleum ether solution of Sumatra Benzoin Sumatra Benzoin is
Benzoin (0.2 g), two to three drops of produces reddish present
sulphuric acid are added in a China brown colour
dish
3. Add ferric chloride solution to alcoholic No colour is formed Sumatra Benzoin is
solution of Benzoin (This test is negative present
in case of Sumatra
Benzoin which does
not contain sufficient
amount of phenolic
constituents)

~36~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 10
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Acacia.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Indian Gum, Gum Acacia, Gum Arabic
Acacia is the dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of
Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd or other African species of Acacia. In India, it is found as
dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia arabica
Willd, belonging to family Leguminosae
The main chemical constituent of Acacia is arabin, which is a complex mixture of
calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of Arabic acid. Arabic acid is a branched
polysaccharide that yields L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid and L-
rhamnose on hydrolysis. 1, 3-Linked D-galactopyranose units form the backbone
chain of the molecule and the terminal residues of the 1, 6-linked side chains are
primarily uronic acids. Acacia contains 12–15% of water and several occluded
enzymes such as oxidases, peroxidases and pectinases.
4) Uses:
a) The mucilage of acacia is employed as a demulcent.
b) It is used extensively as a vital pharmaceutical aid for emulsification and to serve as
a thickening agent.
c) It finds its enormous application as a binding agent for tablets e.g., cough lozenges.
d) It is used in the process of ‗granulation‘ for the manufacture of tablets. It is
considered to be the gum of choice by virtue of the fact that it is quite compatible
with other plant hydrocolloids as well as starches, carbohydrates and proteins.
e) It is used in conjuction with gelatin to form conservates for microencapsulation of
drugs.
f) It is employed as colloidal stabilizer.
g) It is used extensively in making of candy and other food products.
5) Physical Test:
a) Colour: Tears are usually white, pale-yellow and sometimes creamish-brown to red
in colour. The powder has an off-white, pale-yellow or light-brown in appearance.
b) Odour: Odourless
c) Taste: Bland and mucillagenous
~37~
Pharmacognosy
d) Shape & Size: Tears are mostly spheroidal or ovoid in shape and having a diameter
of about 2.5-3.0 cm
6) Chemical test or Observation:

No.
1 Fehling’s Test: Give a brick-red Reducing Sugar is
Hydrolysis of an aqueous precipitate of present
solution of acacia with dilute HCl cuprous oxide.
yields reducing sugars whose
presence are ascertained by
boiling with Fehling‘s solution
2. Lead Acetate Test: Heavy white Acacia is present
An aqueous solution of acacia precipitate is
when treated with lead-acetate formed
solution
3. Borax Test: Stiff translucent Acacia is present
An aqueous solution of acacia on mass is formed
treatment with borax.
4. A 10% aqueous solution of No precipitate Acacia is present (a
acacia on treatment with dilute clear distinction from
solution of lead acetate Agar and Tragacanth)
5. Aqueous solution of acacia on Does not give Acacia is present (a
treatment with Iodine solution any colour marked distinction from
change starch and dextrin)

~38~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 11
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Agar.
INTRODUCTION:
It consists of dried gelatinous substance obtained from Gelidium amansii and other
members of Gelidium family Rhodophyceae.
Agar is a complex heterosaccharide and contains two different polysaccharides
known as agarose and agaropectin. (a) Agarose- a neutral gelling fraction
(b) Agaropectin- a sulphated non-gelling fraction. Agarose is neutral galactose
polymer and is responsible for the gel property of agar. It consists of D-galactose
and L-galactose unit. The structure of agaropectin is not completely known, but it is
believed that it consists of sulphonated polysaccharide in which galactose and
uronic acid are partially esterified with sulphuric acid. Agaropectin is responsible for
the viscosity of agar solution.
3) Uses:
a) It is also employed as a bulk laxative.
b) It is extensively used in preparing gels in cosmetics.
c) It is widely used as thickening agent in confectionaries and dairy products.
d) It is used in the production of ointments and medicinal encapsulations.
e) In microbiology, it is employed in the preparation of bacteriological culture media.
f) It is used for sizing silks and paper.
g) It finds its enormous usage in the dyeing and printing of fabrics and textiles.
h) It is also used as dental impression mould base.
4) Physical Test:
a) Shape: Agar found in Strips, Bands, Sheets, Flakes and Course Powder
b) Size: Strips are about 60 cm in length and 4 mm wide. Wide sheets are 50–60 cm
long and 10–15 cm wide
c) Colour: Course Powder is grayish white
d) Odour: Odourless
e) Taste: Mucilaginous
f) Solubility: Practically insoluble in cold water, but swells to gelatinous mass. Soluble
in boiling water and forms a gelatinous solution after cooling the hot solution
~39~
Pharmacognosy

No.
1. Molisch test: Carbohydrates is
present
2. Fehling’s Test: Give a brick-red Reducing Sugar is
Hydrolysis of an aqueous solution precipitate of present
of acacia with dilute HCl yields cuprous oxide.
reducing sugars whose presence
are ascertained by boiling with
Fehling‘s solution
3. Boil Agar with water (aqueous Form stiff jelly on Agar is Present
solution of agar 1%) cooling
4. Agar with N/50 iodine Solution Deep crimson to Agar is Present
brown color
5. Add Ruthenium Red to Agar Pink Colour Agar is Present
Solution
6. Agar is warmed in a solution of Canary yellow Agar is Present
KOH colour is formed
7.. Add 0.5 ml of HCl to 10 ml of drug
Solution and heat on water bath
for 30 minutes & divide into two
parts:
a First part + Caustic soda Solution Reduction take Agar confirmed
+ Fehling Solution + heat place due to
galactose
b Add barium chloride solution to White Precipitate Agar confirmed
second part

~40~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 12
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Gelatin.
INTRODUCTION:
It is protein extracted by partial hydrolysis of animal collagenous tissue like skin,
tendons, ligaments and bones with boiling water.
Gelatin consists of the protein glutin which on hydrolysis gives a mixture of amino
acids. The approximate amino-acid contents are: glycine (25.5%), alanine (8.7%),
valine (2.5%), leucine (3.2%), isoleucine (1.4%), cystine and cysteine (0.1%),
methionine (1.0%), tyrosine (0.5%), aspartic acid (6.6%), glutamic acid (11.4%),
arginine (8.1%), lysine (4.1%), and histidine (0.8%). Nutritionally, gelatin is an
incomplete protein lacking tryptophan. The gelatinizing compound is known as
chondrin and the adhesive nature of gelatin is due to the presence of glutin.
3) Uses
a) Gelatin is used to prepare pastilles, pastes, suppositories, capsules, pill-coatings,
gelatin sponge; as suspending agent, tablet binder, coating agent, as stabilizer, and
thickener in food
b) Used for manufacturing rubber substitutes, adhesives, cements, lithographic and
printing inks, plastic compounds, artificial silk, photographic plates and films, light
filters for mercury lamps, clarifying agent, sizing paper and textiles.
c) In bacteriology, for preparing cultures and as a nutrient.
d) It forms glycerinated gelatin with glycerin which is used as vehicle and for
manufacture of suppositories.
e) Combined with zinc, it forms zinc gelatin which is employed as a topical protectant.
f) As a nutrient, Gelatin is used as commercial food products and bacteriologic culture
media.
4) Physical Test:
a) Colour: Colourless to pale yellow
b) Odour: Very slight
c) Taste: Characteristic and bouillon like
d) Shape: Translucent sheets, Flakes and Course to fine Powder
e) Solubility: Insoluble in cold water, but swells and softens, absorbs water but.
soluble in hot water forms jelly on standing
~41~
Pharmacognosy
No.
1 Biuret reaction: A red or violet colour Protein is present
To alkaline solution of a protein (2 is formed
ml), a dilute solution of copper
sulphate is added
2 Xanthoproteic reaction: Yellow colour is Protein is present
Proteins solution is warmed with formed. This colour
concentrated nitric acid becomes orange
when the solution is
made alkaline.
3 Millon’s reaction: White precipitate is Protein is present
Proteins solution is treated with formed which turns
Millon‘s reagent (mercuric nitrate in red on heating
nitric acid containing a trace of
nitrous acid)
4 Ninhydrin test: Red to violet colour is Protein is present
To an aqueous solution of a protein formed
an alcoholic solution of ninhydrin is
added and then heated.
5 Heat with soda lime NH3 evolved Gelatin Present
6 Few drops of tannic acid (10%) is White coloured Gelatin Present
added to solution of Gelatin precipitate is formed
7 Solution of Gelatin is treated with Yellow precipitate is Gelatin Present
picric acid formed

~42~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 13
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Starch.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Corn starch, Potato Starch, Rice Starch, Wheat Starch
Starch comprises of mostly polysaccharide granules usually separated from the fully
grown grains of Corn (Zea mays Linn.), Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.), and Wheat
(Triticum aestivum Linn.) belonging to the family Gramineae and also from the
tubers of Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.) family Solanaceae.
Starch contains chemically two different polysaccharides, such as amylose (β-
amylose) and amylopectin (α-amylose), in the proportion of 1:2. Amylose is water
soluble and amylopectin is water insoluble, but swells in water and is responsible for
the gelatinizing property of the starch. Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while
amylopectin yields bluish black colouration.
4) Uses:
a) It possesses both absorbent and demulcent properties.
b) It is employed in dusting powder because of its unique protective and absorbent
property.
c) It is used in the formulation of tablets and pills as a vital disintegrating agent and a
binder.
d) It is utilized as a diagnostic aid for the proper identification of crude drugs.
e) It is employed as a diluent (or filler) and lubricant in the preparation of capsules and
tablets.
f) It is an antidote of choice for iodine poisoning.
g) ‗Glycerine of starch‘ is used not only as an emolient but also as a base for the
suppositories.
h) It is the starting material for the large scale production of liquid glucose, glucose
syrup, dextrose and dextrin.
i) It possesses nutrient properties as a food and in cereal based weaning foods for
babies.
j) It is used topically and externally to allay itching.
5) Physical Test:
Starch occurs in nature as irregular, angular, white masses that may be easily
reduced to power.
~43~
Pharmacognosy
a) Colour: Rice and maize starch-- White
Wheat starch-- Creamy white
Potato starch-- Pale yellow
b) Odour: Odourless
c) Taste: Mucilaginous
d) Solubility:
6) Identification Tests:
a) Boil 1 g of starch with 15 ml of water and cool. The translucent viscous jelly is
produced.
b) The above jelly turns deep blue by the addition of solution of iodine. The blue colour
disappears on warming and reappears on cooling.

No.
1. Boil 1 g of starch with 15 Translucent viscous jelly is Starch is present
ml of water and cool produced
2. Addition of iodine solution Jelly is turn into deep blue Starch is present
to starch jelly colour. This blue colour
disappears on warming and
reappears on cooling

~44~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 14
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Aloe.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Biological Source: Aloe is the dried latex of leaves of various species of Aloes like
Aloe barbadensis (Curacao Aloe), Aloe ferox (Cape Aloe), Aloe perryi (Socotrine
Aloe), Aloe Africana and Aloe spicata (Cape Aloe). Family Liliaceae.
2) Chemical Constituents: The most important constituents of Aloes are the three
isomers of Aloins, Barbaloin, β-barboloin and Isobarbaloin, which constitute the so-
called ‗crystalline‘ Aloin, present in the drug at from 10 to 30%. Other constituents
are amorphous Aloin, resin, emodin and Aloe-emodin.
Barbaloin is present in all the varieties; it is slightly yellow coloured, bitter, water
soluble, crystalline glycoside. Isobarbaloin is a crystalline substance, present in
Curacao aloe and in trace amount in Cape aloe and absent in Socotrine and
Zanzibar aloe. The chief constituents of Socotrine and Zanzibar aloe are Barbaloin
and β-Barbaloin.
3) Uses:
a) The drug Aloes is one of the safest and stimulating purgatives, in higher doses may
act as abortifacient. Its action is exerted mainly on the large intestine.
b) It is also useful as a vermifuge.
c) Aloe usually causes gripping and is, therefore, administered along with carminatives.
d) The plant is emollient, stimulant, stomachic and tonic.
e) It constitutes an important ingredient in the ‗Compound Tincture of Benzoin‘.
f) The clear gel of the leaf makes an excellent treatment for wounds, burns and other
skin disorders, placing a protective coat over the affected area, speeding up the rate
of healing and reducing the risk of infection. This has an immediate soothing effect
on all sorts of burns and other skin problems.
4) Description:
Sr. Properties Curacao Cape Aloes Socotrine Zanzibar Aloes
No. Aloes Aloes
1. Colour Brownish Dark brown or Brownish Liver brown
black greenish brown yellow
2. Odour Strong Sour and Unpleasant Characteristic
odour distinct odour odour but agreeable
resembles odour
with
~45~
Pharmacognosy
Iodoform
3. Taste Intense NauseatingExtremely bitter Bitter taste
bitter taste and bitter taste
and nauseous
taste
4. Texture Waxy and Breaks with a Fractured A dull, waxy,
somewhat glassy fraction surface looks smooth and
resinous conchoidal even fracture
5. Solubility
5) General Chemical test for Aloe:

Boil 1 g of aloe with 100 ml water, allow it to cool; add 1 g kieselguhr, stir it well and
filter through filter paper.
No.
1. Modified Anthraquinone Test: Ammoniacal layer Anthraquinones
To 0.1 gm of drug, 5 ml of 5% produces pinkish are present.
solution of ferric chloride is added red colour.
followed by the addition of 5 ml
dilute hydrochloric acid. The
mixture is heated on water bath for
5–6 min and cooled. An organic
solvent (benzene or chloroform) is
added and shaken. Separate the
organic solvent layer and add an
equal volume of dilute ammonia.
2. Borax Test: Green coloured Presence of aloe-
Add 0.5 g of borax to 10 ml of aloe fluorescence is emodin, anthranol.
solution and heat. produced.
3. Bromine Test: Bulky yellow Anthraquinones
Add equal volume of bromine precipitate is are present.
solution to 5 ml of aloe solution. formed.
6) Specific Chemical Test for Aloe:

Boil 1 g of aloe with 100 ml water, allow it to cool; add 1 g kieselguhr, stir it well and
filter through filter paper.
No.
1. Nitrous Acid Test:  Sharp pink to  Curacao Aloe
Add sodium nitrite and small caramine colour is present
~46~
Pharmacognosy
quantity of acetic acid to 5 ml of  Faint pink colour  Cape Aloes
aloe solution is present
 Colour  Socotrine
comparatively and Zanzibar
lesser change in aloe is
colour present
2. Nitric Acid Test:  Deep brownish  Curacao Aloe
Solution of aloes when made to red is present
react with nitric acid, it gives rise  Cape Aloe is
to various shades of colour  Initial brownish present
colour changing to
green  Socotrine
 Pale brownish aloe is
yellow present
 Yellowish brown  Zanzibar aloe
is present
3. Cupraloin Test:  Wine red colour  Curacao Aloe
Add a drop of the saturated lasting for few hrs is present
solution of copper sulphate to 10  faint colouration  Cape Aloe is
ml of aqueous solution of aloe, changing to present
immediately followed by 1 g of yellow quickly
NaCl and 20 drops of ethanol  No colouration  Socotrine
(90% v/v). It produces different and Zanzibar
shades of colours depending on aloe is
the variety of aloes used present

~47~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 15
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Honey.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Synonyms:
Madhu, Madh, Purified Honey
Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb by various species
of bees, such as: Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis indica, Apis mellifera, belonging the
natural order Hymenotera (Family: Apideae).
The average composition of honey ranges as follows: Moisture 14-24%, Fructose
30-47%, Dextrose 23-36%, Sucrose 0.4-6%, Dextrin and Gums 0-7% and Ash 0.1-
0.8%. Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oil, beeswax, pollen
grains, formic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, maltose, dextrin, colouring pigments,
vitamins and an admixture of enzymes e.g; diastase, invertase and inulase.
Therefore Honey contains invert sugar. Interestingly, the sugar contents in honey
varies widely from one country to another as it is exclusively governed by the source
of the nector (availability of fragment flowers in the region) and also the enzymatic
activity solely controlling the conversion into honey.
4) Uses:
a) It is used as a sweetening agent in confectionaries.
b) Being a demulsent, it helps to relieve dryness and is, therefore, recommended for
coughs, colds, sore-throats and constipation.
c) Because of its natural content of easily assimilable simple sugars, it is globaly
employed as a good source of nutrient for infants, elderly persons and convalescing
patients.
5) Physical Test:
a) Colour: Pale yellow to reddish brown viscid fluid,
b) Odour: Pleasant and characteristic,
c) Taste: Sweet, Slightly acrid,
d) Specific Gravity: 1.35-1.36
e) Specific Rotation: +3o to –15o
However, the taste and odour of honey solely depends upon the availability of
surrounding flowers from which nectar is collected. On prolonged storage it usually turns
opaque and granular due to crystallization of dextrose and is termed as ‗Granulatrd
honey‘
~48~
Pharmacognosy

No.
1. Fehling’s Solution Test: Brick red colour is Presence of
To an aqueous solution of honey produced reducing sugars
(2 ml) Fehling‘s solutions A and B
are added and the reaction mixture
is heated on a steam bath for 5–10
min.
2. Fiehe’s Test for Artificial Invert Transient red Honey is present
Sugar: colour is formed
Honey (10 ml) is shaken with (in artificial honey
petroleum or solvent ether (5 ml) the colour persists
for 5–10 min. The upper ethereal for sometime)
layer is separated and evaporated
in a china dish. On addition of 1%
solution of resorcinol in
hydrochloric acid (1 ml)

~49~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 16
AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Castor Oil.
INTRODUCTION:
Castor oil is the fixed oil obtained by cold expression of the seeds of Ricinus
communis Linn., belonging to family Euphorbiaceae.
Castor oil consists of glyceride of ricinoleic acid, isoricinoleic, stearic, and dihydroxy
stearic acids. Ricinoleic acid is responsible for laxative property. Ricinoleic acid is
the main component of the oil. The ricinoleic acid is an 18-carbon acid having a
double bond in the 9–10 position and a hydroxyl group on the 12th carbon. This
combination of hydroxyl group and unsaturation occurs only in castor oil.
3) Uses:
a) Castor oil is mild purgative, fungistatic, used as an ointment base, as plasticizer,
wetting agents, as a lubricating agent.
b) Ricinoleic acid is used in contraceptive creams and jellies
c) It is also used as an emollient in the preparation of lipsticks, in tooth formulation, as
an ingredient in hair oil.
d) The main use of castor oil is the industrial production of coatings, also employed to
make pharmaceuticals and cosmetics in the textile and leather industries and for
manufacturing plastics and fibres.
4) Physical Test:
a) Colour: Colourless or slightly yellow coloured
b) Odour: Slightly characteristic
c) Taste: Slightly acrid Taste
d) Solubility: It is a viscid liquid. It is soluble in absolute alcohol in all proportions
e) Specific Gravity: 0.958 to 0.969
f) Refractive Index: 1.4695 to 1.4730
g) Saponification Value: 177 to 187
~50~
Pharmacognosy

No.
1. About 5 ml of light petroleum (50° Clear solution is Castor oil is
to 60°) when mixed with 10 ml of formed present
castor oil at 15.5°C
2. About 15 ml of light petroleum (50° Turbid mixture is Castor oil is
to 60°) when mixed with 10 ml of formed present
castor oil at 15.5°C
3. When equal amount of ethanol is Clear liquid is Castor oil is
added to castor oil obtained present

~51~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 17
AIM: To determine the Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index of Leaf.
INTRODUCTION:
1) Stomata:
It is a minute epidermal opening covered by pair of kidney-shaped cells called guard
cells in dicot leaves. These guard cells, in turn, are surrounded by epidermal
(subsidiary) cells. Stomata perform the functions of gaseous exchange and
transpiration in plants. The nature of the stomata, as well as, the stomatal index and
stomatal number are important diagnostic characteristics of dicot leaves.
2) Types of Stomatal Arrangement:
According to the arrangement of the epidermal cells surrounding the stomata, they
have been grouped as follows:
a) Anomocytic or Ranunculaceous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded by a varying
number of cells in no way differing from those of the epidermal cells as in Digitalis,
Eucalyptus, neem etc.
b) Anisocytic or Cruciferous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded by usually three
subsidiary cells of which one is markedly smaller than the others. This type of stoma
is also called the Solanaceous type as it is found in many plants of the family
Solanaceae, such as Belladonna, Datura, Hyoscyamus, Stramonium etc
c) Diacytic or Caryophyllaceous Stomata: The stoma is accompanied by two
subsidiary cells, the long axis of which is at right angles to that of the stoma. This
type of stoma is also, called the Labiatae type as it is found in many plants of the
family Labiatae such as vasaka, tulsi, spearmint and peppermint.
d) Paracytic or Rubiaceous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded usually by two
subsidiary cells, the long axis of which are parallel to that of stoma as in Senna and
many Rubiaceous plants.
3) Stomatal Number:
It is defined as the average number of stomata present per sq mm of epidermis of
the leaf. The actual number of stomata per sq mm may vary for the leaves of the
same plant grown in different environment or under different climatic condition. It is
however, shown that the ratio of the number of stomata to the total number of
epidermal cells in a given area of epidermis is fairly constant for any age of the plant
and under different climatic conditions. Type of stomata was also observed on the
same preparation.
~52~
Pharmacognosy
Fig. 17.1: a) Anomocytic b) Anisocytic c) Diacytic d) Paracytic Stomata

4) Stomatal Index:
It is the percentage which the numbers of stomata form to the total number of
epidermal cells, each stoma being counted as one cell. Stomatal number varies
considerably with the age of the leaf and due to changes in environmental
conditions, stomatal index is relatively constant and, therefore, of diagnostic
significance for a given species. Same leaf preparations were used as for stomatal
number. Number of epidermal cells and stomata (the two guard cells and ostiole was
considered as one unit) were counted within the square. Ten determinations were
carried out and the average was calculated. Stomatal index can be calculated by
using the following formula:-
S
Stomatal Index (S.I) = E+S
𝑋100
Where, S= Number of stomata per unit area
E=Number of epidermal cells in the same unit area.
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, stage micrometer, camera Lucida, drawing paper, Lactophenol
solution and glycerin water.
PROCEDURE:
a) Clear the fragments of leaf from the middle of lamina by boiling with Lactophenol
solution or alternatively with chlorinated soda. Peel out upper and lower epidermis
separately by means of forceps.
b) Arrange a camera lucida and drawing paper for marking the drawing.
c) Mount the lower and upper epidermis separately in glycerin water.
~53~
Pharmacognosy
d) Draw a square of 1 mm with the use of a stage micrometer and camera lucida on a
drawing paper.
e) Replace the stage micrometer by the cleared leaf preparation, focus under the same
magnification and trace the epidermal cells and stomata by looking through the
microscope when a superimposed image of the leaf is seen at the same time.
f) Count the number of epidermal cells and stomata (the two guard cells and ostiole
being considered as one unit) within the square, a cell being counted of at least half
of its area lies within the square, provided two adjacent sides are considered for
purpose of calculation.
g) Record the result for each of the ten fields and calculate the stomatal number i.e.
number of stomata per sq mm of leaf preparation. Calculate the stomatal Index
using the following formula:
S
Stomatal Index (S.I.) = E+S 𝑋100.
h) Determine the values for each surface where the leaf bears stomata on both
surface.
Fig. 17.2: Tracing for Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index
Table 17.1: Stomatal Index of Various Crude Drugs

Sr. Plant Name Stomatal Index
No. Upper Surface Lower Surface
1. Atropa acuminate 1.7--4.8--12.2 16.2--17.5--18.3
2. Atropa belladonna 2.3--3.9--10.5 20.2--21.7--23.0
3. Cassia acutifolia 11.4--12.4--13.3 10.8--11.8--12.6
4. Cassia angustifolia 17.1--19.0--20.7 17.0--18.3--19.3
5. Datura metel 12.7--17.4--19.4 21.2--22.3--23.9
6. Datura stramonium 16.4--18.1--20.4 24.1--24.9--26.3
7. Digitalis lanata 13.9--14.4--14.7 14.9--16.1--17.6
8. Digitalis purpurea 1.6--2.7--4.0 17.9--19.2--19.5

~54~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 18
AIM: To determine the Vein-Islet and Veinlet termination number of Leaf.
INTRODUCTION:
The mesophyll of the leaf in dicot leaves is divided into small portions by branching of
the veins throughout the tissues. The small areas of the green tissue outlined by the
veinlets are termed as veinislets.
Vein-islet Number: Vein-islet number is defined as the number of vein-islets per sq mm
of the leaf surface midway between the midrib and the margin. It is a constant for a
given species of the plant and is used as a characteristic for the identification of the
allied species. Levin in 1929 determined vein-islet numbers of several dicot leaves.
Veinlet Termination Number: Veinlet termination number is defined as the number of
veinlet termination per sq mm of the leaf surface midway between midrib and margin. A
vein termaination is the ultimate free termination of veinlet. Hall and Melville in 1951
determined veinlet termination number of distinguishing between Indian and Alexandrian
Senna.
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, stage micrometer, camera lucida, drawing paper, lactophenol
solution and glycerin water.
PROCEDURE:
a) Boil a few leaves in lactophenol solution in test-tube placed in a boiling water bath. If
the leaves are difficult to clear in this manner, soak them in water, treat successively
with chlorinated soda for bleaching, 10% hydrochloric acid for the removal of calcium
oxalate and finally lactophenol.
b) Mount the preparation in glycerin water.
c) Set up the camera lucida and divide the paper into squares of 4 sq mm by means of
the stage micrometer.
d) Replace the stage micrometer by the cleared leaf preparation and trace the veins in
four continuous squares, either in square of 4 mm X 4 mm or rectangle of 1 mm X 4
mm. Trace the vein-islet and veinlet termination by looking through the microscope
when a superimposed image of the leaf portion and paper is seen at the same time.
e) Count the number of vein-islets and veinler termination present within the square of
rectangle and also by taking into consideration incomplete vein-islers and any two
adjacent sides of the square or rectangle.
~55~
Pharmacognosy
f) Record the observation in the form of range and also indicate the mean value.
The range for the vein-islet number of Cassia angustifolia (Indian Senna) is 19.5 to
22.5 with an average value of 21. The veinlet termination number for Indian Senna is
25.6 to 32.8
Fig. 18.1: Tracing for Vein-islet and Veinlet Termination Number

VT- Veinlet termination number, VI- Vein-islet number
Table 18.1: Vein-islet and Veinlet Termination Number of Various Crude Drugs
Sr. Plant Name Vein Islet Number Veinlet Termination Number

No.
1. Cassia angustifolia 19.5--22.5 25.6--32.8
2. Cassia acutifolia 25.0--29.5 32.7--40.2
3. Digitalis purpurea 2.0--5.5 2.4--4.2
4. Erythroxylum coca 8.0--12.0 16.6--21.0

~56~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 19
AIM: To measure the dimension of calcium oxalate crystals by eye piece

micrometer.
INTRODUCTION:
Calcium Oxalate Crystals:
Calcium oxalate crystals are considered as excretory products of plant metabolism.
They occur in different forms drugs in entire and powdered forms.
1) Microsphenoidal or sandy crystals—Belladonna.
2) Single acicular crystals—Cinnamon, gentian,
3) Prismsmatic crystals—Quassia, hyoscyamus, senna, rauwolfia, cascara.
4) Rosettes crystals—Stramonium, senna, cascara, rhubarb.
5) Bundles of acicular crystals—Squill, ipecacuanha.
The sections to be examined for calcium oxalate should be cleared with caustic alkali or
chloral hydrate. These reagents very slowly dissolve the crystals, so the observation
should be made immediately after clearing the section. The polarizing microscope is
useful in the detection of small crystals. Mount the cleared section or powder in the
following reagents and observe the crystals.
1) Acetic acid—Insoluble
2) Caustic alkali—Insoluble
3) Hydrochloric acid—Soluble
4) Sulphuric acid (60% w/w)—Soluble, on standing replaced by needles of calcium
sulphate.
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer and glycerin water.
PROCEDURE:
1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using stage micrometer.
2) Mount a little quantity of powdered sample in glycerin water and measure the length
and breadth of 25 calcium oxalate crystals. Multiple the values by the least count for
the exact dimensions of the crystals.
3) Calculate the average value and give the range for the dimensions.
In case of cascara bark, the calcium oxalate crystals range from 10-25-45µ, while in
case of frangula bark, they measure up to 15µ.
~57~
Pharmacognosy
Microscopical Drawing: The image of an object under the microscope can be traced
on paper with the help of Swift-lves camera Lucida and a drawing board, whose
inclination can be adjusted. The camera lucida fixed over the eyepiece of the
microscope. The path of light from the object passing directly to the observer‘s eye
through an opening in the silvered surface of the left hand prism. At the same time light
form the drawing paper and pencil is reflected by the right hand prism and by the
silvered surface, so that the pencil appears superimposed on the object enabling it to be
traced on the paper. Other types of camera lucida, working on the similar principle are
also available.

~58~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 20
AIM: To measure the size of starch grains by eye piece micrometer.
INTRODUCTION:
Starch: Starch is present in different parts of the plant in the form of granules of varying
size. Starch is found abundantly in fruit, seed, root, rhizome and as smaller grains in
chlorophyll containing tissue of the plant such as leaf. Starches of different origins can
be identified by studying their size, shape and structure, as well as, position of the hilum
and striations. Chemically, starches are polysaccharides containing amylopectin and β-
amylose. Starch turns blue to violet when treated with iodine solution.
Starches of pharmaceutical interest are obtained from maize, rice, wheat and potato.
These starches can be differentiated from each other by microscopical examination. A
comparative account of their macroscopical, microscopical and physical characteristics
is given in the Table. For purpose of microscopical studies, the powder should be
mounted in Smiths starch reagent containing equal parts of glycerin, water and 50%
acetic acid.
Table 20.1: Characteristics of some Starch Grains
Sr. Characteristic Maize Rice Wheat Potato

No.
1. Colour White White Faint grey Yellowish Tint
2. Shape Simple Simple or Mostly simple Flattened
grains, compound grains, Faint ovoid or
angular, grains, striations, subspherical,
hilum polyhedral Hilum appears well-marked
central, with sharp as line striations,
rarely angles hilum
compound eccentric.
grains
3. Size 5–30 μm 2-10 μm Small- 2–9 μm 10-100 μm
Large-10–45
μm
4. pH Neutral Alkaline Acidic Acidic
5. Moisture 13 13 13 20
Content (%v/w)
~59~
Pharmacognosy
A systematic description of starch grains should include:
1) Shape—Ovoid, spherical, sub-spherical, ellipsoidal, polyhedral, etc.
2) Size—Dimensions in μm.
3) Position of hilum—Central, eccentric, pointed, radiate, linear, etc.
4) Aggregation—Simple, compound; number of components present in a compound
grain.
5) Appearance between crossed polaroids.
6) Location—Loose, present in type of cell and tissue.
7) Frequency—Occasional, frequent, abundant.
Fig. 201: Starch Grain Obtained from Different Sources

REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer, Lactophenol solution,
Iodine, dilute glycerin.
PROCEDURE:
1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using the stage micrometer and calculate the
least count (L.C).
2) Mount a little quantity of powdered drug with lactophenol. Add a drop of iodine
solution.
~60~
Pharmacognosy
3) Measure the diameter of isolated starch grains in mount (appearing as a blue colour
grains) by focusing them on the scales of eyepiece micrometer. Note the number of
divisions being covered by the starch grain.
4) Calculate the dimensions of 50 starch grains. Multiply the value by the least count
(L.C), so as to get the actual dimension of starch grain in microns.
5) Calculate the average value and give the range for the dimensions of starch grains.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Division of eyepiece covering Least count (L.C.) (A x B)

No. the diameter of starch grain (A) in μm (B)
1.
RESULTS:
The minimum diameter of starch grain is _________ μm.
The maximum diameter of starch grain is_________ μm.
Average diameter of starch grain is______ μm.

~61~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 21
AIM: To measure the length and width of Fibers.
INTRODUCTION:
Fibres may be defined as any hair-like raw material directly obtainable from an animal,
vegetable, or mineral source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or paper
or, after spinning into yarns, into woven cloth. A natural fibre may be further defined as
an agglomeration of cells in which the diameter is negligible in comparison with the
length. Although nature abounds in fibrous materials, especially cellulosic types such as
cotton, wood, grains, and straw. The usefulness of a fibre for commercial purposes is
determined by such properties as length, strength, pliability, elasticity, abrasion
resistance, absorbency, and various surface properties. Most textile fibres are slender,
flexible, and relatively strong.
Chemically, all vegetable fibres consist mainly of cellulose, although they also
contain varying amounts of such substances as hemicellulose, lignin, pectins, and
waxes that must be removed or reduced by processing. The animal fibres consist
exclusively of proteins. Silk filaments are extruded by the larvae of moths and are used
to spin their cocoons.
With the exception of mineral fibres, all natural fibres have an affinity for water in
both liquid and vapour form. Natural fibres tend to yellow upon exposure to sunlight and
moisture, and extended exposure results in loss of strength.
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer, Lactophenol solution,
phloroglucinol, hydrochloric acid, dilute glycerin.
PROCEDURE:
1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using the stage micrometer and calculate the
least count (L.C).
2) Boil a little quantity of powdered drug with chloral hydrate solution. Remove cleared
powder in a watch glass and stain with one drop each of phloroglucinol and
concentrated hydrochloric acid (1:1).
3) Mount a little of the treated powder in dilute glycerin and replace the stage
micrometer slide with the slide of sample and observe the slide under row powder.
4) Measure the width and length of the stained fiber by focusing them on the lines of
eyepiece micrometer. Note the number of division covered by the width of the fibre.
5) Calculate the values for 25 fibres and multiply them by the least count (L.C).
Calculate the average value and indicate the range for the width and length of fibres.
~62~
Pharmacognosy
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Division of eyepiece covering Least count (L.C.) (A x B)

No. the width of fibre (A) in μm (B)
1.
2.
The powders of Ceylon cinnamon and Cassia cinnamon can be distinguished form each
other on the basis of the average value for the width of fibres. In Ceylon cinnamon, the
range for width of fibres is from 12-22-35μm, whereas in Cassia bark the width of fibres
is from 30-36-45μm.
RESULTS:
The minimum length of fibre is _________ μm.
The maximum length of fibre is_________ μm.
The minimum width of fibre is _________ μm.
The maximum widht of fibre is_________ μm.
Average length of phloem fibres is______ μm.
Average width of phloem fibres is______ μm.

~63~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 22
AIM: To determine the palisade ratio of the leaf.
INTRODUCTION:
It is defined as the average number of palisade cells beneath each epidermal cell.
Unlike veinislet number for the determination of which an unbroken portion of the leaf is
required, palisade ratio can be determined with the powdered drug. The technique of
palisade ratio determination was introduced by Zorning and Weiss (1925) in their studies
on Compositae.
Pieces of leaf about 2 mm square were cleared by boiling with chloral hydrate
solution. A camera lucida was arranged so that the epidermal cells and the palisade
cells lying below them may be traced. First a number of groups each of four epidermal
cells were traced and their outlines made more conspicuous. The palisade cells lying
beneath each group were then focused and traced. The palisade cells in each group
were counted, cells which were more than half covered by the epidermal cells were also
counted; the figure obtained was divided by 4 to obtain palisade ratio of that group.
Twenty five groups from different leaf samples were determined for the calculation of
range and average
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, camera lucida, drawing paper, chloral hydrate solution and
glycerin water.
PROCEDURE:
1) Clear the piece of leaf or powder by boiling with chloral hydrate solution.
2) Mount the sample in glycerin water and focus under high magnification.
3) Attach a camera lucida and trace the outlines of four continuous epidermal cells and
link the outline.
4) Focus the palisade cells by slightly lowering the draw tube and trace the palisade
cells lying immediately beneath the same four epidermal cells.
5) Count the palisade cells in each group. Include those cells in the count which are
more than half covered by the epidermal cells. Divide the figure obtained by four to
obtain the palisade ratio.
6) Determine the palisade ratio for both the surfaces of the leaf.
7) Consider the average of five such determination for the calculation of range and
average.
~64~
Pharmacognosy
8) The range for palisade ratio of Indian senna is given below-
9) Upper surface: 4.0—12.0
Lower surface: 2.5—10.5
Fig. 22.1: Tracing for Palisade Ratio
Table 22.1: Palisade Ratio of Various Drugs

Sr. No. Plant Name Palisade Ratio
1. Atropa belladonna 6.0 — 10.0
2. Datura stramonium 4.0 — 7.0
3. Digitalis purpurea 3.7 — 4.2
4. Solanum nigrum 2.0 — 4.0

~65~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 23
AIM: To determine the number of starch grain by Lycopodium spore method.
INTRODUCTION:
Lycopodium spore method is a method for the study of powdered drugs having well-
defined particles which may be counted—for example, starch grains or single layered
cells or tissues—the area of which may be traced under suitable magnification or the
objects of uniform thickness, and the length of which, can be measured under suitable
magnification and actual area calculated are usually evaluated using this method. It is
used when chemical and other methods of evaluation of crude drugs fail as accurate
measures of quality. On average 94000 spores per mg of powdered lycopodium are
present.
Adulterated starchy drugs can be determined by counting the number of starch
grains per mg and calculating the amount from the known number of starch grains per
mg of the pure starch or starchy material. Thus, if spent ginger is the adulterant, one
knows that ginger contains 286,000 starch grains per mg, and the amount used as an
adulterant can be calculated by using this figure. The percentage purity of an authentic
powdered ginger is calculated using the following equation:
% purity of drugs = N x W x 94,000 x 100
SxMxP
If the material is one for which a constant is not available, it is necessary to determine
one by a preliminary experiment.
REQUIREMENTS:
Compound microscope, camera lucida, drawing paper, chloral hydrate solution and
glycerin water.
PROCEDURE:
1) Determine the loss of drying of the powdered material at 105° C, Mix about 100 mg
powdered drug and 50 mg of lycododium using a small flexible spatula on a glass
plate, with a little of the suspending fluid.
2) Add sufficient quantity of suspending fluid (glycerin: mucilage of tragacanth: water—
2:1:2) to the mixture until a smooth thin paste results, transfer it to a stoppered tube
by washing with excess of suspending fluid. Adjust the final volume so that about 15
to 20 spores are observed in the field using a 4 mm objective. (Approximately 4 ml of
the suspending agent is sufficient for 50 mg of lycopodium).
~66~
Pharmacognosy
3) Oscillate the stoppered container gently in order to obtain uniformity of suspension.
Place one drop of the suspension on each of two slides, spread with a thin glass rod
or needle, apply the cover slip and leace aside for few minutes on the table in order
to allow the fluid mixture to settle evenly.
4) Count the starch grains of ginger and lycopodium spores in each of 25 different
fields selected for observation.
5) Prepare another similar suspension and repeat the exercise.
6) From the mean of the 4 sets of the counts and percentage of moisture present,
calculate the number of starch grains per mg of the powder with reference to the
powder dried at 105° C.
7) Pure Jamaica ginger contains 286000 starch grains per mg.
8) Calculate the percentage purity of ginger powder using the following formula-
% purity of drugs = N x W x 94,000 x 100

SxMxP
where,
N = number of characteristic structures (e.g. starch grains) in 25 fields;
W = weight in mg of lycopodium taken;
S = number of lycopodium spores in the same 25 fields;
M = weight in mg of the sample, calculated on basis of sample dried at 105°C; and
P = 2,86,000 in case of ginger starch grains powder.
94,000 = number of lycopodium spores per mg

~67~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 24
AIM: To perform preliminary phytochemical screening of crude drugs.
THEORY:
The extract should be subjected to preliminary phytochemical investigation for the
detection of alkaloids, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponins,
sterols, lipids and fats etc.
1) Tests for Alkaloids:
Few mg of residue of each extract was taken separately in 5 ml of 1.5% v/v
hydrochloric acid and filtered. These filtrates were then used for testing alkaloids
with following reagents:
a) Dragendorffs Test:
It was prepared by mixing two solutions. Solution A (17 g of bismuth subnitrate + 200
g tartaric acid + 800 ml distilled water) and solution B (160 g potassium iodide + 4 ml
distilled water) were mixed in 1:1 v/v proportion. From this solution working standard
was prepared by taking 50 ml of this solution and adding 100 g of tartaric acid and
making upto 500 ml with distilled water.
The above Dragendorff‘s reagent was sprayed on Whatmann No. 1 filter paper
and the paper was dried. The test filtrate after basification with dilute ammonia was
extracted with chloroform and the chloroform extract was applied on the filter paper,
impregnated with Dragendorff‘s reagent, with the help of a capillary tube.
Development of an orange red colour on the paper indicated the presence of
alkaloids.
b) Mayer’s Test (Potassium Mercuric Iodide Reagent):
The Mayer‘s reagent was prepared as follows: 1.36 g of mercuric chloride was
dissolved in 60 ml of distilled water. Both the solutions were mixed and diluted to
100 ml with distilled water.
To a little of the test filtrate, taken in a watch glass, a few drops of the above
reagent were added. Formation of cream coloured precipitate showed the presence
of alkaloids.
c) Wagner’s Test (Iodine-Potassium Iodine):
1.27 g of iodine and 2 g of potassium iodide were dissolved in 5 ml of water and the
solution was diluted to 100 ml with water. When few drops of this reagent were
added to the test filtrate, a brown flocculent precipitate was formed indicating the
presence of alkaloids.
~68~
Pharmacognosy
d) Hager’s Reagent:
A saturated aqueous solution of picric acid was employed for this test. When the test
filtrate was treated with this reagent, an orange yellow precipitate was obtained,
indicating the presence of alkaloids.
e) Tannic Acid Reagent:
A freshly prepared 5% aqueous solution of tannic acid was used for this test. To a
little of the test filtrate the above reagent was added. Formation of precipitate
(soluble in ammonia and dilute acids) gave the indication of presence of alkaloids.
2) Tests for Saponins:
a) Foam Test:
A few mg of the test residue was taken in a test tube and shaken vigorously with a
small amount of sodium bicarbonate and water. It is a stable, characteristic
honeycomb like froth is obtained, saponins are present.
b) Haemolysis Test:
A little of the test residue was dissolved in normal saline in such a way that 5 ml of
the solution represented 1 g of the crude drug. In a series of 5 test tubes, doses of
0.2 ml, 0.4 ml, 0.6 ml, 0.8 ml and 1 ml were added and volume was made upto 1ml
in each case with normal saline. 1ml of diluted blood (0.5 ml of rabbit‘s blood diluted
to 25 ml with normal saline) was added to each tube and changes observed. If
hemolysis of blood occurs the saponins are present.
3) Tests for Sterols:
a) Salkowaski Reaction:
Few mg of the residue of each extract was taken in 2 ml of chloroform and 2 ml of
conc. sulphuric acid was added from the side of the test-tube. The test-tube was
shaken for few minutes. The development of red colour in the chloroform layer
indicated the presence of sterols.
b) Liebermann’s Test:
To a few mg of the residue in a test-tube, few ml of acetic anhydride was added and
gently heated. The contents of the test-tube were cooled. Few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid were added from the side of the test-tube. A blue colour gave the
evidence of presence of sterols.
c) Liebermann-Burchard’s Reaction:
Few mg of residue was dissolved in chloroform and few drops of acetic anhydride
were added to it, followed by concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the tube. A
transient colour development from red to blue and finally green indicated the
presence of sterols.
~69~
Pharmacognosy
4) Tests for Carbohydrate:
a) Molisch’s Test:
The Molisch‘s reagent was prepared by dissolving 10 g of a-naphthol in 100 ml of
95% alcohol. A few mg of the test residue was placed in a test-tube containing 0.5
ml of water, and it was mixed with 2 drops of Molisch‘s reagent. To this solution, was
added 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the inclined test-tube, so
that the acid formed a layer beneath the aqueous solution without mixing with it. If a
red brown ring appears at the common surface of the liquids, sugars are present.
b) Fehling’s Solution Test:
Fehling‘s solution A and Fehling‘s solution B were mixed in equal volumes
immediately before use. A little of the test residue was dissolved in water, and a few
ml of the Fehling‘s solution was added to it. This mixture was then warmed. If a red
precipitate of cuprous oxide is obtained, reducing sugars are present.
c) Benedict's Test:
Treat the extract with few drops of Benedict's reagent (alkaline solution containing
Cupric citrate complex) and upon boiling on water bath, reddish brown precipitate
forms if reducing sugars are present.
5) Tests for Tannins:
The test residue of each extract was taken separately in water, warmed and filtered.
Tests were carried out with the filtrate using following reagents.
a) Lead Acetate Test:
A 10% w/v solution of basic lead acetate in distilled water was added to the test
filtrate. If precipitate is obtained, tannins are present
b) Ferric Chloride Reagent:
A 5% w/v solution of ferric chloride in 90% alcohol was prepared. Few drops of this
solution were added to a little of the above filtrate. If dark green or deep blue colour
is obtained, tannins are present..
c) Gelatin Solution Test:
1% w/v solution of gelatin in water, containing 10% sodium chloride was prepared. A
little of this solution was added to the filtrate. If white precipitate is obtained, tannins
are present.
d) Bromine Water Test:
Bromine solution was added to the test filtrate. If decolorization of bromine water
occurs, tannins are present.
6) Fatty Acid and Fixed Oil:
a) Spot Test:
Pressed the small quantity of extract between two filter papers, the stain on 1st filter
paper indicates the presence of fixed oils.
~70~
Pharmacognosy
7) Tests for Flavonoids:
a) Shinoda Test (Magnesium Hydrochloride Reduction Test):
A small quantity to test residue was dissolved in 5 ml ethanol (95% v/v) and reacted
with few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 0.5 g of magnesium metal. The
pink, crimson or magenta colour is developed within a minute or two, if flavonoids
are present.
b) Alkaline Reagent Test:
To the extract solution, add few drops of Sodium hydroxide solution; formation of an
intense yellow color that turns to colorless on addition of few drops of dilute acetic
acid indicates the presence of flavonoids.
c) Zinc-Hydrochloride Reduction Test:
To the extract solution, add a mixture of Zinc dust and conc. Hydrochloric acid. It
gives red color after few minutes.
Table 24.1: Phytochemical Analysis of Extract
Sr. Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Observation

No.
1. Alkaloids Mayer's test
Dragendorff's test
Wagner's test
Hager's test
Tannic acid reagent
2. Saponins Foam test
3. Sterols Salkowaski test
Leibermann's reagent
Leibermann Burchard's Reaction
4. Carbohydrates Molisch's test
Fehling's test
Benedict test
5. Tannins Lead acetate solution
Ferric chloride solution
Gelatin solution test
Bromine water test
6. Fatty acid & fixed oil Spot test
7. Flavonoids Shinoda test
Ammonia test
Zinc-Hydrochloride reduction
test

~71~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 25
AIM: To determine the total Ash value of given drug.
THEORY:
The ash remaining after ignition of crude drug is determined by three different methods
that are total ash, acid-insoluble ash and water-soluble ash. The total ash method is
used to measure the total amount of material remaining after ignition. This includes both
physiological ash and non-physiological ash. Physiological ash is derived from the plant
tissue itself, and ―non-physiological‖ ash, which is the residue of the extraneous matter
(e.g. sand and soil) adhering to the plant surface. Total ash is useful in detecting the
crude drugs that are mixed with various mineral substances like sand, soil, calcium
oxalate, chalk powder, or other drugs with different inorganic contents to improve their
appearance. The maximum temperature used for total ash should be not more than
450°C because alkali chlorides that may be volatile in higher temperatures would be
lost.
REQUIREMENTS:
Crucible, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace, Weighing balance, Tonge.
PROCEDURE:
1) Place about 2–4 g of the powdered air-dried material, accurately weighed in a silica
crucible which is previously ignited and weighed.
2) The powdered drug is spread as an even layer in the crucible and ignited at a
temperature not exceeding 450ºC until it is white, indicating the absence of carbon.
3) Cool in a desiccator and weigh.
4) If carbon-free ash cannot be obtained in this manner, cool the crucible and moisten
the residue with about 2 ml of water or a saturated solution of ammonium nitrate.
5) Dry on a water-bath, then on a hot-plate and ignite to constant weight.
6) Allow the residue to cool in a suitable desiccator for 30 minutes, then weigh without
delay.
7) Calculate the percentage of total ash with reference to air dried material.
CALCULATION:
Weight of empty silica crucible — A
Weight of powdered drug — B
Weight of silica crucible and powdered drug — C
~72~
Pharmacognosy
Weight of silica crucible and ash — D
Weight of ash — (C — D)
B g of crude drug gives (C — D) g of the ash
100 g of crude drug gives (C — D)/ B x 100 g of the ash
Total ash value of the sample — 100x(C — D)

B

~73~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 26
AIM: To determine the Acid Insoluble Ash value of given drug.
THEORY:
Acid-insoluble ash means the ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. It is often of more
value than the total ash. Acid-insoluble ash is the residue obtained after boiling the total
ash with dilute hydrochloric acid, and igniting the remaining insoluble matter. This
measures the amount of silica present, especially as sand and siliceous earth. The
majority of crude drugs contain calcium oxalate and the quantity of calcium oxalate
varies frequently. So total ash of a crude drug vary within wide limits for specimens of
genuine drug, for example, rhubarb, total ash range from 8 — 40%. In this case, the
total ash is useless to detect earthy matter adherent to such a drug. Therefore acid
insoluble ash would be preferable for rhubarb. The calcium oxide or carbonate, yielded
by the incinerated oxalate, will be soluble in hydrochloric acid when the ash is treated
with hydrochloric acid; the remaining ash is weighed, which is known as the acid-
insoluble ash. We can detect the presence of excessive earthy matter by this method,
which is likely to occur with roots and rhizomes.
REQUIREMENTS:
Ashless Filter paper, dilute hydrochloric acid, Beaker, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace,
Weighing balance, Tonge.
PROCEDURE:
1) Add 25 ml of hydrochloric acid to the silica crucible containing the total ash, cover
with a watch-glass and boil gently for 5 minutes.
2) Rinse the watch-glass with 5 ml of hot water and add this liquid to the crucible.
3) The insoluble ash is collect on an ash less filter paper and washed with hot water
until the filtrate is neutral.
4) Transfer the filter-paper containing the insoluble matter to the original silica crucible,
dry on a hotplate and ignite to constant weight.
5) Allow the residue to cool in a suitable desiccator for 30 minutes, then weigh without
delay.
6) Calculate the content of acid-insoluble ash with reference to air dried material.
CALCULATION:
Acid insoluble ash, % by mass = 100× (W2-W1)
W
~74~
Pharmacognosy
Where,
W1=weight in g of the empty dish
W2=weighrt in g of the dish with acid insoluble ash and
W=weight in g of the sample.
Observation (Fior Exapmle)

Samp[le weight Weight of empty Wweight with acid ash
cruci\ble insulble ash
W(g) W(g) W(g) %
2.0001 33.7174 33.7352 0.89
RESULT
The percentage amount of acid insoluble ash present is -----------%.
PRECAUTION
 Ashing should be proper.
 Ashless filter paper should be used for the filtration.

~75~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 27
AIM: To determine the Water Soluble Ash value of given drug.
THEORY:
Water-soluble Ash:
Water-soluble ash is the difference in weight between the total ash and the residue after
treatment of the total ash with water. The water-soluble ash is used to detect the
presence of material exhausted by water. The total ash and acid-insoluble ash values of
Guduchi are not more than 16 and 3%, respectively. The total ash value and water-
soluble ash values of ginger are 6 and 1.7%, respectively.
REQUIREMENTS:
Silica crucible, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace, Ashless filter paper, Weighing balance,
Tonge.
PROCEDURE:
1) To the crucible containing the total ash, add 25 ml of water and boil for 5 minutes.
2) Collect the insoluble matter in a sintered-glass crucible or on an ashless filter paper.
3) Wash with hot water and ignite in a crucible for 15 minutes at a temperature not
exceeding 450 °C.
4) Subtract the weight of this residue in mg from the weight of total ash.
5) Calculate the content of water-soluble ash in mg per g of air-dried material.
CALCULATION:
The food sample is weighed before and after ashing to determine the concentration of
ash present. The ash content can be expressed on either a dry or wet basis:

~76~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 28
AIM: To determine the moisture content of given drug.
THEORY:
The moisture content of a drug will be responsible for decomposition of crude drugs
either producing chemical change or microbial growth. So, Drying of crude drug is
important during collection of drug and is also important for preservation, preventing
hydrolytic degradation of active constituents and for easy size reduction of crude drug.
Therefore, moisture content of a drug should be determined and controlled. Moisture
must be eliminated as far as possible because excess moisture or insufficient drying is
responsible for spoilage of drug due to growth of microbes. The moisture content is
determined by heating a drug at 105°C in an oven to a constant weight. Following are
the examples of two crude drugs with their moisture content limit: the moisture content
of Digitalis and Ergot should not be more than 5% w/w and 8% w/w, respectively.
REQUIREMENTS:
Filter paper, Hot air oven, drug sample, weighing balance, evaporating dish Desiccator.
PROCEDURE:
1) The powdered drug sample or part of drug sample (10 g) without preliminary drying
was placed on a tarred evaporating dish and dried at 105ºC for 6 h and weighed.
2) The drying was continued until two successive reading matches each other or the
difference between two successive weighing was not more than 0.25%.
3) Constant weight was reached when two consecutive weighing after drying for 30 min
in a desiccator, showed not more than 0.01 g difference
4) Calculate the % of moisture content of the drug by using the following formula-
Moisture content of the drug (%) = Loss in weight of the sample x 100
Weight of the sample

~77~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 29
AIM: To determine the alcohol soluble Extractive value of given drug.
THEORY:
The determination of Extractive values help to determine the amount of soluble
constituents in a given amount of medicinal plant material, when extracted with solvents.
The extraction of any crude drug with a particular solvent yields a solution containing
different phytoconstituents. The composition of these phytoconstituents in that particular
solvent depends upon the nature of drug and solvent used. The use of single solvent
can also be used by means of providing preliminary information of quality of a particular
drug sample. Various solvents are used according to the type of the constituents to be
analyzed. Alcohol-soluble extractive is used for crude drugs containing tannins,
glycosides, resins, etc. and ether-soluble extractives are used for drugs containing
volatile constituents and fats.
REQUIREMENTS:
Filter paper, Beaker, Weighing balance, porcelain dish, Ethanol, Dessicator
PROCEDURE:
1) About 5 g of coarsely powdered air dried material is accurately weighed and
macerated with 100 ml of 90% ethanol in a glass stopper closed flask for 24 h, with
frequent shaking during the first 6 hours and allowed to stand for 18 hours.
2) It was then filtered rapidly taking precaution against loss of alcohol.
3) Then 25 ml of filtrate is transfer to porcelain dish and the content is evaporated to
dryness in a porcelain dish and dried at 105˚ to a constant weight.
4) Cooled in a dessicator for 30 min then weighed without delay.
5) The percentage of alcohol soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the air-
dried plant material.
CALCULATION:
25 ml of alcoholic extract gives – A g of residue
100 ml of alcoholic extract gives – B g of residue
5 g of air dried drug gives B g of alcohol soluble residue –
100 g of air dried drug gives (100 x B)/5 g of alcohol soluble residue
RESULT
The percentage amount of alcohol soluble extractive value present is -----------%.

~78~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 30
AIM: To determine the Water soluble Extractive value of given drug.
THEORY:
Extractive value determines the amount of active constituents extracted with solvents
from a given amount of herbal material. It is employed for materials for which as yet no
suitable chemical or biological assay exists.
The extracts obtained by exhausting crude drugs with different solvents are
approximate measures of their chemical constituents. Various solvents are used
according to the type of the constituents to be analysed. Water-soluble extractive is
used for crude drugs containing water-soluble constituents like glycosides, tannins,
mucilage, etc., alcohol-soluble extractive is used for crude drugs containing tannins,
glycosides, resins, etc. and ether-soluble extractives are used for drugs containing
volatile constituents and fats. Determination of extractive values is useful for evaluation
of crude drug. It gives idea about the nature of the chemical constituents present in a
crude drug.
REQUIREMENTS:
Filter paper, Beaker, Weighing balance, porcelain dish, Distill water, Dessicator.
PROCEDURE:
1) 4 g of coarsely powdered air-dried material was accurately weighed and placed in a
glass-stoppered conical flask.
2) Macerated with 100 ml of water for 6 hours, shaked frequently and allowed to stand
for 18 hours.
3) Filtered rapidly without loss of any solvent.
4) 25 ml of the filtrate was transferred to a porcelain dish and evaporated to dryness on
a water bath.
5) Content was dried at 105ºC for 6 hours, cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes and
weighed without delay.
6) The percentage of alcohol soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the air-
dried plant material.
~79~
Pharmacognosy
CALCULATION:
25 ml of aqueous extract gives – A g of residue
100 ml of aqueous extract gives – B g of residue
5 g of air dried drug gives B g of water soluble residue –
100 g of air dried drug gives (100 x B)/5 g of water soluble residue
RESULT
The percentage amount of water soluble extractive value present is -----------%.

~80~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 31
AIM: To prepare Arishta and Asava.
THEORY:
Arishtas are made with decoctions of herbs in boiling water while asavas are prepared
by directly using fresh herbal juices. These are unique liquid dosage form that contains
self generated alcohol. Arishtas are classical Ayurvedic preparations typically used as
digestive and cardiotonic. It is weak spirituous preparations prepared in airtight sealed
vessel by anaerobic fermentation of decoction of plant material, sugar. Fermentation
probably results into transformation of several phytochemical compounds present in
medicinal plants, thereby rendering them less toxic and more potent; besides helping in
their absorption. Arishta (fermented decoction) and Asava (fermented infusion) are
considered as a unique and valuable therapeutics in ayurveda, due to their medicinal
value, sweet taste and easy availability. People are prone to consume higher dosage of
these drugs for longer periods. Arjunarishta is commonly used oral liquid cardiotonic
prepared using Terminalia arjuna as an active constituent. It nourishes and strengthens
heart muscle and promote cardiac functioning by regulating blood pressure and
cholesterol. It contains not more than 10% and not less than 5% of self generated
alcohol.
Aasava are liquid preparations containing self generated alcohol, thus contain water
soluble as well as alcohol soluble substances of the drugs. Kanakasava is common
Ayurvedic preparation belonging to Aasava category, generally prepared by soaking the
drugs in the powdered form or in the form of their decoction (known as Kasaya in
Ayurveda), in a solution of sugar or Jaggery (Gur), for a specified period of time. During
soaking, it undergoes fermentation generating alcohol, thus facilitating the extraction of
active constituents contained in the drug. The alcohol, so generated, also serves as a
preservative. Asavas and Aristhas can be kept indefinitely. They should be kept in well
stoppered bottles or jars.
Examples: Asavas — Kumaryasava, Vasakasava.
Arishtas — Asvagandhadyarishta, Ashokarishta, Arjunarishta
REQUIREMENT:
Earthen pot, lid, cloth ribbon, sugar or Jaggery, powdered drug material, water, yeast
PREPARATION OF ARISHTA:
1) Powdered drug material (60 g) was passed through sieve no. 44, mixed with
required amount of potable water (1024 ml) and soaked overnight.
~81~
Pharmacognosy
2) Mild heating is carried out until the quantity get reduce to one fourth of initial volume
to prepare a decoction.
3) Decoction is cooled at room temperature and filtered through a cotton cloth and
filtrate was used for further processing.
4) Required quantity of jaggery (400 g) is dissolved in decoction by stirring.
5) Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia fructicosa) were then added to the sweeten mixture.
6) Above mixture kept in clean porcelain jar and fermenting microorganisms known as
yeast was added and mixed. Then container was sealed with clay-smeared cloth
wound in seven consecutive layers and kept in clean and dry room for fermentation.
7) After fermentation the vessel was withdrawn to examine the preparation which
showed a brownish black fluid with a frothing and aromatic odour and alcoholic
taste.
8) The final fluid decanted and filtered through a cotton cloth to obtain a clean
transparent arishta.
9) Arishta is packed in air tight container and used for evaluation.
PREPARATION FOR ASAVA:

1) The required quantity of water, to which jaggery or sugar as prescribed in the
formula, is added, boiled and cooled.
2) This is poured into the fermentation pot or vessel. Fine powder of the drugs
mentioned in the formula is added.
3) Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia fructicosa) were then added to the sweeten mixture.
4) Fermenting microorganisms known as yeast is added and mixed
5) The container is covered with a lid and the edges are sealed with clay-smeared cloth
wound in seven consecutive layers and kept in clean and dry room for fermentation.
6) After fermentation the fermented material is filtered through cotton cloth. Filtrate was
packed in air tight container and used for evaluation.
Note: For the preparation of Asava, fresh plant materials are cleaned, pulverized and
pressed for collection of juice. If the drug is dry and is to be used in the preparation of
Asava, it is coarsely crushed and added to the water to which the prescribed quantities
of honey, jaggery or sugar are added. If it is an Arishta, a decoction is obtained by
boiling the drugs in the specified volume of water. The water used should be clean, clear
and potable.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS:
If the fermentation is to be carried in an earthen vessel, it should not be new. Water
should be boiled first in the vessel. Absolute cleanliness is required during the process.
Each time, the inner surface of the fermentation vessel should be fumigated with pippali
churna and smeared with ghee before the liquids poured into it. In large-scale
~82~
Pharmacognosy
manufacture, wooden vats, porcelain-jars or metal vessels are used in place of earthen
vessels.
CHARACTERISTICS:
The filtered Asava or Arishta should be clear without froth at the top. It should not
become sour. The preparation has the characteristics of aromatic alcoholic odour.
FORMULA:
Name Qty.
Coarsely powdered drug 60 g
Water 1024 ml
Jaggery 400g
Dhataki pushpa q.s.

~83~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 32
AIM: To determine the alcohol content of Arishta and Asava.
THEORY:
Asavas and Aristas are medicinal preparations made by soaking the drugs, either in
powder form or in the form of decoction (kasaya) in a solution of sugar or jaggery, as the
case may be for a specified period of time, during which it undergoes a process of
fermentation generating alcohol, thus facilitating the extraction of the active principles
contained in the drugs. The alcohol, so generated, also serves as a preservative.
Asavarista formulation is considered as medicated wine where microbial
transformation initiate alcohol formation which helps in extraction of therapeutic
attributes and thereby increases the bioavailability of the ingredients. In these dosage
forms multiple phytochemicals having therapeutic values are transformed into liquid form
to provide safe, potent and better administered liquid form. Microbes involved in the
fermentation process increase therapeutic property by the microbial biotransformation of
the initial ingredient of Asavarista into more effective therapeutics. The hydro-alcoholic
extraction of phytoconstituents from the herbs shows improvement in drug delivery in
the body of consumer. Biotransformation in the formulation is mediated by native
microbes, which potentiates the drug and preserves the formulation.
Determination of Alcohol Content:

1) 25ml of preparation being examined was transferred to the distillation flask and its
temperature is measured at 24.9° to 25.1° C.
2) It was diluted with 150ml of water and to it added a little pumice powder.
3) It was distilled and not less than 90ml of the distillate was collected into a 100‐ml
volumetric flask and diluted to volume with distilled water at 24.9° to 25.1° C.
4) Specific gravity of this liquid was determined and alcohol content analyzed using
relative density.
~84~
Pharmacognosy
Observation Table:
It was found to be----------------------% of alchol contaim in Asava- Arishta
Name of treatise No of total

Asava- Arishta
Charaka Samhita 28
Sushruta Samhita 11
Ashtanga Sangraha 14
Ashtanga Hridaya 09
Gada Nigraha 67
Shrangadhar Samhita 13

~85~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 33
AIM: To determine the Swelling Index of Isapgol (Plantago ovate) seeds.
THEORY:
Many herbal materials are of specific therapeutic or pharmaceutical utility because of
their swelling properties especially gums and those containing an appreciable amount of
mucilage, pectin or hemicellulose. The swelling index is the volume in ml taken up by 1
g of a drug including any adhering mucilage after it has swollen in an aqueous liquid for
24 h. The swelling factor reflects the mucilage content of the seeds. Its determination is
based on the addition of water or a swelling agent as specified in the test procedure for
each individual herbal material.
Isapgol (Plantago ovata) seeds and seeds of other species of Plantago such as
Plantago psyllium, Plantago arenaria, Plantago lanceolata etc. contain mucilage which is
a polysaccharide present in the epidermis of the seeds.
Ispaghula has powerful ability to form a gel in water, Psyllium is classified as a
mucilaginous fiber. This capability comes from its role as the endosperm of the Plantago
ovata seed, where it functions to retain water in order to prevent the seed from drying
out.
The dietary fibres from Isapgol seeds and husk are not digested or absorbed by the
body, have affinity for water. When these fibers come in contact with water, gel is form
that lubricates the bowel. The Ispaghula seeds are mainly used as bulk laxative in
habitual constipation and antidiarroheal in chronic amoebic as well as bacillary
dysenteries and chronic diarrohea due to irritative conditions of gastrointestinal tract.
REQUIREMENTS:
50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder, Isapgol seed
PROCEDURE:
1) 1g of Isapghula seeds are transferred to the 50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder
2) Add 25 ml of water to the 50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder
3) The measuring cylinders are agitated after every 10 min. For first one hour and then
after every 3 h. This process was continued for 24 h.
4) Volume occupied by seeds along with mucilage is noted.
5) Carry out simultaneously three determinations for any given material.
6) Calculate the mean value of the individual determinations, related to 1 g of seed.
~86~
Pharmacognosy
CALCULATION:
Swelling Index= Wt-Wo

Wo
Where,
SI= sweeling Index
Wt= Weight of sample (Isapgol) at time t
Wo= Weight of Sapmle (Isapgol) before placing in the beaker.
RESULT
It was found to be the swelling index of Isapgol----------------.

~87~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 34
AIM: To determine the Foaming Index.
THEORY:
The saponins are high molecular weight containing phytoconstituents having the
detergent or soap like property. Many herbal materials contain saponins that can cause
persistent foam when an aqueous decoction is shaken. The foaming ability of an
aqueous decoction of herbal materials and their extracts is measured in terms of a
foaming index.
REQUIREMENTS:
PROCEDURE:
Conical flask, volumetric flask, stopper test-tubes, filter paper, water
1) About 1 g of plant material is reduced to a coarse powder, weighed accurately and
transferred at to a 500 ml conical flask containing 100 ml of boiling water.
2) Maintain at moderate boiling for 30 min.
3) Cool and filter into 100 ml volumetric flask and added sufficient water through the
filter to dilute to volume.
4) Pour the decoction into 10 stopper test-tubes (height 15cm, diameter 15mm) in
series of successive portions of 1 ml, 2 ml, 3 ml, up to 10 ml and the volumes in
each tube is adjusted with water to 10 ml.
5) The tubes are stopper and then shaken them in a lengthwise motion for 15 seconds,
two shakes per second.
6) Allow to stand for 15 minutes and measure the height of the foam is measured by
means of a graduated tape with millimetre scale.. The results are assessed as
follows:
 If the height of the foam in every tube is less than 1 cm, the foaming index is less
than 100.
 If a height of foam of 1 cm is measured in any tube, the volume of the herbal
material decoction in this tube (a) is used to determine the index.
 If this tube is the first or second tube in a series, prepare an intermediate dilution in a
similar manner to obtain a more precise result.
 If the height of the foam is more than 1 cm in every tube, the foaming index is over
1000. In this case repeat the determination using a new series of dilutions of the
decoction in order to obtain a result.
 Calculate the foaming index using the following formula:
~88~
Pharmacognosy
1000
a
where a = the volume in ml of the decoction used for preparing the dilution in the tube
where foaming to a height of 1 cm is observed.

~89~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 35
AIM: To prepare herbal hair oil.
THEORY:
Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of
baldness or other ailments, aggression of hair. They also promote the luxurious growth
of hairs. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as hair tonic. Hair care products are
categorized into two main category, hair tonics and hair grooming aids. There are
various methods available for the preparation of hair oils direct boiling method, paste
method and cloth method.
Maize Oil: It is fatty oil obtained from embryos of grain of Zea mays. Family- Graminae.
It is used as solvent for injections and high calories dietary suppliments. In cosmetic and
preparation of margarine.
Aloe Vera: It contains dried juice of leaves of Aloe barbadensis belonging to the family
Liliaceae. It is generally used in pain, itching, treatment of ulceration, keratosis etc. Aloe
also has hair growth promoter activity. It is used in cosmetics. It is used externally for
pain and inflammation.
Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is the oil expressed from the dried solid part of endosperm of
coconut, Cocos nucifera L., belonging to family Palmae. It is used as lubricant for hair
dressing and manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments.
REQUIREMENTS:
Makka, Aloe Vera, Amla, Chandan, Coconut oil, Beaker, Stirrer
PROCEDURE:
1) Add all the ingredient in coconut oil.
2) Warm for 1 hour with stirring. Filter it. Pack and label.
FORMULA:
Sr. no. Ingredients Quantity
1 Maize oil 5g
2 Aloe Vera 5g
3 Amla 5g
4 Chandan 2g
5 Coconut oil 50 ml
~90~
Pharmacognosy
LABEL:
Herbal Hair Oil (10 ml)

Contents: Mfg. Lic. No.
Each ml contains, Mfg. Batch No.
Maize oil..................................1 g Mfg. Date:
Aloevera................................. 1 g Exp. Date:
Amla........................................1 g M.R.P.:
Chandan...................................0.4 g (Inclusive of all taxes)
Coconut oil...............................q.s. to 10 ml
Mfg by: --------------- College

of Pharmacy
Directions: Apply at night for best result.

~91~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 36
AIM: To Prepare Herbal Face Pack.
THEORY:
The herbal paste which is applied on face to treat acne, pimple, scars, marks and
pigments are known as herbal face packs. The face packs which are mentioned in
ayurveda help women to get rid of wrinkles, dark circles, pimples and acne. Herbal face
packs increase the fairness and smoothness of skin. These face packs increase skin
glow and are best ayurveda treatment to increase fairness. Face packs are one of the
oldest and beautiful methods of cleansing
1) Myrobalan:
It consist of dried, ripe, and fully matured fruits of Terminalia chebula Retzr
belonging to family Combretaceae. It contains not less than 5.0 % of chebulagic acid
and not less than 12.5 % of chebulinic acid. Myrobalan is used mainly as an
astringent, laxative, stomachic and tonic. It is also an anthelmintic. Fruit pulp is used
to cure bleeding. It is an ingredient of ayurvedic preparation ‗triphala‘, used for
treatment of variety of ailments. Myrobalan is also used in treatment of piles and
external ulcers.
2) Amla:
It consist of dried, as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblica officinalis belonging to
family Euphorbiaceae. It contains not less than 1.0 % w/w of gallic acid calculated on
dry basis. It is used as an acrid, diuretic, refrigerant and laxative. Dried fruits are
given in diarrhoea and dysentery. They are also administered in jaundice, dyspesis
and anaemia alongwith iron compound. Fruits are also used in preparation of inks,
hair oils and shampoo. Seeds of fruits are given in treatment of asthma and
bronchitis It is a popular ingredient of Triphala and Chyawanprash.
3) Neem:
It is obtained from the seeds of Azadirachta indica belonging to family Meliaceae. It
has been studied scientifically and reported that it contains different chemicals which
have insect repellent, insecticide, antifeedant, nematicide and antimicrobial
properties. The seed oil has spermicidal activity.
4) Kapur Kachari :
It consist of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as Hedychium spicatum
belonging to family zinziberaceae. It contains not less than 0.80% of p-methoxy
cinnammic acid ethyl ester on dried basis. Rhizomes are used as stomachic,
stimulant, carminative and tonic. They are either used in the form of powder and
~92~
Pharmacognosy
decoction. Being aromatic, it is used as a flavouring agent for several cosmetics and
also to flavour tobacco. The rhizomes are used in preparation of ‗ABIT‘ fragment
highly perfumed powder used during the religious functions.
5) Kaolin:
Kaolin is purified native hydrated aluminium silicate free from gritty particles. It is
obtained by powdering the native kaolin, elutriating and collecting the fraction, which
complies with the requirements of particle size. The native clay is derived from
decomposition of the felspar (Potassium aluminosilicate) or granite rock and
contains silica (47%), alumina (40%), and water (13%). It is used as an adsorbent by
oral administration, in the treatment of enteritis, dysentery and in alkaloidal and food
poisoning. It is also applied externally as a dusting powder and also as clarifying
agent during the filtration. Mostly light kaolin with a particle size less than 10 µ is
used in pharmaceutical preparations.
6) Chandan:
It is obtained by distillation from the heartwood of Santalum album Linn., family
Santalaceae. It is mainly used as a perfume in preparation of cosmetics and incense
sticks.
REQUIREMENTS:
Myrobalan, Amla, Kapur kachari, Neem, Kaolin, Chandan, Mortar pestle, Weighing
Balance.
FORMULATION TABLE:
Each 5 g contains:
Sr. No. Name of Ingredient Quantity
1 Terminalia chebula 0.40 g
2 Emblica officinale 0.20 g
Heydychium
3 0.20 g
spicatum
Curcuma
4 0.20 g
arometicum
5 Azadirachta indica 1.50 g
6 Kaolin 2.00 g
7 Santalum album 0.50 g
PROCEDURE:
1) Weigh all the ingredients.
2) Mix well with the help of mortar pestle.
3) Pack in a suitable container and label.
~93~
Pharmacognosy
LABEL:
Herbal Face Pack (5 g)

Each 5g contains: Mfg. Batch No.
Terminalia chebula...............................0.40 g Mfg. Date:
Emblica officinale.................................0.20 g Exp. Date:
Hedychium spicatum............................0.20 g M.R.P.:
Curcuma aromaticum............................0.20 g (Inclusive of all taxes)
Azadirachta indica................................1.50 g
Kaolin....................................................2.00 g
Santalum album....................................0.50 g Mfg by: --------------- College
of Pharmacy
Directions: Mix with sufficient quantity of rose water or milk. Apply uniformly
on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water.

~94~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 37
AIM: To Prepare Anti Wrinkle Cream.
THEORY:
Aging can be noticed by seven key signs like fine lines and wrinkles, changes in skin
tone and texture, skin surface dullness, visible pores, Blotchiness, age spots and
Dryness. Among all these signs, appearance of fine lines and wrinkles on skin is the
common and most prominent sign of aging. So skin creams used to prevent aging signs
are also called as Anti-wrinkle creams.
1) Beeswax:
Beeswax is the natural wax obtained from honeycomb of Apis mellifera and other
species of Apis, belonging to family Apidae. It is yellowish to greyish brown coloured
solid, with agreeable, honey-like odour and a faint, characteristic taste. Beeswax is
insoluble in water and sparingly soluble in cold alcohol. It is completely soluble in
chloroform, ether, and in fixed or volatile oils. Beeswax has a relatively low melting
point range of 62 °C to 64 °C. If beeswax is heated above 85 °C discoloration
occurs. Beeswax is used in the preparation of ointments, plaster and polishes.
2) Almond Oil:
Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the seeds of Prunus amygdalus
belonging to family Rosaceae. It is a pale yellow liquid with a slight odour and bland
nutty taste. It contains olein, with smaller quantities of the glycosides of linoleic and
other acids. Almond oil is an emollient and an ingredient in cosmetics.
3) Lanolin:
Lanolin is the fat-like purified secretion of the sebaceous glands which is deposited
into the wool fibres of sheep, Ovis aries Linn., belonging to family Bovidae. Lanolin is
a yellowish white, tenacious, unctuous mass; odour is slight and characteristic.
Practically, it is insoluble in water, but soluble in chloroform or ether with the
separation of the water. It melts in between 34 and 40°C. On Lanolin is a complex
mixture of esters and polyesters of high molecular weight alcohols and fatty acids.
Lanolin is used as an emollient, as water absorbable ointment base in many skin
creams and cosmetic and for hoof dressing. Wool fat is readily absorbed through
skin and helps in increasing the absorption of active ingredients incorporated in the
ointment.
4) Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is the oil expressed from the dried solid part of endosperm
of coconut, Cocos nucifera L., belonging to family Palmae. It is used as lubricant for
hair dressing and manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments.
~95~
Pharmacognosy
REQUIREMENTS:
Bees wax, Emulsifying wax, Almond oil, Lanolin, Coconut oil, Orange flavor water,
Tincture benzoin, Orange oil, Weighing Balance.
FORMULATION TABLE:

1 Bees wax 10 g
2 Emulsifying wax 10 g
3 Almond oil 40 ml
4 Lanolin 20 g
5 Coconut oil 20 g
6 Orange flavor water 30 ml
7 Tincture benzoin 0.50 ml
8 Orange oil 0.50 ml
PROCEDURE:
Melt the waxes and oils together and add orange flavor water drop by drop with constant
stirring then add tincture benzoin and orange oil with constant stirring.

~96~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 38
AIM: To Prepare Cold Cream.
THEORY:
REQUIREMENTS:
Almond oil, White beeswax, Borax, Water, Rose water, Weighing Balance.
FORMULATION TABLE:

1 Almond oil 550 parts
2 White beeswax 145 parts
3 Borax 10 parts
4 Water 290 parts
5 Rose water 5 parts
PROCEDURE:
The base in general use is white beeswax and traces of borax are occasionally added to
aid emulsification. The manufacture is simple when borax is used and consists of
melting the wax on water bath adding the oil and warming the whole at about 80 C. The
aqueous portion containing the borax is heated to this temperature and stirred slowly.
The perfume is added when gel and cream is potted liquid if a brilliant white surface is
desired.
~97~
Pharmacognosy
LABEL:
Cold Cream (5g)
Each 5g contains, Mfg. Batch No.
Almond oil -- Mfg. Date:
White beeswax-- Exp. Date:
Borax-- M.R.P.:
Water-- (Inclusive of all taxes)
Rose water--
Mfg by: SVP College of
Pharmacy, Hatta.
on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water

~98~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 39
AIM: To Prepare Herbal Face Pack (5gm)
REFERENCE:
1) Kokate CK, Purohit AP, Gokhale SB, Pharmacognosy, 43rd edition, Nirali Prakashan;
2009 , p.9.4-9.5, 9.9-9.11, 11.55-11.56, 11.79-11.80, 20.5, 18.2-18.3.
2) Kar A, Pharmacognosy and Pharmacobiotechnology, Revised-Expanded 2nd edition,
New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi, 2007, p.238
REQUIREMENTS:
Chemicals: Myrobalan, Amla, Kapur kachari, Neem, Kaolin, Chandan.
Glassware: Mortar pestle.
Equipment: Weighing Balance.
FORMULATION TABLE:
Each 5gm contains,

1 Terminalia chebula 0.45g
2 Emblica officinale 0.20g
Heydychium
3 0.25g
spicatum
Curcuma
4 0.20g
arometicum
5 Azadirachta indica 1.60g
6 Kaolin 2.00g
7 Santalum album 0.50g
THEORY:
1) Myrobalan:
a) Biological Source: It consist of dried, ripe, and fully matured fruits of Terminalia
chebula Retzr belonging to family Combretaceae. It contains not less than 5.0 % of
chebulagic acid and not less than 12.5 % of chebulinic acid.
b) Uses: Myrobalan is used mainly as an astringent, laxative, stomachic and tonic. It is
also an anthelmintic. Fruit pulp is used to cure bleeding. It is an ingredient of
~99~
Pharmacognosy
ayurvedic preparation ‗triphala‘, used for treatment of variety of ailments. Myrobalan
is also used in treatment of piles and external ulcers.
2) Amla:
a) Biological Source: It consist of dried, as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblica
officinalis Gaerth (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.), belonging to family Euphorbiaceae. It
contains not less than 1.0 % w/w of gallic acid calculated on dry basis.
b) Uses: It is used as an acrid, diuretic, refrigerant and laxative. Dried fruits are given
in diarrhoea and dysentery. They are also administered in jaundice, dyspesis and
anaemia alongwith iron compound. fruits are also used in preparation of inks, hair
oils and shampoo. Seeds of fruits are given in treatment of asthma and bronchitis.
The leaves are used as fodder. Alcoholic extract of the fruit is anti-viral. It is a
popular ingredient of Triphala and chyawanprash.
3) Kapur kachari :
a) Biological Source: It consist of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as
Hedychium spicatum belonging to family zinziberaceae. It contains not less than
0.80% of p-methoxy cinnammic acid ethyl ester on dried basis.
b) Uses: Rhizomes are used as stomachic, stimulant, carminative and tonic. They are
either used in the form of powder and decoction. Being aromatic, it is used as a
flavouring agent for several cosmetics and also to flavour tobacco. The rhizomes are
used in preparation of ‗ABIT‘ fragment highly perfumed powder used during the
religious functions.
4) Neem:
a) Biological Source: It is obtained from the seeds of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.,
(Melia ozadirachta L.) and Melia azedarach L., belonging to family Meliaceae.
b) Uses: It has been studied scientifically and reported that it contains different
chemicals which have insect repellent, insecticide, antifeedant, nematicide and
antimicrobial properties. The seed oil has spermicidal activity.
5) Kaolin:
a) Source: Kaolin is purified native hydrated aluminium silicate free from gritty
particles. It is obtained by powdering the native kaolin, elutriating and collecting the
fraction, which complies with the requirements of particle size. The native clay is
derived from decomposition of the felspar (Potassium aluminosilicate) or granite rock
and contains silica (47%), alumina (40%), and water (13%).
b) Uses: It is used as an adsorbent by oral administration, in the treatment of enteritis,
dysentery and in alkaloidal and food poisoning. It is also applied externally as a
dusting powder and also as clarifying agent during the filtration. Mostly light kaolin
with a particle size less than 10 µ is used in pharmaceutical preparations.
6) Chandan:
a) Biological Source: It is obtained by distillation from the heartwood of Santalum
album Linn., family Santalaceae.
~100~
Pharmacognosy
b) Uses: It is mainly used as a perfume in preparation of cosmetics and incense sticks.
PROCEDURE:
Weigh all the ingredients. Mix well with the help of mortar pestle. Pack in a suitable
container and label.
Herbal Face Pack (5g)

Each 5g contains, Mfg. Batch No.
Terminalia chebula.............0.45g Mfg. Date:
Emblica officinale.............. 0.20g Exp. Date:
Hedychium spicatum..........0.25g M.R.P.:
Curcuma aromaticum.........0.20g (Inclusive of all taxes)
Azadirachta indica...............1.60g
Mfg by:SGRS College
Kaolin...................................2.0g
of Pharmacy, Saswad.
Santalum
album...................................0.50g
on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water

~101~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 40
AIM : To Prepare Herbal Tooth Powder.
REFERENCE :
1) Kokate C K , Purohit A P , Gokhale S B, Pharmacognosy . 35 th Ed. Pune : Nirali
Prakashan : 2006 P. 258 , 259 , 373.
2) Rangari VD .Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry Part- 1. 1st Ed. Nashik : Career
Publication : 2002 P. 363 , 364 .
REQUIREMENTS:
Chemical : Harda, Bahera, Nagarmotha, Alum, Clove Oil.
Glassware : Mortar, Pestle, Beaker.
Equipments : Electric Balance.
FORMULATION TABLE:
Each 10 g contains
Harda 2g
Bahera 2g
Nagarmotha 1g
Alum 2g
Clove oil 2ml
THEORY:
1) HARDA :
B.S : It consist of dried ripe and fully matured fruits of terminalia chebula .
Family : Combretaceae.
Uses : (1) Pills and external ulcers
(2) Ingredient of Ayurvedic Preparation Triphala.
(3) Treatment of variety of ailments.
2) BAHERA :
B.S : It consist of dried ripe fruits of terminalia Belerica.
Family : Combretaceae.
Uses : (1) Astringent.
(2) Ingredient of Ayurvedic Preparation Triphala.
(3) Demulscent.
(4) Purgative.
(5) Useful in manufacturing of soap.
~102~
Pharmacognosy
3) CLOVE OIL :
B.S : It consist of dried flower buds of Eugenia Caryophyllus .
Family : Myrtaceae.
Uses : (1) Dental Analgesic.
(2) Carminative.
(3) Stimulant.
(4) Flavouring agent.
(5) Antiseptic & Perfumes.
PROCEDURE:
 Weigh accurately all ingredients mix them in a mortar to form a smooth powder.
 Pack and Label.
HERBAL TOOTH POWDER (10 g)

CONTENTS: LIC NO.
EACH 10G CONTAINS BATCH NO :
Harda ...................................................2g MFG. DATE :
Bahera...................................................2g EXP. DATE :
Nagarmotha.......................................... 1g M.R.P :
Alum......................................................1g ( Inclusive Of All Taxes)
Clove oil.................................................2ml
DIRECTIONS : Use of toothpowder twice a day.
Mfg by: SVP College of Pharmacy, Hatta.

~103~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 41
AIM: To prepare herbal hair oil.
REFERENCE:
1) Banerjee P.S, Sharma M, Nema R.K, Preparation, evaluation and hair growth
stimulating activity of herbal hair oil, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Research, 2009, 1(1): 261-267.
REQUIREMENTS:
1) Chemicals: Makka, Aloe Vera, Amla, Chandan, Coconut oil.
2) Glasswares: Beaker, Stirrer
3) Equipments:
THEORY:
Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of
baldness or other ailments, aggression of hair. They also promote the luxurious growth
of hairs. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as hair tonic. Hair care products are
categorized into two main category, hair tonics and hair grooming aids. There are
various methods available for the preparation of hair oils direct boiling method, paste
method and cloth method.
Makka (Maize oil): It is fatty oil obtained from embryos of grain of Zea maysfam.
Graminae. It is used as solvent for injections and high calories dietary suppliments. In
cosmetic and preparation of margarine.
Aloe Vera: It contains dried juice of leaves of Aloe barbadensis belonging to the family
Liliaceae. It is generally used in pain, itching, treatment of ulceration, keratosis e.t.c.
Aloe also has hair growth promoter activity. It is used in cosmetics. It is used externally
for pain and inflammation.
Coconut oil: It is the fat obtained by expression from the kernels of coconut fruit of
Cocosnucifera and Cocosvunteraceae. It is used as lubricant for hair dressing and
manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments.
PROCEDURE:
Add all the ingredient in coconut oil. Warm for 1 hour with stirring. Filter it if necessary.
Pack and label.
~104~
Pharmacognosy
FORMULA:
Sr. no. Ingredients Quantity

1 Makka 5gm
2 Aloe Vera 5 gm
3 Amla 5 gm
4 Chandan 2 gm
5 Coconut oil 50 ml
LABLE:
HERBAL HAIR OIL 10 ml

Each ml contains Mfglic no: 20
Makka............1gm Mfg Batch:
Aloevera.........1gm Mfg Date:
Amla................1gm Exp Date:
Chandan..........0.4gm MRP: (incl. of all taxes)
Coconut..........q.s to10 ml
Mfg by:SVP College
of Pharmacy, Hatta.
Direction
Apply at night for best result

~105~
Pharmacognosy
Experiment No.: 42
AIM: To prepare swarooplep.
REFERENCE:
C. K. Kokate, A. P. Purohit, ‗Pharmacognosy‘, Nirali Prakashan, thirty-ninethedition, pg
no. 218
REQUIREMENTS:
Raw Materials: bark of Arjuna, dried rhizomes of hedychiumspicatum and dried fruits of
behra
Equipments: mortar and pestle
FORMULATION TABLE:
Name of ingrdiants Quantity

Terminaliaarjuna 2gm
Hedychiumspicanum 1gm
Chandan 2gm
Terminaliabelerica 2gm
Kurkumaaromatica 2gm
THEORY:
1) D. Terminalia arjuna
a) Biological Source: Arjuna consists of dried stem bark of the plant known as
Terminaliaarjuna, family Combretaceae
~106~
Pharmacognosy
b) Uses: Arjuna bark is used as a cardiotonic. It is also styptic FehriFage and
antidysentric. The drug exhibit hypotensive action with vasodilation and decreased
hesotrate.
2) Hedychiumspicatum: kaparkachori
a) Biological Source:
This consists of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as Hedychiumspicatum
belonging to family Zingibaraceae.
b) Uses: It is flavouring agent. For several cosmetic preparations and also to flavor
tobacco the rhizomes are used in preparation abit a fragment highly perfumed
powder used during religious functions.
3) Terminalia Beleria (Behra)
a) Biological Source:
It consists of dried ripe fruits of the plant terminaliabeleria belonging to family
Combretaceae
b) Uses: Behera is used as astringent. It is the constituent of TriphalaChurna. It is used
as demulscent and purgative. Oil is used for manufacture of soap.
PROCEDURE:
Weigh all the ingredients.
Mix in mortar and pestle. Pack in suitable container and label.

~107~
Pharmacognosy
Monographs
ACEROLA:
Malpighia glabra:
Family: Malpighiaceae
Medicinal Parts: Leaves, fruit.
Indications: Principal: Common cold (acerola is a source of vitamin C) 1, 2 . Others:
Prophylaxis of scurvy3, prophylaxis of atherogenesis in patients with increased risk of
coronary heart disease 4.
Cautions: Patients allergic to latex2.
Contraindications: None noted.
Side-effects: Nausea, stomach cramps, sleepiness, insomnia3.
Drug interactions: Decreased activity of fluphenazine and warfarin3, beneficial
synergistic effect with soy & alfalfa4.
Dose: 40-100mg daily 2.
Altasterol® Stimulant (Alta Care) see Ginger
Children’s Echinacea (HealthAid) see Echinacea
Cranberry (Arkopharma) see Cranberry
Ester-C® 1000mg Plus Vitamin C (Solgar) Tablets; Vitamin C 1000mg, citrus
bioflavonoids 200mg, acerola fruit powdered extract 25mg, powdered rose hip 25mg,
rutin 25mg. Local Distributor: Natural Remedies
Formula VM-75 (Solgar) see Buckwheat
AGNUS CASTUS:
(Vitex agnus-castus)
Family: Lamiaceae
Medicinal Parts: Fruit.
Indications:Principal: PMS, irregularities of the menstrual cycle, mastalgia, mastodynia,
poor lactation 5, 28. Major: Acne5, mastopathy, hot flushes and sleep disturbances in
pre- and postmenopausal women6.
Contraindications: Oestrogen or progesterone sensitive tumours, pregnancy5.
Side-effects: Nausea, headache, GI disturbances, menstrual disorders, acne, pruritus,
erythematous rash5, 7.
Drug interactions: Dopamine antagonists, oral contraceptives5.
Dose: Aqueous alcohol extract: 30- 40mg daily8; Fruit: 0.5-1g three times daily9.
Acne-n-Pimple Cream (Himalaya) see Aloe Vera
Agnus Castus (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tincture of chaste tree dried fruit, extracted in alcohol
(69% v/v). Local Distributor: Health Plus
~108~
Pharmacognosy
Agnus Castus (HealthAid) Liquid; Agnus castus extract 1:3 (equiv. to 330mg of agnus
castus herb in 1ml). Tablets; Agnus castus powder 550mg. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea
Agnus Castus Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Agnus castus berry extract (5:1)
60mg (equiv. to 300mg agnus castus berry herb); Vega Phytoantioxidant BaseTM
330mg providing antioxidants and prebiotics: apple & mixed wild berries concentrate
8:1, equiv. to herb 528mg, prebiotic acacia gum 264mg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera &
Sons Ltd.
Femmevit® (HealthAid) see Starflower
Herbal Female Complex (Solgar) see Black Cohosh
Menovital® (HealthAid) see Dong Quai
Vitex Agnus Castus 1000mg (Lamberts) Tablets; 1000mg Vitex agnus-castus
(provided by 100mg of a 10:1 extract). Local Distributor: Health Plus
ALFALFA:
(Medicago sativa)
Family: Fabaceae
Medicinal Parts: Whole floweringplant, germinating seeds.
Indications:Principal: Hypercholesterolemia;used as a source of nutrients including
vitamins9. Major: Diabetes11, 28; malfunctioning of the thyroid gland28. Minor: Kidney,
bladder & prostate disorders; asthma; arthritis 10, 11.
Cautions: Undergoing HRT, taking birth control medications12, diabetes 13.
Contraindications: History of SLE, children under 1813, pregnant or breast-feeding9,
12.
Side-effects: Photosensitivity11, mild GI symptoms (stomach discomfort, diarrhea,
flatulence), hypoglycemia, muscle pain, fatigue, abnormal blood cell count 13.
Drug interactions: HRT, antioestrogen therapy, contraceptive pill, anticoagulants14.
Dose: 5-10g dried herb three times daily; 5-10ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) three
times daily 9, 12.
Alfalfa (Arkopharma) Tablets; Medicago sativa powder 435mg. Local Distributor:
Pharmacos Ltd.
Alfalfa 500mg (Power Health) Tablets; Alfalfa powder 500mg. Local Distributor:
Kemimport Ltd.
Alfalfa Leaf (HealthAid) Tablets; Alfalfa leaf powder 700mg. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea
Slim-Rite Tablets; Alfalfa leaf powder 200mg, buckthorn extract 75mg, cascara sagrada
extract 50mg, birch extract 40mg, taurine 40mg, dandelion extract 20mg, uva ursi
extract 20mg, bladderwrack extract 17mg, barberry root powder 10mg, ginger root
powder 5mg, chicory powder 3mg, parsley seed powder 2mg, nasturtium extract 2mg,
~109~
Pharmacognosy
juniper berry powder 2mg, curcuma root powder 250mcg. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea.
BAMBOO:
(Arundinaria japonica)
Family: Poaceae
Medicinal Parts: Young shoots.
Indications: Asthma, arthritis, coughs 28.
Contraindications: None known.
Side-effects: No health hazards are known in conjunction with the proper administration
of designed therapeutic dosages.
Drug interactions: None known.
Dose: There is not enough scientific evidence to safely recommend the use of bamboo.
Bamboo Gum (Arkopharma) Capsules; Bamboo dry extract 314mg. Local Distributor:
Pharmacos
Organic Pomegranate (dr.organic®) see Pomegranate
Organic Tea Tree (dr.organic®) see Tea tree
Silica 250mg (HealthAid) Capsules; Bamboo extract 357mg which provides silica
250mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
BAOBAB:
(Adansonia digitata)
Family: Bombacaceae
Medicinal Parts: Roots, fruit, leaves.
Indications: Principal: Fever, mild diarrhoea, urinary disorders 28. Major: Malaria, ulcer,
skin problems, anaemia 28.
Cautions: The plant contains tartaric acid which is mildly irritating in high concentrations
28.
Side-effects: None known.
Drug interactions: No human drug information is available.
Reintegra MgKB Balance (Erba Vita) Sachets; Baobab fruit pulp 325mg,
magnesium 375mg, potassium 300mg, vitamin B3 27mg, vitamin B6 3mg, vitamin B2
2.4mg, vitamin B1 2.1mg, vitamin B9 200mcg, vitamin B12 2.5mcg. Local Distributor:
E.J. Busuttil Ltd.
BARBERRY :
(Berberis vulgaris)
Family: Berberidaceae
Medicinal Parts: Fruit, root, bark.
~110~
Pharmacognosy
Indications: Principal: Liver malfunction, kidney stones, gall bladder disease, urinary
tract disorders, diarrhoea, indigestion 8, 19, 28. Major: Jaundice, splenopathy, renal
disease8, 28. Minor: Gout, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago, malaria, leishmaniasis14, 19,
28. Others: Dry skin disease, opium or morphine withdrawal 19, 28.
Cautions: To avoid polyherbal remedies containing goldenseal and oregon grape due
to a high total content of berberine, patients receiving antithrombotic or antirheumatic
therapy 14.
Contraindications: Pregnancy14, 28, use of NSAIDs 28.
Side-effects: None at normal doses 14, 19, 28. Lethargy, nosebleeds, dyspnoea,
nephritis, GI discomfort, hypotension, flu-like symptoms, cardiac damage occurs in
excessive doses14, 28.
Drug interactions: NSAIDs, antithrombotic and antirheumatic therapy14.
Dose: Dried stem or root bark: 1.5-3 gm; liquid extract: 3-6ml; tincture: 7-14ml19.
Aquaflow® (HealthAid) see Dandelion
Slim-Rite (HealthAid) see Alfalfa
Livercare® (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle
Milk Thistle Complex (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle
CALIFORNIA POPPY :
(Eschscholtzia californica)
Family: Papaveraceae
Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts collected during the flowering season and dried.
Indications: Principal: Insomnia28, 70, 71. Major: Aches, nervous agitation, enuresis
nocturna in children, bladder & liver diseases, depression, neurasthenia28, 70, 71.
Minor: Neuropathy, mood swings, weather sensitivity, organic neuroses, vegetative-
dystonic disorders, vasomotor dysfunction, vegetativeendocrine syndrome,
constitutional weakness of the nervous system, vasomotor cephalgia28.
Contraindications: Pregnancy 28, 70.
Drug interactions: Benzodiazepines, CNS depressants70.
Dose: Average single dose for the liquid extract is 1-2 ml28.
Californian Poppy (Arkopharma) Capsules; Californian poppy aerial part powder
300mg. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Sedivitax (Aboca) see Passionflower
CARAWAY :
(Carum carvi)
Family: Umbelliferae
Medicinal Parts: Fruit; oil obtained from the squashed fruit when ripe.
~111~
Pharmacognosy
Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints such as flatulence, eructation, bloating and
mild spasmodic pains in the GI tract, including flatulent colic of infants19, 26, 72. Others:
Loss of appetite, dysmenorrhoea, to stimulate flow of milk in breast-feeding mothers,
bronchitis, laryngitis (as a gargle), hyperglycaemia1 9, 26, 73.
Dose: Average single dose of oil: 2-3 drops on sugar; caraway, 1-5 gm. Average daily
dose of oil: 3-6 drops; caraway, 1.5-6 gm28.
Finocarbo Plus (Aboca) see Fennel
Flodol® Artro (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet
Gastro-Vit Formula (Vega) see Aloe Vera
Sollievo (Aboca) see Senna
CARDAMOM :
(Elettaria cardamomum)
Family: Zingiberaceae
Medicinal Parts: The oil extracted from the seeds and fruit & seeds harvested shortly
after ripening.
Indications: Principal: Flatulent dyspepsia, dyspeptic complaints8, 19, 74. Major:
Morning sickness, vomiting & diarrhoea, loss of appetite, Roemheld syndrome26. Minor:
Hypertension, epilepsy74. Others: Mouth freshener 19.
Contraindications: Presence of gallstones19, 28.
Side-effects: Gallstone colic19, 28.
Dose: Average daily dose is 1.5 gm of drug; when using a tincture, the dosage range is
1-2 gm19, 28.
Candaway TM (Lamberts) see Cinnamon
DAMIANA :
(Turnera diffusa)
Family: Turneraceae
Medicinal Parts: Leaves harvested during the flowering season.
Indications: Principal: Sexual dysfunction, decreased libido5, 8, 9, 14, 28, 112. Major:
For strengthening & stimulation during exertion (overwork), for boosting and maintaining
physical and mental capacity 8. Minor: Anxiety & depression associated with hormonal
changes (e.g. menopause), nervous dyspepsia, constipation 5, 28, 45.
Cautions: Patients with hypoglycaemia 9, 113.
Contraindications: Patients with overactive sympathetic nervous system activity5.
~112~
Pharmacognosy
Drug interactions: Hypoglycaemic agents5.
Dose: Three times daily: dried drug, 2-4 gm or in infusion; liquid extract (1:1, 60%
ethanol), 3-6 ml 45.
Damiana Leaf (HealthAid) Liquid; Damiana extract 1:4 (equiv. of 250mg of damiana
herb in 1ml). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Energizer Formula (Vega) see Siberian Ginseng
Male Formula (HealthAid) see Ginseng Korean
Male MaxTM (HealthAid) see Ginseng Korean
Zotrim (Nature‘s Remedies) see Maté
DANDELION:
Taraxacum officinale
Family: Asteraceae/Compositae
Medicinal Parts: Dried leaves & roots.
Indications: Principal: Water retention due to various causes114, 115, insufficient
production of bile5, 9, 28, 45, 115. Major: Dyspeptic complaints, urinary tract infections,
liver & gall bladder complaints, loss of appetite8, 28. Others: Diabetes, rheumatic
conditions, urticaria, eczema 5, 28.
Contraindications: Bile duct obstruction, gall bladder empyema, ileus 5, 8, 28.
Side-effects: Superacid gastric complaints, sensitization reactions 28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, thrombolytic agents, low
molecular weight heparins, fluoroquinolones, potassium 5, 28, 115.
Dose: Tincture: 10-15 drops three times daily; a cup of freshly made tea can be taken
mornings and evenings 28.
2-Day DetoxPlan (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle
4.3.2.1 Shape Up Organic (Arkopharma) see Green Tea
4.3.2.1 Shape Up Ultimate (Arkopharma) see Fenugreek
Altadrine® Day Burner (Alta Care) see Grapeseed
Altadrine® Night Burner (Alta Care) see Green Tea
Aquaflow® (HealthAid) Tablets; Dandelion root powder 80mg, bladder wrack powder
80mg, buchu leaf powder 80mg, uva ursi powder 80mg, juniper berry powder 80mg,
yellow dock root extract 80mg, cleavers powder extract 80mg, burdock powder 80mg,
parsley leaf powder 75mg, barberry bark powder 15mg. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea
Boldo Multi-Herbal Complex (Healthlife) see Boldo
CellusiteTM (HealthAid) see White Willow
Cysticare® (HealthAid) see Cranberry
Dandelion (HealthAid) Liquid; Dandelion extract 1:4 (equiv. of 250mg of dandelion herb
in 1ml). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
~113~
Pharmacognosy
Dandelion Root (HealthAid) Tablets; 140mg dandelion root extract and raw powder 4:1
equiv. to 560mg of raw dandelion root powder. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Detoxil (Vitabiotics) see Artichoke
Erbalax® Delicato Capsule (Erba Vita) see Rhubarb
Hip & Thigh Formula (HealthAid) see White Willow
Lass-B (Erba Vita) Syrup; Manna 15%, decoction of figs 10%, tamarind fruit pulp extract
5%, dandelion root extract 7.5%, concentrated and purified propolis extract (total
flavonoids expressed as galangin 12%, according to HPLC, 28%, UV method). Local
Distributor: E.J. Busuttil Ltd.
Livercare® (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle
Menophase (Higher Nature) see Schisandra
Milk Thistle Complex (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle
Milk Thislte Plus (FSC) see Milk Thistle
Sollievo (Aboca) see Senna.
DEVIL’S CLAW:
(Harpagophytum procumbens)
Family: Pedaliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Dried tuber/root.
Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints, inflammatory disorders including arthritis,
gout, myalgia, fibrositis, lumbago & rheumatic disease5, 8, 9, 28, 45, 116, 117, 118,
119. Major: Acute low back pain, loss of appetite5, 28, 118. Minor: Allergies, kidney,
bladder & gall bladder disorders 28, 118.
Contraindications: Stomach or duodenal ulcers8, 28, 45, gallstones, acute diarrhoea,
pregnancy.
Side-effects: Diarrhoea 5.
Drug interactions: Warfarin, antiarrythmic drugs5, antiplatelet drugs, NSAIDs 116.
Dose: Three times daily. For dyspepsia or lack of appetite: dried tuber, 0.5 gm in
decoction; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 1ml. For other indications: dried tuber, 1.5-2.5 gm
in decoction; liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1-2ml 45.
Arthur’s Formula Ltd (Power Health) Tablets; Devil‘s claw powder 225mg, cat‘s claw
bark extract 34mg, alkaloids 1mg, willow bark powder 40mg, garlic powder 40mg. Local
Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Atrosan® (A.Vogel) Tablets; Devil‘s claw extract 480mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Devil’s Claw (Arkopharma) Capsules; Devil‘s claw powder 435mg (containing 9.5mg
glucoiridoids). Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Devil’s Claw (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tincture of devil‘s claw dried root, extracted in alcohol
(66% v/v). Local Distributor: Health Plus
~114~
Pharmacognosy
Devil’s Claw (HealthAid) Liquid; devil‘s claw extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of devil‘s claw
Devil’s Claw Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Devil‘s claw root extract 4:1 150mg
(min. 2.5% harpagosides); devil‘s claw root powder 150mg (equiv. to 750mg devil‘s claw
root herb); Vega Phytoantioxidant BaseTM 140mg providing antioxidants and prebiotics:
apple and mixed wild berries concentrate 8:1 equiv. to herb 224mg, prebiotic acacia
gum 112mg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Flodol® (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet
Flodolor® Flexi (Alta Care) see Papaya
Neuralta® Plus (Alta Care) see Papaya
No-Dol (ESI) Capsules; Glucosamine 250mg, chondroitin sulfate 100mg, MSM 100mg,
devil‘s claw 100mg, manganese 5mg, aloe vera 15mg. Local Distributor: Collis Williams
Ltd.
Phytorhuma (Arkopharma)
Gel; Devil‘s claw extract 30%. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
ECHINACEA :
(Echinaceae species)
Medicinal Parts: Roots, leaves or the whole plant in various stages of development,
depending on varieties.
Indications: Principal: Upper respiratory tract infections including common cold &
influenza5, 9, 19, 28, 124, 125, 126, 127. Major: Poorly healing superficial wounds;
digestive, respiratory & urinary tract infections; inflammatory and purulent conditions
including furunculosis, carbuncles, abscesses & acne5, 19, 28, 127. Minor: Mild
septicaemia, burns, eczema, leg ulcers5, 19, 28, 127. Others: Treatment of leucopenia
following radio & cytostatic therapy and in support of anti-infectious chemotherapy5, 28,
128.
Cautions: Diabetes may worsen in diabetic patient receiving Echinacea
intravenously28.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, hypersensitivity to Compositae plants, tuberculosis,
multiple sclerosis, leukosis, collagenosis, AIDS or HIV infection, other autoimmune
diseases 5, 28.
Side-effects: Rare: Allergic reactions5, 28. Others: Short-term fever reactions, nausea
and vomiting can occur when used parenterally28.
Drug interactions: Caffeine, midazolam, basiliximab, azathioprine, corticosteroids,
cyclosporine, daclizumab, muromonab, mycophenolic acid, mycophenelate acid,
sirolimus, tacrolimus28, 126.
Dose: Internally: 6-9 ml of the expressed juice 28. Externally: 50 ml of a decoction from
root, three times daily19. Avoid prolonged use.
~115~
Pharmacognosy
Altacura® Infludrink (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet
Children’s Echinacea (HealthAid) Liquid; Per 1ml average: Echinacea extract (1:1)
100mg derived from Echinacea angustifolia root powder, acerola cherry extract 25%
240mg which provides 60mg of vitamin C in a base of cherry juice concentrate. Local
Distributor: Galea & Galea
Concentrated Echinacea 500mg (Numark) Tablets; Echinacea root extract 500mg.
Local Distributor: Premier HealthCare
Echinacea (A. Vogel) Lozenges; Fresh echinacea extract, glucose syrup, cane sugar,
honey, caramel sugar syrup, menthol, peppermint oil, citric acid. Local Distributor:
Health Plus
Echinacea (HealthAid) Liquid; Echinacea extract 1:5 (equiv. of 200mg of echinacea
herb in 1ml). Tablets; Pure Echinacea purpurea powder 500mg. Local Distributor: Galea
& Galea
Echinacea (NatraHealth) Tablets; Echinacea purpurea equiv. to 1000mg, providing
polyphenols 10mcg. Local Distributor: Collis Williams Ltd.
Echinacea 300 (Power Herbs) Tablets; Echinacea (3:1) dry extract 100mg equiv. to
fresh echinacea 300mg (providing echinacosides 4mg). Local Distributor: Kemimport
Ltd.
Echinacea 1000mg (Lamberts) Tablets; 1000mg echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
provided by 250mg of a 4:1 extract. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Echinacea 1000mg & Goldenseal 2000mg (Lamberts) Tablets; 1000mg echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea) provided by 250mg of a 4:1 extract, 2000mg goldenseal provided
by 100mg of a 20:1 extract. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Echinacea & Black Elderberry (Higher Nature) Capsules; 127.5mg echinacea extract
4:1, 85mg black elderberry extract 4:1, 170mg olive leaf extract 4:1, 50mg myrrh. Local
Distributor: Health Plus.
Echinacea Cream (A.Vogel) Cream; Each gram contains tinctures of: echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea) 50mg, wild pansy 50mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Echinacea Extract (Solgar) Vegicaps; Raw echinacea aerials powder 300mg,
standardised Echinacea root powdered extract (5mg [4%] echinacosides) 125mg,
PhytO2X ä (powdered blend of beta-carotene prep. and ascorbic acid). Local Distributor:
Natural Remedies.
Echinacea Forte (A.Vogel) Tablets; Echinacea purpurea herb and root extract 750mg
equiv. to 810mg of whole fresh plant. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Echinacea Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Echinacea (angustifolia and purpurea)
leaf/root powder 750mg, echinacea (angustifolia and purpurea) root extract (5:1) 140mg
(min. 4% echinacosides) equiv. to 1450mg echinacea leaf/root herb. Local Distributor:
Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
~116~
Pharmacognosy
Echinacea Plus Ginseng & Astragalus
Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Echinacea (purpurea) root extract 5:1 equiv. to herb
250mg (min. 4% echinacosides), ginseng korean (panax) root extract 5:1 equiv. to herb
250mg (min. 20% ginsenosides), astragalus root extract 4:1 equiv. to herb 200mg,
deglycrrhised liquorice root extract 50mg (<1% glycyrrhisin), ginger root powder 50mg,
ginkgo biloba leaf powder 50mg, schisandra fruit powder 50mg, shiitake mushroom
powder 50mg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Echinacea (Purpurea & Angustifolia) (Health Aid) Tablets; Echinacea purpurea
extract 180mg equiv. to 900mg raw Echinacea powder (standardised for min 4%
polyphenols), echinacea tri spectrum 25mg equiv. to 100mg echinacea powder. Local
Echinacea Root 500mg (FSC) Tablets; Echinacea root (Echinacea purpurea) extract
equiv. to dried herb powder 500mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Echinacea Throat Spray (A.Vogel) Spray; Tinctures of: fresh Echinacea purpurea
(echinacea) herb 190mg, fresh salvia officinalis (sage) leaves 95mg, fresh Echinacea
purpurea (echinacea) root 10mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Echinaforce® (A.Vogel) Tablets; 6.2 mg echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) herb and root
concentrate equiv. to 270mg whole fresh plant or 60mg of whole dried plant. . Local
Distributor: Health Plus
Echinaforce® Forte (A. Vogel) Tablets; 1,140mg of Echinacea purpurea extract from
fresh herb and 60mg of extract from fresh root. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Herbal BoosterTM (HealthAid) see Guarana
Immuno baby (Erba Vita) Syrup; Quantities for maximum daily dose (15ml):
Blackcurrant buds 0.3ml, rosehip berries 0.3ml, Echinacea angustifolia root dry extract
150mg (0.1% of echinacoside 0.15mg), tabebuia bark dry extract 75mg (3.8%
naphthoquinone 2.85mg), cat‘s claw dry extract 75mg (1.05% of total alkaloids
ossindolici 0.79mg). Local Distributor: E.J. Busuttil Ltd.
Milk Thistle & Artichoke (Higher Nature) see Milk Thistle
Perfectil (Vitabiotics) Capsules; Echinacea extract equiv. to 195mg, burdock extract
equiv. to 80mg, vitamin D 2.5mcg, vitamin E 40mg, vitamin C 30mg, thiamin 10mg,
riboflavin 5mg, niacin 18mg, vitamin B6 20mg, folacin 500mcg, vitamin B129mcg, biotin
45mcg, pantothenic acid 40mg, iron 12mg, magnesium 50mg, zinc 15mg, iodine
200mcg, manganese 2mg, silicon 3mg, copper 2mg, chromium 50mcg, selenium
100mcg, cystine 10mg, betacarotene 5mg, PABA 30mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport
Ltd.
Phytocold (Arkopharma) Capsules; Powdered roots of Echinacea purpurea 250mg.
Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Uva-ursi complex (A.Vogel) see Uva-Ursi
Wintervits® (HealthAid) see Tragacanth
~117~
Pharmacognosy
ELDER :
(Sambucus nigra)
Family: Caprifoliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Bark peeled from branches, air-dried flowers, fresh & dried leaves,
fresh & dried ripe fruit, dried roots, fresh leaves.
Indications: Principal: Common cold, feverish conditions9, 28, 45, 129, 130. Major:
Respiratory disorders such as coughs, laryngitis, shortness of breath 9, 28, 129, 130.
Cautions: Diabetics28.
Side-effects: Dizziness, headache, convulsions, GI distress, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea, tachycardia 28.
Drug interactions: Iron, magnesium 28, antidiabetics, morphine, phenobarbita l130.
Dose: Three times daily: dried flowers, 3-5 gm in infusion; liquid extract (1:1, 25%
ethanol), 3-5 ml; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 10-25 ml45.
4.3.2.1 Performance Detox (Arkopharma) see Green Tea
AllergforteTM (HealthAid) see Nettle
Altaflora® Gastrogel (Alta Care) see Aloe Vera
Echinacea & Black Elderberry (Higher Nature) see Echinacea
Elderberry (HealthAid) Liquid; Elderberry extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of elderberry
Immune + (Higher Nature) Tablets; 40mg black elderberry standardised extract (2%
total flavanoids), 25mg bilberry standardised extract (2% anthocyanidins), 25mg
blackcurrant fruit 4:1 extract (min. 2% anthocyanidins), 500mg vitamin C, 2.5mg zinc.
Local Distributor: Health Plus
Mucovit® Sciroppo Adulti (Erba Vita) see Grindelia
Mucovit® Sciroppo bambini (Erba Vita) see Grindelia
Sambucol For Children (Sambucol) Liquid; Black elderberry (berry extract) 0.95g,
vitamin C 32.5mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Sambucol® Immuno Forte Formula (Sambucol) Liquid; Black elderberry (berry
extract) 1.9g, zinc (as gluconate) 1.3mg, vitamin C 55mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport
Ltd.
Sambucol® Original Formula (Sambucol) Liquid; Black elderberry (berry extract) 1.9g.
Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
FENNEL:
(Foeniculum vulgare)
Medicinal Parts: Seeds, oil extracted from ripe fruit and dried ripe fruit.
Indications: Internal Principal: Dyspeptic complaints including flatulence, infantile colic,
eructation, sluggish digestion, appetite suppressant, feeling of fullness14, 19, 28, 140,
~118~
Pharmacognosy
141. Major: Cough, bronchitis, catarrh of the upper respiratory tract14, 19, 28, 141.
Minor: Anorexia, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, to stimulate milk flow in nursing
mothers19. External Principal: Idiopathic hirsutism142, conjunctivitis, blepharitis (as an
eye wash), sore throat, pharyngitis (as a gargle) 19, 28.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to other plants of the Umbelliferae family,
pregnancy, pediatrics19, 28.
Side-effects: Cross sensitivity among patients with celery allergy28, allergic reactions of
the skin and respiratory tract19.
Drug interactions: Ciprofloxacin63, 143.
Dose: Daily dose: 5-7 gm drug; 10-20 gm fennel syrup or fennel honey, or 5-7.5 gm of
compound fennel tincture19.
4.3.2.1 Performance Detox (Arkopharma) see Green Tea
4.3.2.1 Shape Up Day & Night (Arkopharma) see Green Tea
4.3.2.1 Shape Up Organic (Arkopharma) see Green Tea
Altadrine® Lipodrainer (Alta Care) see Nettle
CandawayTM (Lamberts) see Cinnamon
Carbogas (Sella) Tablets; Sweet fennel extract, angelica extract, stinging nettle extract.
Local Distributor: Premier Healthcare
CarbonFlor® (Erba Vita) see Aniseed
Colic Baby (Erba Vita) see Linden
Coloclear Extra (Higher Nature) see Flaxseed
Erbalax® Forte Compresse (Erba Vita) see Senna
Finocarbo Plus (Aboca) Capsules; Fennel fruits phytocomplex 250mg, chamomile
extract 135mg, charcoal 208mg, caraway fruit phytocomplex 110mg, cumin fruit
phytocomplex 80mg, essential oils of fennel and mint 25mg. Local Distributor: Pharma
MT Ltd.
Jointace Gel (Vitabiotics) see Ginger
Jointace Patch (Vitabiotics) see Ginger
Karbofin Forte (ESI) Capsules; Vegetable coal 150mg, fennel 30mg, chamomile 25mg,
fennel oil extract 5mg, anise oil extract 5mg, mint oil extract 5mg. Local Distributor:
Collis Williams Ltd.
Sollievo (Aboca) see Senna
Vegilax® (HealthAid) see Blessed Thistle
FENUGREEK :
(Trigonella foenum-graecum)
Family: Leguminosae-Fabaceae
~119~
Pharmacognosy
Medicinal Parts: Ripe, dried seeds.
Indications: Internal Principal: Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus144, 145,
hypercholesterolaemia, hyperlipidaemia146, 147, 5, 14, 19, 28. Major: Digestive
disorders (including constipation, dyspepsia & gastritis), gastric ulcers148, loss of
appetite149 especially in convalescence5, 9, 19, 28, to increase milk production19, 150.
Minor: Upper respiratory catarrh19, 150. Others: Tuberculosis, menopausal
symptoms151. External Principal: Local inflammation, wounds, leg ulcers, eczema,
burns, boils5, 9, 19, 28.
Cautions: Monitor patients with thyrotoxicosis when using the herb at doses above
usual dietary intake 5.
Contraindications: Pregnancy (except in small amounts as food flavouring) 5, 9, 19,
28, known allergy to the herb or to chickpeas because of possible cross reactivity 5.
Side-effects: Mild GI symptoms such as diarrhoea & flatulence, rare allergic reactions5,
19.
Drug interactions: Antidiabetic agents, anticoagulants, low molecular weight heparins,
thrombolytic agents28, 147.
Dose: Internal: 6 gm of the drug or equivalent preparations. External: 50 gm of
powdered drug to 250 ml of water 19.
4.3.2.1 Shape Up Ultimate (Arkopharma) Capsules; Fenugreek extract 100mg, grape
extract 100mg, bean pod extract 80mg, green tea extract 60mg, maté extract 60mg,
kola extract 60mg, green coffee extract 60mg, dandelion extract 50mg, artichoke extract
50mg, cinnamon extract
40mg. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Cholestro-Vit Formula (Vega) see Garlic
ColestroforteTM (HealthAid) Tablets; Fenugreek seed powder 100mg, gugulipid extract
(3:1) 100mg, artichoke extract (3:1) 50mg, fermented red rice yeast 200mg, inositol
hexanicotinate 125mg, pantethine 50mg, chromium 100mcg, L-taurine 50mg, oat bran
fiber 10mg, soy isoflavone concentrate 100mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Coloclear Extra (Higher Nature) see Flaxseed
Fenugreek (Arkopharma) Capsules; Fenugreek seed powder 495mg. Local Distributor:
Pharmacos Ltd.
Fenugreek (HealthAid) Capsules; Fenugreek seed powder 200mg, fenugreek seed
extract 100mg (standardised for min 60% saponins). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
FootCare Cream (Himalaya) Cream; Fenugreek, turmeric, sal tree, honey. Local
Distributor: Grefed Worldwide Trading
TestofenTM (Power Herbs) Capsules; Fenugreek extract 300mg standardised to 50%
fenuside. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
~120~
Pharmacognosy
GAMBOGE:
Garcinia hanburyi
Family: Guttiferae
Medicinal Parts: Resin extracted from the plant.
Indications: Digestive disorders, particularly constipation28, 161.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, breast feeding, stomach pain, ulcers or obstruction,
Crohn‘s disease, ulcerative colitis, appendicitis 161.
Side-effects: Abdominal pain, vomiting 28, 161.
Drug interactions: Digoxin, warfarin, diuretics, stimulant laxatives, corticosteroids161.
Dose: The appropriate dose of gamboge depends on several factors such as the user‘s
age, health, and several other conditions. There is not enough scientific information to
determine an appropriate range of doses for gamboge28, 161.
GARLIC:
Allium sativum
Family: Liliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Whole fresh bulb, dried bulb, oil of garlic.
Indications: Principal: Hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, arteriosclerosis &
atherosclerosis, diabetes with hyperlipidaemia, peripheral arterial occlusive disease5, 8,
9, 28, 45, 162, 163, 164, 167. Major: Infections including tinea pedis, tinea corporis,
tinea cruris, vaginitis, Helicobacter pylori infection 165, common cold prevention166,
colorectal cancer162, 5, 28, 167. Minor: Respiratory infections and catarrhal conditions,
whooping cough, bronchitis, GI ailments particularly digestive disorders with flatulence
and GI spasms5, 28, 45. Others: Menstrual pains, corns, calluses, otitis, muscle pain,
neuralgia, arthritis, sciatica 28, 45.
Cautions/Contraindications: Garlic may increase risk of bleeding and should be
discontinued at least 10 days before elective surgery, breastfeeding 5, 8, 28.
Side-effects: Breath & body odour8, allergic reaction, nausea, heartburn, flatulence,
abdominal pain, diarrhea 5, 9, 28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants particularly warfarin, antiplatelets,
Dose: Average daily dose: 4 gm of garlic or 8 gm of essential oil. One fresh garlic clove,
1 to 2 times daily28.
Active Mature 50+ (Vega) see Aloe Vera
Arthur’s Formula Ltd (Power Health) see Devil‘s Claw
Cardiohealth Formula (Vega) Capsules; Deodorised garlic clove extract 10:1 equiv. to
herb 500mg (min. 0.5% allicin content), bilberry fruit extract 4:1 equiv. to herb 100mg
(min. 20% anthocyanadins), vitamin C 60mg, vitamin E 40mg, L-taurine 25mg,
pantothenic acid 12mg, cayenne fruit powder 12mg, chinese red yeast 10mg, grape
seed extract 10mg (min. 95% polyphenols), N,Ndimethylglycine 10mg, soy isoflavones
concentrate 10mg, niacin 9mg, vitamin B6 8mg, zinc 7.5mg, iron 7mg, beta carotene
~121~
Pharmacognosy
4.8mg, vitamin B2 2.8mg, vitamin B1 2.8mg, alpha lipoic acid 2mg, co-enzyme Q10
2mg, pine bark extract 2mg (min. 70% proanthocyanadins), folate 800mcg, manganese
0.5mcg, selenium 200mcg, copper 100mcg, vitamin B12 4mcg. Local Distributor: Alfred
Gera & Sons Ltd.
Cardiosterol® Garlic + Co. Q10 (Alta Care) Capsules; Garlic oily macerate 501mg,
gelatin 82.1mg, water 13.9mg, ubidecarenone 10.3mg. Local Distributor: Ultra Pharma
Ltd.
Cholestro-Vit Formula (Vega) Capsules; Deodorised garlic clove extract 10:1 equiv. to
herb 500mg (min. 0.5% allicin content), oat bran 100mg, Chinese red yeast 50mg,
fenugreek seed extract 4:1 equiv to herb 50mg, soya lecithin powder 25mg, vitamin C
60mg, choline bitartrate 25mg, inositol 25mg, L-methionine 25mg, pantothenic acid
12mg, niacin 9mg, vitamin B6 8mg, zinc 7.5mg, iron 7mg, vitamin B2 3.2mg, vitamin B1
2.8mg, vitamin B12 4mcg, manganese 0.5mg, folate 800mcg, selenium 200mcg, copper
100mcg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Cranberry Plus Formula (Vega) see Cranberry
Garlic (Wassen) Tablets; Garlic granules 320mg which typically provides 1600mcg of
allicin (equiv. to 960mg of fresh garlic). Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Garlic Extra High Strength (Deodorised) (Vega) Capsules; Deodorised garlic
standardised
clove extract (10:1) 150mg (min. allicin content 750mcg) providing fresh garlic bulb
1500mg, Vega Phytoantioxidant BaseTM 260mg providing antioxidants and prebiotics:
apple and mixed wild berries concentrate 8:1 equiv. to herb 416mg, prebiotic acacia
gum 208mg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Garlic Max 4000 (Health Aid) Capsules; 40mg pure garlic extract. Local Distributor:
Galea & Galea
Garlic Oil (Solgar) Softgels; Garlic oil concentrate 1mg from approx 500mg fresh garlic
bulbs in a natural base of safflower oil. Local Distributor: Natural Remedies
Hawthorn Compound (Power Herbs) see Buckwheat
HeartMaxTM (HealthAid) see Grapeseed
Hi-Garlic Perles Odourless (Power Health) Capsules; Deodorised garlic oil 2mg. Local
Kyolic Garlic 1000 (Quest) Tablets; Aged garlic extract 1000mg. Local Distributor:
Pharma MT Ltd.
Multigluco Tolerance Factor (Vega) see Ginkgo
Odourless Garlic (Healthlife) Capsules; Odourless garlic powder 2mg. Local
Odourless Garlic (NutraHealth) Capsules; Odourless garlic oil 2mg. Local Distributor:
Collis Williams Ltd.
Odourless Garlic Gems (FSC) Capsules; Odourless garlic 2mg.
~122~
Pharmacognosy
Odourless Garlic Pearls (Numark) Capsules; Garlic oil 2mg. Local Distributor: Premier
HealthCare
One A Day Pure Cod Liver Oil Plus
Garlic (Seven Seas) Capsules; 800mg cod liver oil blend providing 160mg omega-3
nutrients of
which 120mg EPA & DHA, 6mg garlic extract, 5mcg vitamin D. Local Distributor:
Associated Drug Co. Ltd.
Super Strength Supergar 8000 (Higher Nature) Tablets; 500mg extra high allicin garlic
(providing 8000ppm allicin, 20,000ppmalliin and 8500ppm thiosulfinates).
Swiss Garlic (A.Vogel) Capsules; 270mg rapeseed oil extract of fresh garlic, equiv. to
270mg of fresh garlic. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Triple G - Ginseng, Ginkgo, Garlic (Power Health) see Ginseng Korean
Wellman (Vitabiotics) see Siberian Ginseng
Whole Bulb Garlic (FSC) Capsules; Dried garlic 300mg equiv. to fresh garlic 1070mg.
HAWTHORN:
Crataegus laevigata
Family: Rosaceae
Medicinal Parts: Extracts of leaf and flower are most commonly used, although the
berries may also be used.
Indications: Principal: Arrhythmias, hypertension 224, angina pectoris, atherosclerosis
225, NYHA functional class II CHF226, 227, 5, 9, 19, 28. Major: Hyperlipidaemia,
anxiety5, 228. Minor: Connective tissue disorders, kidney & bladder stones224. Others:
Herpes simplex infection 5.
Contraindications: Pregnancy5, 9, children under 12 years of age28.
Side-effects: Sweating, nausea, fatigue, rash on the hands, headache, dizziness,
palpitations, sleepiness, agitation, GI symptoms5, 9, 28, 227.
Drug interactions: Antihypertensives, cardiac glycosides5, 227, 229.
Dose: 160-900 mg of a native water-ethanol extract of the leaves or flowers; 1.5-3.5 gm
as infusion or decoction19, 227.
Hawthorn (Arkopharma) Capsules; Hawthorn powder 350mg, providing at least 1.5%
flavonoids. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd.
Hawthorn 2500mg (Lamberts) Tablets; Hawthorn 2500mg (providing 500mg of a 5:1
extract) providing flavonoids 10mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Hawthorn Berry (HealthAid) Liquid; Hawthorn berry extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of
hawthorn berry herb) in 1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
~123~
Pharmacognosy
Hawthorn Berry 500mg (FSC) Tablets; Hawthorn berry extract equiv. to 500mg. Local
Hawthorn Compound (Power Herbs) see Buckwheat
TranquilTM (HealthAid) Capsules; 250mg hawthorn oil macerate (2:1); 100mg
hawthorn extract (1:1); 50mg viburnum extract (10:1) equiv. to 500mg raw viburnum
powder; 50mg Valeriana officinalis extract (5:1) equiv. to 250mg raw valerian root
powder; 25mg magnolia extract; 25mg St. John‘s Wort extract (10:1); 2.5mg
passionflower extract (4:1), equiv. to 10mg raw powder. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea
V-VeinTM (HealthAid) see Horse Chestnut
HOODIA:
Hoodia gordonii
Family: Asclepiadaceae
Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts.
Indications: Appetite suppression28, 230.
Cautions/Contraindications: None known.
Dose: 400mg twice daily 231.
Magnolia, Valerian, St. John’s Wort
Complex (HealthAid) Capsules; Hawthorn oil macerate (2:1) 250mg, hawthorn powder
extract (1:1) 100mg, viburnum extract (10:1) 50mg, valerian extract (5:1) 50mg, St.
John‘s Wort extract (10:1) 25mg, passionflower extract (4:1) 2.5mg. Local Distributor:
Galea & Galea
ICELAND MOSS:
Cetraria islandica
Family: Parmeliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Dried thallus.
Indications: Principal: Irritation of the oral and pharyngeal mucous membranes and
accompanying dry cough, hoarseness, sore throat 8, 19, 28. Major: Bronchitis, bronchial
asthma, respiratory catarrh, loss of appetite19, 28. Minor: Gastritis, digestive complaints,
nausea and vomiting (in particular in pregnancy and with migraine)19, 28. Others:
Gastric & duodenal ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, cachexia, tumours19.
~124~
Pharmacognosy
Dose: Adults: three or four times daily: 1-2 gm of dried lichen as a decoction or infusion;
tincture (1:5 in 40% alcohol), 1-1.5ml; equivalent preparations 19.
Broncovit® (Erba vita) see Grindelia
Isla Cassis Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor:
Kemimport Ltd.
Isla Mint Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport
Ltd.
Isla Moss Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport
Ltd.
Organic Tea Tree (dr.organic®) see Tea Tree
IVY LEAF:
Hedera helix
Family: Araliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Leaves.
Indications: Principal: Chronic inflammatory bronchial conditions including cough,
bronchitis8, 14, 28. Minor: Gout, rheumatism, burns, wounds, calluses, rheumatic
complaints, phlebitis28.
Side-effects: GI upset, contact dermatitis with large doses14.
Dose: Average daily dosage: 0.3 gm of drug; equivalent preparations8.
Prospan (BioRevive) Syrup; Dried ivy leaf 0.7g/100ml. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
JUNIPER:
Juniperus communis
Family: Cupressaceae
Medicinal Parts: Essential oil from berry cones, berry.
Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints, cystitis & other benign urinary tract
disorders9, 19, 28. Major: Appetite stimulant, rheumatism, arthritis, gout9, 19, 28. Minor:
To regulate menstruation, to relieve menstrual pain28, 258. Others: Severe irritation
resulting from bronchitis, diabetes9, 28.
Cautions: Hyperglycaemia; hypokalaemia; external administration for large skin
wounds, acute skin diseases, feverish diseases, cardiac insufficiency, hypertonia9, 28.
Contraindications: Renal disease, pregnancy, lactation9, 19, 28.
Side-effects: Prolonged use or overdosing may cause kidney damage19.
Drug interactions: Loop diuretics, spironolactone, thiazide diuretics, triamterene 63.
Dose: Daily dose: from 2 gm up to a maximum of 10 gm of dried juniper berries, equiv.
to 20-100 mg of the essential oil19.
~125~
Pharmacognosy
Hip & Thigh Formula (HealthAid) see White Willow
Natural Herbal Inhalant Oil (Numark) see Eucalyptus
Potter’s Catarrh Pastilles (Potter‘s) Patilles; Eucalyptus oil BP 0.02% v/w, menthol BP
0.8% w/w, pumilio pine oil BP 0.6% v/w. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
KARELA:
Momordica charantia
Family: Curcubitaceae
Medicinal Parts: Fruit, leaves.
Indications: Principal: Diabetes259, 260, cancer (breast261, gall bladder5, lung,
colon262), HIV263. Major: Hypercholesterolaemia260, worms, viral conditions263, GI
complaints, headaches 5, 28. Minor: As an emmenagogue in reproductive health,
psoriasis, wounds (externally) 5, 28.
Cautions: Diabetics while monitoring their blood sugar levels regularly 28.
Contraindications: Hypoglycaemia, pregnancy, lactation, people with glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency 5, 28.
Side-effects: Headache, hypoglycaemic coma, convulsions in children5, 14.
Drug interactions: Antidiabetic agents, cholesterol lowering drugs5, 14, 28.
Dose: Diabetes: Aqueous extract of bitter melon fruit juice containing 100 gm of fruit in
100ml of extract taken daily5.
DiaglucoforteTM (HealthAid) Tablets; Karela fruit extract 100mg, milk This tle seed
extract 75mg, purple rice extract 200mg, alpha lipoic acid 75mg, zinc 7.5mg, folacin
200mcg, chromium 100mcg, copper 0.5mg, manganese 1mg, potassium 50mg. Local
Distributor: Galea & Galea.
Karela (HealthAid) Tablets; Karela extract 179mg (equiv. to 1250mg karela powder).
Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
KELP:
Laminaria hyperborean
Family: Fucaceae
Indications: Principal: Hypothyroidism, goiter9, 14, 28, 261. Major: Arthritis,
rheumatism, obesity9. Minor: Diabetes, cancer 261.
Cautions: Not to be consumed for a long period of time28, CNS stimulants14, patients
with bleeding disorders or taking drugs that may increase the risk of bleeding, diabetes,
hypoglycaemia 261.
~126~
Pharmacognosy
Contraindications: Pregnancy, breast feeding 261.
Side-effects: Increase or decrease in blood thyroid hormone levels, acnetype skin
lesions, acne exacerbation, brassy taste, increased salivation, stomach irritation, kidney
& nerve toxicity, bleeding, reduced blood platelet count 261.
Drug interactions: Thyroid medications including levothyroxine and iodine14, ginkgo,
garlic, saw palmetto, diuretics261.
Dose: Dried herb: 5-10 gm or infusion 3 times daily; Liquid extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol):
4-8 ml 3 times daily 9.
Cellulite Formula (Vega) see Ginkgo
Cider Trim (HealthAid) Capsules; Kelp, soybean oil, cider vinegar, vitamin B6, yellow
beeswax, lecithin. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Cidiet (Power Health) Capsules; Vitamin B 5 4mg, kelp powder 50mg (providing iodine
between 30mcg and 50mcg), dry apple cider vinegar powder 80mg, lecithin 200mg.
Colloidal Minerals Plus Kelp Formula (Vega) Capsules; Fossilized plant humus
powder 350mg, kelp seaweed powder 150mg (providing iodine 150mcg (min. 0.1%)).
Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Healthy Mega (HealthAid) see Buckwheat
Kelp (Power Health) Tablets; Kelp 500mg providing iodine on average between 300 and
495mcg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Kelp Plus Greens Formula (Vega) Capsules; Kelp seaweed powder 300mg (providing
iodine 300mcg (min 0.1%)), green tea leaf extract 10mg (min. 40% polyphenols), blue
green algae 30mg, chlorella broken cell algae 30mg, spirulina algae 30mg. Local
Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
MSM Glucosamine Joint Complex (Higher Nature) see Celery
Rejuvadeen Formula (Vega) see Green Tea
LAVENDER:
Lavandula officinalis
Family: Labiatae
Medicinal Parts: Flower.
Indications: Principal: Anxiety, insomnia, lack of concentration5, 8, 14, 28. Major:
Dyspepsia, bloating8, alopecia, perineal discomfort following childbirth, burns, insect
bites5. Minor: Migraine, neuralgia, minor cuts & bruises, strained muscles, acne,
eczema 5, 28.
Others: Varicose ulcers, loss of voice (in a gargle)5.
~127~
Pharmacognosy
Cautions: Topical preparations should be tested on a small area of skin before
widespread application 5, 28.
Contraindications: Pregnancy & lactation28.
Side-effects: Major: Drowsiness, GI disturbance, skin irritation5, 28. Minor: Prepubertal
gynecomastia in boys5.
Drug interactions: Pharmaceutical sedatives, antidepressants5.
Dose: Infusion (tea): 1.5gm dried flowers in 150ml water. Internal: 1-4 drops (20-80mg)
on a sugar cube. Liquid extract (1:2): 2-4.5 ml/day. External use: Mix 20 drops of oil with
20ml of Carrier oil such as almond oil; may be applied undiluted to insect bites or stings.
As a bath additive: 20-100gm lavender flowers are commonly steeped in 2 L boiling
water, strained, and then added to the bathwater 5.
Aloe Vera (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera
Arnica (HealthAid) see Arnica
Calendula (HealthAid) see Marigold
Calma Baby (Erba Vita) see Linden
Dermavital (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera
Evening Primrose (HealthAid) see Evening Primrose
Jointace Gel (Vitabiotics) see Ginger
Jointace Patch (Vitabiotics) see Ginger
Migrastick (Arkopharma) see Peppermint
Multi-Mam® BabyWash (Multi-Mam) see Aloe Vera
Organic Lavender (dr.organic®) Oil; Lavender oil. Lotion; Lavender oil, aloe vera,
cocoa butter, shea butter, olive oil, sunflower oil, Irish moss, vitamin A, vitamin E. Local
Pectovit® (Erba Vita) see Grindelia
Tea Tree (Bios Line) see Tea Tree
Venalta® (Alta Care) see Grapeseed
Venis® Sollievo (Erba Vita) see Grapeseed
LEMON BALM:
Melissa officinalis
Family: Labiatae
Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts.
Indications: Internally Principal: Anxiety, nervousness, insomnia5, 8, 28, 266, 267.
Major: To improve cognitive function, Alzheimer‘s disease268, 269, gastrointestinal
conditions associated with spasm and nervousness 5, 8, 28, 267. Externally Herpes
simplex type 1, rheumatism, nerve pain, stiff neck5, 28.
Cautions: Limit alcohol intake, diabetes, alcohol dependence, liver disease270.
Contraindications: Hypothyroidism, pregnancy 5, 270.
~128~
Pharmacognosy
Side-effects: Drowsiness270.
Drug interactions: Barbiturates, cholinergic drugs5, 270.
Dose: Fresh herb: 1.5-4.5 gm twothree times daily; Infusion: 1.5-4.5 gm in 150 ml
water; Fluid extract (1:1) (g/ml): 6-12 ml/day; Ointment: 700 mg/g ointment applied four
times daily for herpes simplex infection5.
Calma Baby (Erba Vita) see Linden
Candiclear (Higher Nature) see Thyme
Colic Baby (Erba Vita) see Linden
Controller (Alta Care) Patches; Lemon balm, roman chamomile, neroli essential oil,
bitter orange, olibanum essential oil. Local Distributor: Ultra Pharma Ltd.
Controller® Natural Sleep (Alta Care) see Linden
Melissa Leaf Extract (HealthAid) Capsules; Melissa leaf extract 4:1 (lemon balm)
138mg equiv. to 550mg of Melissa leaf powder.
Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Refreshall® (Lamberts) see Ginkgo
MACA:
Lepidiummeyenii
Family: Brassicaceae
Medicinal Parts: Root.
Indications: Principal: Male sexual dysfunction282, 283, 284, decreased epididymal
sperm count285, psychological symptoms (including anxiety & depression) and sexual
dysfunction in postmenopausal women 286, 292. Major: Learning & memory impairment
287, prostatic hyperplasia288, 289, diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia290, 292. Minor:
Protection against UVA, UVB and UVC 291, 292.
Cautions: Pregnant, breastfeeding, breast tenderness (decrease dosage), children
under 12 years of age 292.
Contraindications: Patients with thyroid conditions293.
Drug interactions: None documented.
Dose: 1 dried maca extract 450 mg capsule 3 times daily taken orally with food293.
AntiStress (Erba Vita) Capsules; Micronized powder of Siberian ginseng root, dry
extract of maca root, micronized powder of maca root, dry extract of roseroot, dry extract
of Zizyphus jujube spinosa seed, flax oil microencapsulated, linolenic acid, linoleic acid,
oleic acid, dry extract of Jiao Gu Lan leaves, L-teanina (extract from green tea leaves),
vitamin B6, vitamin B1, vitamin B12. Local Distributor: E.J. Busuttil Ltd.
Maca (HealthAid) Liquid; Maca extract 1:10 (equiv. of 100mg of maca herb) in 1ml.
Tablets; Maca powder 500mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
~129~
Pharmacognosy
Wellman® Conception (Vitabiotics) Tablets; Vitamin A 750mcg, vitamin D 15mcg,
vitamin E 30mg, vitamin C 90mg, vitamin B1 12mg, vitamin B2 15mg, vitamin B3 18mg,
vitamin B6 10mg, folic acid 400mcg, vitamin B12 75mcg, biotin 150mcg, pantothenic
acid 10mg, magnesium 60mg, iron 6mg, zinc 15mg, copper 1000mcg, manganese
0.5mg, selenium 150mcg, chromium 50mcg, Peruvian maca 250mg, lycopene extract
1.5mg, pine bark extract 30mg, octacosanol 3mg, inositol 40mg, L-glutathione 2.5mg, L-
arginine 10mg, Siberian ginseng extract 30mg, co-enzyme Q10 2mg, L-carnitine
tartarate 50mg, citrus bioflavonoids 10mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
MAGNOLIA:
Magnolia glauca
Family: Magnoliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Bark.
Indications: Principal: Stomach pain, gastroenteritis, flatulence, vomiting & diarrhoea
associated with indigestion, poor appetite, fullness & distension of the abdomen28, 294.
Major: Fever (malarial fever, fever of a typhoid type), pain & inflammation of rheumatism
& gout, upper respiratory tract infections & spasms including asthma, coughs, profuse
phlegm in the lungs, shortness of breath and fullness & pressure in the chest area294.
Minor: Obesity & weight management, substitute for tobacco294.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, breast-feeding294.
Dose: 600mg as a powder or liquid extract once or twice daily at mealtimes28, 294.
Magnolia Extract (HealthAid) Tablets; Magnolia extract 500mg (standardised to contain
2% Honokiol), Philodendron amurense extract 250mg (standardised to contain 0.1%
berberine), passionflower extract (1:4) 120mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
TranquilTM (HealthAid) see Hawthorn
MALLOW:
(Malva sylvestris
Family: Malvaceae
Medicinal Parts: Leaves, roots, flowers.
Indications: Principal: Cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the mouth & pharynx 28, 295.
Major: Gastroenteritis, bladder complaints, wound management (used externally for the
latter indication) 28.
Side-effects: None known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated
therapeutic dosages.
~130~
Pharmacognosy
Dose: Average daily dose: 5 gm of the drug; Tea: drink 2 to 3 times a day28.
Alkagin® (Istituto Ganassini) Cleansing solution, ovules; Extracts of mallow, linden &
calendula. Gel; Mallow extract, linden extract, marigold extract, aloe vera, peppermint,
panthenol, hyaluronic acid, hydrolyzed glycosaminoglycan. Powder; Mallow extract,
calendula
extract, linden extract, extracts from wheat, rice and corn grains, tapioca starch, zinc
oxide, ethyl linoleate, ethyl linolenate, tocopheryl acetate. Wipes; Mallow, calendula,
linden, potassium glycyrrhizate, vitamin E (tocopherol acetate). Local Distributor: E.J.
Busuttil Ltd.
NASTURTIUM:
Tropaeolum majus
Family: Tropaeolaceae
Medicinal Parts: The whole flowering plant & the seeds.
Indications: Principal: Recurrent urinary tract infections330, 331, 332. Major: Catarrh of
the upper respiratory tract, cough, bronchitis28. Minor: Mild muscular pain, menstrual
disorders, hair loss, infected & poorly healing wounds [externally] 28. Others: Scurvy,
tuberculosis28.
Contraindications: GI ulcers, kidney diseases, infants or small children28.
Side-effects: Contact dermatitis 330.
Dose: Daily dose: extract: 14.4 mg taken 3 times daily; infusion: 2 to 3 cups per day;
pressed juice: 30 gm per day28.
NEEM:
Antelaea azadirachta
Family: Meliaceae
Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves, branches, seeds, latex.
Indications: Inflammatory and febrile diseases (including malaria and leprosy),
dyspeptic complaints, worm infestations 28.
Side-effects: No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper
administration of designed therapeutic dosages.
Dose: There is not enough scientific evidence to safely recommend the use of neem 28.
Herbal Cream (HealthAid) see Arnica
Neem Cream (A.Vogel) Cream; Neem leaf extract, eucalyptus, rosemary, beeswax,
sunflower oil, sweet almond oil. Local Distributor: Health Plus
~131~
Pharmacognosy
Neem Leaf Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Neem leaf extract 200mg (min. 2.5%
bitter principles); Vega Phytoantioxidant BaseTM 85mg providing antioxidants and
prebiotics: apple and mixed wild berries concentrate 8:1 equiv. to herb 136mg, prebiotic
acacia gum 68 mg; artemesia leaf powder 50mg; black walnut husk powder 20mg;
grapefruit seed extract 20mg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Neem Oil (A.Vogel) Oil; Neem oil, sweet almond oil, bergamot, rosemary, eucalyptus.
OATS:
Avena sativa
Family: Poaceae
Medicinal Parts: The whole flowering plant, including the oat straw and the seed.
Indications: Principal: Hyperlipidaemia338, 339, hypertension340, pruritus, blood sugar
regulation (diabetes) 341. Major: Libido, exhaustion, insomnia, anxiety, neurasthenia, GI
complaints, consequences of nicotine abuse5, 8, 28. Minor: Rheumatism, bladder
weakness, gout, kidney ailments28.
Cautions: Oat bran products should be taken with large amounts of water to assure that
the fiber is well dispersed in the bowel 28.
Contraindications: Patients with coeliac disease, intestinal obstruction 5, 28.
Side-effects: Flatulence, anal irritation5.
Drug interactions: Antihypertensives, lipid-lowering medications including statins5, 28.
Dose: 1-4 gm three times daily of oatmeal or straw; 20-40 ml/week 1:2 tincture5.
CarbonFlor® (Erba Vita) see Aniseed
Cholestro-Vit Formula (Vega) see Garlic
ColestroforteTM (HealthAid) see Fenugreek
Femmevit® (HealthAid) see Starflower
Gastro-Vit Formula (Vega) see Aloe Vera
Hi-Active Formula (Vega) Capsules; Oat straw extract 10:1 equiv. to herb 500mg,
starflower seed oil powder 33% 100mg (min. 20% GLA), soy lecithin powder 67mg,
vitamin C 30mg, choline bitartrate 20mg, inositol 20mg, niacin 18mg, L-glutamine 10mg,
L-tyrosine 10mg, vitamin E 10mg, zinc 7.5mg, iron 7mg, pantothenic acid 6mg, beta
carotene 2.4mg, vitamin B6 2mg, vitamin B2 1.6mg, vitamin B1 1.4mg, manganese
0.25mg, folate 200mcg, selenium 100mcg, copper 50mcg, vitamin B12 1mcg. Local
Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons\ Ltd.
Oat Seed (HealthAid) Liquid; Oat seed extract 1:2 (equiv. of 500mg of oat seed herb) in
1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Passiflora Complex (A.Vogel) see Passionflower
Premenstrual Formula (Vega) Capsules; Oat straw extract 10:1 equiv. to herb 250mg,
evening primrose seed oil powder 33% 100mg (providing min. 10% GLA), magnesium
oxide 100mg, niacin 36mg, vitamin C 30mg, green tea leaf extract 20mg (min. 40%
~132~
Pharmacognosy
polyphenols), vitamin E 20mg, pantothenic acid 12mg, zinc 7.5mg, iron 7mg, vitamin B6
4mg, vitamin B2 3.2mg, vitamin B1 2.8mg, beta carotene 2.4mg, folate 400mcg,
manganese 0.25mg, chromium 200mcg,
selenium 100mcg, selenium 100mcg, iodine 75mcg, copper 50mcg, vitamin B12
2mcg. Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
OLIVE:
Olea europaea
Family: Oleaceae
Medicinal Parts: Fruit, leaf.
Indications: Olive leaves Principal: Arteriosclerosis, hypertension342, 343, 344. Major:
Symptomatic relief in osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis342, gout, fever, asthma,
tonsillitis,
pharyngitis, diabetes343. Minor: Bacterial (such as bronchitis & tonsillitis), fungal (such
as vaginal candidiasis, Tinea pedis & Tinea capitis) and viral infections (such as herpes
simplex) 342, 344.
Olive Oil Principal: Hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia345, 346, psoriasis, eczema,
sun burn, mild burns, rheumatism 28. Major: Used as a laxative to soften impacted
faeces, gallbladder inflammation, flatulence5, cancer prevention (prostate, colon &
breast) 345, 346. Minor: Roemhel syndrome, GI ulcers, kidney stones 5, 28.
Cautions: Known allergies to the Oleaceae family of plants5, biliary tract stones28.
Side-effects: Seasonal respiratory allergies5.
Drug interactions: Hypoglycaemic agents, hypertensive agents5.
Dose: Olive leaf extract: 5ml three times daily with water or juice if necessary. Olive oil:
Should replace dietary intake of saturated fats and be consumed as part of a
Mediterranean style diet 5.
CandawayTM (Lamberts) see Cinnamon
Echinacea & Black Elderberry (Higher Nature) see Echinacea
Olive Leaf Extract (Power Herbs) Tablets; Olive leaf extract 450mg (6% oleuropein
27mg). Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Organic Lavender (dr.organic®) see Lavender
Tea Tree (Bios Line) see Tea Tree.
PAPAYA:
Carica papaya
Family: Caricaceae
Indications: Principal: GI digestion complaints, inflammations and ulcers in the gastro-
duodenal area14, 28, 351, 352. Major: Pancreas excretion insufficiency, intestinal
~133~
Pharmacognosy
parasites353. Minor: Damage to the urinary tract & stones, haemorrhoids, diabetes14,
28. Others: Cough, bronchitis 28.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, patients taking oral anticoagulants 14, 28.
Side-effects: Allergic reactions, including asthma attacks28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants28.
Dose: Dosage depends on the composition of the enzyme substitute preparation28.
50 Plus Once A Day (Quest) see Buckwheat
Altacura® Influtuss (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet
Altacura® Influtuss Extra (Alta Care) Tablets; Sorbitol 313.4mg, papaya fruit dried
extract 60.0mg, vitamin C 60.0mg, propolis dried extract 30.0mg, zinc oxide 18.7mg,
magnesium stearate 5.0mg, lemon flavour 5.0mg, mint essential oil 3.0mg, silica 2.0mg,
curcuma 2.0mg, aspartame 0.4mg, potassium acesulfame 0.4mg. Local Distributor:
Ultra Pharma Ltd.
Altadrine® Day Burner (Alta Care) see Grapeseed
Bromelain Complex (Vega) see Aloe Vera
Day-vit® Probio (HealthAid) see Buckwheat
Dietrim (Vitabiotics) see Cinnamon
DigestivAid No Acid (ESI) see Licorice
Digestizyme® (Lamberts) Capsules; Papain 50,000PU, bromelain 120,000PU, lipase
125LU, amylase 5000DU, protease 4.5 10,000HUT, protease 3.0 10SAPU,
glucoamylase 9AGU, cellulase 200CU. Local Distributor: Health Plus
DigestonTM (HealthAid) Tablets; Papain 80mg, papaya enzyme 5mg, bromelain 50mg,
pepsin 150mg, betain hydrochloride 100mg, pancreatin 75mg, amylase 10mg, protease
10mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Enzyme Digest (Quest) Tablets; Papain 4.17mg, amylase 10mg, lipase 5.56mg,
bromelain 5mg, betaine HCl 100mg, peppermint oil 0.25mg. Local Distributor: Pharma
MT Ltd.
Flodolor® Flexi (Alta Care) Syrup; Ananas juice 5390mg, honey sugar free 3000mg,
papaya 600mg, ananas 500mg, olmaria 250mg, devil‘s claw 200mg, ananas aroma
50mg, sodium benzoate 10mg. Local Distributor: Ultra Pharma Ltd.
Healthy Mega (HealthAid) see Buckwheat
Neuralta® Plus (Alta Care) Syrup; Ananas juice 5390mg, royal jelly 1600mg, honey
sugar free 1289mg, papaya 600mg, ananas 500mg, olmaria 250mg, devil‘s claw 200mg,
ananas aroma 50mg, vitamin B1 100mg, vitamin B6 10mg, vitamin B12 1000mcg,
sodium benzoate 10mg. Local Distributor: Ultra Pharma Ltd.
Silvia® Feminin Formula (Alta Care) see Hops
Super Once A Day Timed Release (Quest)
~134~
Pharmacognosy
Tablets; Vitamin A 750mcg, beta carotene 6mg, alpha carotene 90mcg, cryptoxanthin
21.2mcg, zeaxanthin 18mcg, lutein 13.6mcg, folacin 200mcg, biotin 50mcg, vitamin C
150mg, vitamin D 10mcg, vitamin E 34mg, thiamin 39mg, riboflavin 50mg, niacin 50mg,
vitamin B6 41mg, vitamin B12 50mcg, pantothenic acid 50mg, calcium 158mg,
phosphorus 91mg, iron 15mg, magnesium 60mg, zinc 10mg, iodine 100mcg,
manganese 1mg, copper 1000mcg, molybdenum 25mcg, chromium 25mcg, selenium
32.5mcg, vanadium 25mcg, choline bitartrate 50mg, inositol 50mg, methionine 50mg,
PABA 50mg, bioflavonoids 28.6mg, lysine HCl 22mg, lecithin 100mg, papain 2mg, rutin
2mg, hesperidin 10mg, betaine HCl 12mg, cysteine 0.6mg. Local Distributor: Pharma
MT Ltd.
PARSLEY:
Petroselinum crispum
Medicinal Parts: Leaf, root, seed.
Indications: Principal: Urinary tract complaints including cystitis, dysuria & renal
gravel8, 9, 19, 28, 354, 355. Major: Digestive complaints such as flatulence, dyspepsia
& intestinal colic8, 9, 19, 28, 45. Minor: Dysmenorrhoea, functional amenorrhoea,
myalgia (internal or topical use), rheumatic conditions9, 19, 354, 355.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, lactation9, 28, inflammatory kidney disorders19, 45.
Side-effects: Rarely contact allergic reactions of skin19, 28. Warfarin 354.
Dose: Three times daily: dried herb, 2-4 gm or in infusion; liquid extract (1:1 in 25%
alcohol), 2 4 ml 45.
Colonease (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera
Cysticare® (HealthAid) see Cranberry
InterfreshTM (HealthAid) Capsules; Safflower oil 65mg, parsley seed oil 15mg,
peppermint oil 15mg, chlorophyll 3mg, menthol 0.75mg. Local Distributor: Galea &
Galea
Prostate Formula (Vega) see Saw Palmetto
Vitamin B6 (Quest) Tablets; Vitamin B6 50mg, parsley leaf powder 12.5mg (equiv. to
50mg parsley leaf powder). Local Distributor: Pharma MT Ltd.
RASPBERRY:
Rubus idaeus
Family: Rosaceae
~135~
Pharmacognosy
Indications: Principal: To facilitate parturition, diarrhoea, stomatitis, tonsillitis5, 9, 19,
28, 386. Major: Dyspeptic complaints, externally as a wash for superficial wounds and
ulcers5, 9, 19, 386. Others: Painful and profuse menstruation, influenza, fever, diabetes,
vitamin deficiency 8, 19.
Cautions: Peptic ulceration, GI conditions associated with inflammation. Avoid in
constipation 5, 28.
Contraindications: Early stages of pregnancy. Raspberry preparations should only be
taken during the final 8-10 weeks of pregnancy 9, 19.
Side-effects: GI discomfort, constipation 5, 19.
Drug interactions: Iron, calcium, magnesium (separate the administration of these
substances by at least 2 hours) 5.
Dose: 2-3 times daily: dried leaf 3-4 gm, or as a 5% infusion or equivalent extract.
Higher doses of up to twice this amount (maximum: 24 gm dried leaf per day) have also
been recommended 19.
Raspberry Leaf Extract (HealthAid) Capsules; Raspberry extract 125mg (equiv. to
500mg raspberry powder), raspberry powder 400mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
RED CLOVER:
Trifolium pretense
Family: Fabaceae
Medicinal Parts: Flower head, leaf.
Indications: Principal: To relief menopausal symptoms (particularly hot flushes),
mastalgia, premenstrual syndrome, prostate cancer prevention5, 28, 387, 388, 389.
Major: BPH, osteoporosis prevention5, 390. Minor: Eczema, psoriasis5, 9, 28, 45, 388.
Others: Cough, bronchitis45.
Cautions: In patients with conditions that may be aggravated by increased oestrogen
level such as endometriosis or uterine fibroids5.
Side-effects: Infertility and growth disorders have been reported in grazing animals5, 9,
28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants, oestrogens, tamoxifen5, 28, 388.
Dose: Menopausal symptoms: 40-82 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones.
Osteoporosis prevention: 44-86 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones. BPH
symptom relief: 40-80 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones5.
SAFFLOWER:
Carthamus tinctorius
Medicinal Parts: Flowers, seeds, oil extracted from its embryos.
~136~
Pharmacognosy
Indications: Principal: Cardiovascular disease403, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia,
atherosclerosis, arrhythmias404, 405. Major: Inhibition of thrombus formation 404, 405,
delayed, heavy & painful menstruation, male sterility, dead sperm excess disease 406,
pain & swelling associated with trauma407, 408. Minor: Rheumatism particularly
rheumatoid arthritis, sciatica408. Others: Pertussis, chronic bronchitis, chronic gastritis,
atrophic gastritis, constipation caused by medicines for mental illnesses, chronic
nephritis408.
Contraindication: Pregnancy28.
Dose: Average daily dose is 3 gm of decoction; single dose is 1 gm28.
Bodylean® CLA Plus (HealthAid) see Green Tea
InterfreshTM (HealthAid) see Parsley
SAFFRON:
Crocus sativus
Family: Iridaceae
Medicinal Parts: Stigma, style.
Indications: Principal: Menorrhagia, amenorrhea, painful labour 28, 409, 410. Major:
Indigestion, colic, bronchitis, sore throat, headache, vomiting, fever, skin
hyperpigmentation, acne, depression 409, 410. Minor: Insomnia, measles, jaundice,
dysentery, cholera, psoriasis409, 410. Others: Cancer treatment and prevention
(fibrosarcoma, cervical epitheloid carcinoma, breast carcinoma) 410, 411.
Cautions: Patients taking anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs412.
Contraindication: Pregnancy28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants412.
Dose: 3-9 gm daily412.
Saffron (HealthAid) Capsules; Saffron extract (6:1) 14.75mg (equiv. to 177mg of Saffron
powder). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
SAGE:
Salvia officinalis
Family: Labiatae
Medicinal Parts: Leaf.
Indications: Principal: Hot flushes and hyperhidrosis associated with menopause413,
poor memory, dementia5, 8, 9, 19, 28, 414. Major: Inflammation of mouth or throat
mucosa, such as pharyngitis, tonsillitis, stomatitis, gingivitis, glossitis, digestive disorders
such as dyspepsia, flatulence, poor digestion & bloating5, 8, 9, 19, 28, 415. Minor: Lack
of appetite5. Others: Asthma, cancer 5, 416.
~137~
Pharmacognosy
Cautions: Sage oil can irritate the skin when used topically; internal use of the essential
oil should be closely monitored5; epileptics19.
Contraindications: Pregnancy, lactation19.
Side-effects: Occasional allergic reactions with topical use5.
Drug interactions: Iron, calcium, magnesium (reduced absorption of these minerals
when taken with sage) 5.
Dose: Infusion of dried herb: 1-4 gm three times daily. Tincture (1:1): 1-4 ml three times
daily. Essential oil: 2-3 drops in 100 ml water several times daily. Gargle or rinse (use
warm infusion): 2.5 gm cut leaf in 100ml water; or 2-3 drops essential oil in 100 ml
water; or use 5 ml fluid extract diluted in a glass of water, several times daily5.
Alito Fresco e Balsamico (Sella) see Eucalyptus
Colonease (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera
Essential Oil of Sage 50mg (Power Herbs) Capsules; Sage essential oil 50mg. Local
Menopace® Plus (Vitabiotics) Tablets; Botanical tablet: Soy isoflavone extract 120mg,
sage extract 250mg, green tea extract 50mg, flaxseed lignans 50mg. Multivitamin tablet:
Vitamin A 750mcg, vitamin D 5mcg, vitamin E 30mg, vitamin C 45mg, vitamin B1 10mg,
vitamin B2
5mg, vitamin B3 20mg, vitamin B6 10mg, folic acid 500mcg, vitamin B12 9mcg, biotin
30mcg, pantothenic acid 30mg, magnesium 100mg, iron 6mg, zinc 15mg, copper
1000mcg, manganese 0.5mg, selenium 100mcg, chromium 50mcg, iodine 225mcg,
PABA 25mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Phytomenopause (Arkopharma) Capsules; Sage leaf powder 285mg. Local Distributor:
Pharmacos Ltd.
Refreshall® (Lamberts) see Ginkgo
Sage Leaf Extract (HealthAid) Capsules; Sage leaf extract (5:1) 73mg equiv. to 350mg
of sage leaf powder. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Silvia® Feminin Formula (Alta Care) see Hops
TEA TREE:
Melaleuca alternifolia
Family: Myrtaceae
Medicinal Parts: Essential oil from leaves and branches.
Indications: Principal: Acne vulgaris458, 459, athlete‘s foot, onychomycosis5, 28, 460.
Major: Dandruff, cystitis5, 28, 460. Minor: Vaginitis, cervicitis, gingivitis, MRSA
infection5, 28, 461.
Others: Cold sores 462, head lice eradication5.
~138~
Pharmacognosy
Contraindications: Eczematous or inflamed skin (may cause irritation). The essential
oil should not be used internally in the form of an oral rinse that is not swallowed or as a
vaginal douche5, 28.
Side-effects: Contact dermatitis 5, 28. Diarrhoea, CNS toxicity, and coma may occur if
sufficient quantities are ingested 28.
Dose: Onychomycosis: 100% essential oil applied twice daily. Tinea pedis: 10%
essential oil in cream base applied twice daily. Acne: 5% essential oil in cream or gel
base applied twice daily. Vaginitis: intravaginally applied tampons saturated in a 1%
emulsified solution, vaginal pessaries containing 0.2 gm essential oil. Cervicitis:
Intravaginally applied tampons saturated in a 20% emulsified solution 5.
Aloe Vera ESI® (ESI) see Aloe Vera
Herbal Cream (HealthAid) see Arnica
Organic Aloe Vera Gel Infused with
Organic Tea Tree Oil and Arnica (dr. organic®) see Aloe Vera
Organic Tea Tree (dr.organic®) Cream; Tea tree, aloe vera, sesame seed oil, cocoa
butter. Lip balm; Tea tree oil, shea butter, beeswax, vitamin E. Mouthwash; Tea tree oil,
Iceland moss, grapefruit. Nail solution; Tea tree oil, undecylenic acid, sweet almond oil,
rice bran oil,
jojoba oil, vitamin E. Oil; Tea tree. Stick; Tea tree, arnica. Toothpaste; Tea tree oil, aloe
vera, silica, Iceland moss, horse chestnut. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Rash Relief Cream (Rapaid) see Aloe Vera
Tea Tree (Bios Line) Ointment; Sweet almond oil 3%, tea tree essential oil 0.5%,
lavender essential oil 0.5%, olive glycerine maceration 2%, thyme hydrolat 5%. Local
Distributor: Collis Williams Ltd.
Tea Tree (HealthAid) Cream, lotion; Sweet almond oil, tea tree. Shampoo; Tea tree.
Soap; Tea tree oil. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Tea Tree (Nelsons) Cream; Melaleuca alternifolia. Local Distributor: Serolf Trading
Agency
Tea Tree Balm (Power Health) Balm; Tea tree oil, aqua, cetearyl alcohol,
petrolatum. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd.
Tea Tree & Witch Hazel Cream (Lanes) see Witch Hazel
Teenstick (Arkopharma) see Clove
THYME:
Thymus vulgaris
Family: Labiatae
Medicinal Parts: Leaves, flowering tops.
~139~
Pharmacognosy
Indications: Principal: Respiratory tract infections (particularly bronchitis)5, 9, 19, 28,
463, 464. Major: Diarrhoea, gastritis, dyspepsia, skin disinfection in minor wounds
(topical use) 5, 9, 19, 28. Minor: Inflammations of the mouth and throat, enuresis in
children 5, 9, 19, 28, 463. Others: Insect bites and stings, athlete‘s foot & other fungal
infections, scabies, lice, oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma464, 5, 9, 19, 28.
Cautions: Enterocolitis, congestive heart failure5, pregnant women19.
Contraindications: People who are allergic to the Labiatae family5.
Side-effects: Nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, convulsions, cardiac or
respiratory arrest if taken internally; contact dermatitis with topical use5, 28.
Dose: The recommended daily dose is 10 gm drug with 0.03% phenol, calculated as
thymol. When using a liquid extract, 1 to 2 gm is taken 1 to 3 times daily. The single
dose for the infusion is 1.5 gm drug, or 1 to 2 gm drug per cup of water taken several
times a day. The dose for the powder is 1 to 4 gm drug twice daily28.
Alito Fresco e Balsamico (Sella) see Eucalyptus
Altacura® Broncotuss (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet
Candiclear (Higher Nature) Capsules; Thyme 25mg, rosemary 25mg, lemon balm
25mg, Pau D‘arco 25mg, calcium octanoate 175mg, magnesium octanoate 175mg.
Ivy-Thyme Complex (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tinctures of fresh ivy herb 40%, thyme herb
35%, licorice dried root 24.875%, aniseed essential oil 0.075%, eucalyptus essential oil
0.05%. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Mucovit® Sciroppo Adulti (Erba Vita) see Grindelia
Mucovit® Sciroppo Bambini (Erba Vita) see Grindelia
Tusserbe® Fluid (ESI) see Mullein
UVA-URSI:
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Family: Ericaceae
Indications: Principal: Urinary tract infections9, 28, 45, 472. Major: Cystitis, urethritis,
dysuria, pyelitis, lithuria9, 28.
Cautions: Not for unsupervised, prolonged use28.
Contraindications: Kidney disorders, irritated digestive disorders, acidic urine,
pregnancy, lactation, children under 12 years. It should not be administered with
substances that cause acidic urine since it reduces its antibacterial effect9, 28, 45.
Side-effects: Individuals with gastric sensitivity may experience nausea, vomiting and/or
stomachache 28, 45.
Drug interactions: Iron, thiazide & loop diuretics28.
~140~
Pharmacognosy
Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three to four times daily: dried leaf, 1.5-2.5 gm or in
infusion or cold aqueous extract; liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1.5-2.5 ml; tincture
(1:5, 25% ethanol), 2-4 ml. Treatment should be of short duration (maximum of 7 days).
An ‗alkaline‘ diet, high in vegetables and fruit, should be taken during treatment45.
Uva Ursi (HealthAid) Liquid; Uva ursi extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of uva ursi herb) in
1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Uva-ursi complex (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tinctures of fresh aerial parts of bearberry 75%,
Echinacea herb 23.75%, fresh Echinacea root 1.25%. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Vitamin B12 (Quest) Tablets; Vitamin B12 500mcg, uva ursi leaf extract 25mg (equiv. to
100mg herb powder). Local Distributor: Pharma MT Ltd.
Saw Palmetto 1000mg & Uva Ursi
100mg (Power Herbs) see Saw Palmetto
VALERIAN:
Valeriana officinalis
Family: Valerianaceae
Medicinal Parts: Roots, rhizome.
Indications: Principal: Insomnia, anxiety and psychological stress states5, 9, 14, 28, 45,
473, 474, 475. Major: Restlessness, muscle spasm & cramping (associated with
dysmenorrhoea)5, 9, 28, 45, 474, 476. Minor: Fibromyalgia, benzodiazepine withdrawa
l5.
Cautions: When driving a car or operating heavy machinery when high doses are
used5, pre-existing liver disease, pregnancy & breastfeeding 28.
Side-effects: Rarely, GI complaints and contact allergies28.
Drug interactions: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazpeines, caffeine, chlorzoxazone,
dextromethorphan 5, 28, 474.
Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, up to three times daily: dried root and rhizome, 1-3
gm or by infusion; tincture (1:5, 70% ethanol), 3-5 ml; equivalent preparations45.
5-HTP (Solgar) see Griffonia
Controller® Natural Sleep (Alta Care) see Linden
Dormeasan® (A.Vogel) Liquid; Valerian extract and hops extract obtained from freshly
harvested organically cultivated valerian root and hops. Local Distributor: Health Plus
Kalms (Lanes) Tablets; Hops powder 45mg, valerian extract 135mg, gentian extract
90mg. Local Distributor: Collis Williams Ltd.
Magnolia, Valerian, St. John’s Wort
Complex (HealthAid) see Hoodia
~141~
Pharmacognosy
Natrasleep (Natra) Tablets; Hops powders extract (5:1) 33.4mg, valerian powder extract
(4:1)
62.5mg. Local Distributor: Collis Williams Ltd.
Quiet Life (Lanes) see Hops
TranquilTM (HealthAid) see Hawthorn
Valerian (HealthAid) Tablets; Valerian root powder 50mg, valerian root extract 215mg
(standardized for min 0.8% valerinic acid). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Valerian 270mg (Power Herbs) Capsules; Valerian root powder 270mg. Local
Valerian 1600mg (Lamberts) Tablets; Valerian 1600mg (provided by 400mg of a 4:1
extract).
Valerian Herbal Complex (Vega) Capsules; Valerian root powder 300mg; valerian root
extract (4:1) 150mg (min. 0.8% valerenic acid) equiv. to 900mg valerian root herb; Vega
Phytoantioxidant BaseTM 45mg providing antioxidants and prebiotics: apple and mixed
wild berries concentrate 8:1, equiv. to herb 72mg, prebiotic acacia gum 36mg. Local
Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd.
Valerian Root (HealthAid) Liquid; Valerian extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of valerian herb)
in 1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea
Valerian Root Extract (Solgar) Vegicaps; Raw valerian root powder 300mg,
standardized valerian root extract (providing 1mg [0.8%] valerenic acid) 150mg,
PhytO2X ä (powdered blend of beta-carotene prep. and ascorbic acid). Local Distributor:
Natural Remedies
VELVET BEAN:
Mucuna pruriens
Family: Fabaceae
Medicinal Parts: Seeds, hairs on the pod.
Indications: Principal: Parkinson‘s disease477, 478, 479. Major: Impotence, erectile
dysfunction479. Minor: To increase testosterone, anabolic/androgenic aid to stimulate
growth hormone, as a weight loss aid479. Others: Worm infestation28, 479.
Contraindications: Pregnancy 479.
Side-effects: Itching, burning and inflammation if stinging hairs are in contact with the
skin28.
Dose: Decoction: ½ to 1 cup twice daily; 1-2 gm twice daily of seed powder (tablets or
capsules) 479.
~142~
Pharmacognosy
WHITE WILLOW:
Salix species
Family: Salicaceae
Medicinal Parts: Bark.
Indications: Principal: Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, fever, headaches5, 9, 14, 28,
45, 480. Major: Lower back pain481. Minor: Gout 9, 28, 45.
Cautions: Pregnancy, children, gastric or duodenal ulcers, hemophilia, asthma,
diabetes5, 28.
Contraindications: Salicylate hypersensitivity5, 28.
Drug interactions: Anticoagulants, salicylate drugs, aspirin, NSAIDs5, 28.
Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three times daily: dried bark, 1-2 gm or in decoction;
liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1-2 ml; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 5-8 ml;
standardized dosage forms containing 20-40 mg of total salicin45.
Arthur’s Formula Ltd (Power Health) see Devil‘s Claw
CellusiteTM (HealthAid) Tablets; 200mg white willow bark extract 2:1, 100mg
dandelion, 66mg kelp, burdock 60mg, butcher‘s broom 60mg, 40mg guarana seed
extract (1:4), 20mg rose hip, 20mg blessed thistle, 10mg buchu, 10mg cough grass,
10mg hydrangea, 10mg uva ursi, 10mg juniper berry, 66mg apple cider vinegar,
quercetin 60mg, potassium 40mg, 32mg lecithin, 20mg dimethylglycine. Local
Hip & Thigh Formula (HealthAid) Tablets; White willow bark 100mg, dandelion root
50mg, kelp 33mg, burdock powder 30mg, butcher‘s broom 30mg, guarana (extract 4:1)
20mg, rose hip
10mg, blessed thistle 10mg, buchu 5mg, cough grass 5mg, hydrangea 5mg, uva ursi
5mg, juniper berry 5mg, apple cider vinegar 33mg, quercetin 30mg, lecithin 16mg. Local
White Willow Bark (HealthAid) Liquid; White willow bark extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of
white willow herb) in 1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea.
WILD LETTUCE:
Lactuca virosa
Indications: Principal: Insomnia, restlessness & nervous excitability, particularly in
children9, 45, 482. Major: Irritable cough, whooping cough, asthma9, 28, 45, 482. Minor:
Rheumatic pains,
atherosclerosis9, 28, 45, 482. Others: Urinary tract disorders28, 482.
Cautions/contraindications: None known.
~143~
Pharmacognosy
Drug interactions: CNS depressants482.
Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three times daily: dried leaf, 0.5-4 gm or by infusion;
liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 0.5-4 ml45.
YARROW:
Achillea millefolium
Medicinal Parts: Flowerhead.
Indications: Principal: Bruises, swelling, strains, fever, colds9, 14, 28, 45, 499, 500.
Major: Essential hypertension501, amenorrhoea, loss of appetite, dyspeptic
complaints9, 14, 28, 45, 500. Minor: Thrombotic conditions, diarrhoea, dysentery9, 500.
Others: Liver disease, cancer499.
Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity to yarrow or other Compositae14, 45,
pregnancy 28, 499.
Side-effects: Contact dermatitis14, 28.
Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three times daily: dried herb, 2-4 gm in infusion;
liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1-2 ml; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 2-4 ml; pressed
juice from fresh herb, 3-5 ml45.
YELLOW DOCK:
Rumex crispus
Family: Polygonaceae
Medicinal Parts: Roots.
Indications: Principal: Constipation 9. Major: Psoriasis9, acute & chronic inflammation
of the nasal passages and respiratory tract 28. Minor: Obstructive jaundice9.
Cautions: Avoid excessive use, pregnancy, breastfeeding9.
Contraindications: Existing intestinal obstruction9.
Side-effects: Overuse may cause abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, and prolonged use
may lead to intestinal atrophy and hypokalaemia 9.
Dose: Dried root: 2-4 gm or by decoction three times daily; liquid extract (1:1, in 25%
ethanol), 2-4 ml three times daily; tincture (1:5, in 45% alcohol), 1-2 ml three times daily
9.

~144~
View publication stats

Binder 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Binder 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Practical Handbook Of Pharmacognosy

Book · October 2017

Mrunal Krishnarao Shirsat

Extraction,Isolation,characterisation of Bioactive Compounds View project

A PROJECT ON HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS - A REVIEW View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Dr. Mrunal K. Shirsat Dr. Jayesh Dwivedi

Mr. Rajesh Khathuriya Mr. Amol A. Wadhave

ISBN NO. - 978-93-24457--

We are thankful to the Dr. Vedprakash K. Patil, Former Vice-Chancellor

The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. A. V. Chandewar Principal, P. Wadhwani

We are also thankful to Publisher. We extend our thanks to supportive friends,

1. To study the macroscopical and microscopical 1-5

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinchona

Fig.1.1: Cinchona Bark

Stem Bark Root Bark

Fig. 1.2: Transverse Section of Cinchona Bark

Fig.1.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinchona Bark

d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals: These are mainly observed in some of the

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinnamon

Fig. 2.1: Cinnamon Bark

Fig. 2.2: Transverse Section of Cinnamom Bark

Fig. 2.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinnamon Bark

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Senna.

Fig. 3.1: Senna Herb

Fig. 3.2: Senna Leaves

Fig. 3.3: Transverse Section of Senna Leaf

Fig. 3.4: Powder Microscopy of Senna Leaf

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Clove.

Fig. 4.1: Clove Flower Bud

Fig. 4.2: Transverse Section of Clove Flower Bud

Fig. 4.3: Powder Microscopy of Clove Flower Bud

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Ephedra.

Fig. 5.1: Ephedra Stem

Fig. 5.2: Transverse Section of Ephedra Stem

Fibres Fragment of Vessels

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Fennel.

Fig. 6.1: Fennel Fruit

Fig. 6.2: Transverse Section of Fennel Fruit

Fig. 6.3: Powder Microscopy of Fennel Fruit

AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Coriander.

Fig. 7.1: Coriander Fruit

Fig. 7.2: Powder Microscopy of Coriander Fruit

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Asafoetida.

5) Chemical test or Observation for Siam Benzoin:

6) Chemical test or Observation for Sumatra Benzoin:

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Acacia.

Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference

Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Gelatin.

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Starch.

Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Aloe.

5) General Chemical test for Aloe:

6) Specific Chemical Test for Aloe:

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Honey.

Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference

AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Castor Oil.

Sr. Chemical Test Observation Inference

AIM: To determine the Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index of Leaf.

Fig. 17.1: a) Anomocytic b) Anisocytic c) Diacytic d) Paracytic Stomata

Fig. 17.2: Tracing for Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index

Table 17.1: Stomatal Index of Various Crude Drugs