COURSE #7 (2 hours) 

CONTENT  :
1. Sustainable production of nuclear energy
 Production of nuclear fuels
 Production of nuclear energy (case study:
ROMANIA)
 Meassures and regulations on sustainable
production of nuclear energy and other nuclear
activities

(1)
 1. SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY 
 The increase of usefull energy demands was imposed the finding
and intensively using of the most “young” potential energy source,
meaning the nuclear energy.
 The weight of electric energy produced by the nuclearo‐electric
power plants exceeds today 50 % in three countries of the world (for
example: in France,
France nuclear energy assures ~ 70 % from the electricity
consumption), and in other nine countries it ranges between 25 ‐ 50 %
from the total electricity produced in the specific country.
 The first nuclearoelectric power plant was built in the former
Soviet Union (5 MW, at Obninsk, in 1954) and in England (140 MW, at
Calder Hall,, in 1956).
) In the followingg yyears,, there were built p
power
plants in majority of industrialized states, the world nuclear energy
has registered at January 1, 1988 a number of 417 energetic reactors
in 26 countries of the world with an installed power of around 29,700
MW; at that date were in construction other reactors, i.e. more than
120 new nuclear reactors.
(2)
 After approx. five centuries of existence, it is appreciated that the
nuclear energetic has been reached the maturity, thus being
d
demonstrated
t t d its
it necessity
it andd viability
i bilit (availability).
( il bilit )
 Nuclear accidents were produced at Three Mile Island (SUA, 1979),
Cernobâl (Ukraine, 1986), Fukushima Daichii (Japan 2011), etc. and have
foccused the public and specialists’ attention on the necessity of risk
reconsideration and nuclear security, but also importance of
employees,
p y associated with the importance
p of employees
p y advanced
training in nuclear energy exploitation.
 Althought, there were developed new technologies, especially in
Japan and Sweden,
Sweden which are able to preform training in the field,
field which
can do so that nuclear energy to become an other acceptable option for
population. In Japan was achieved analysis of samples from a small
experimental nuclear reactor,
reactor known under the name of Jojo,Jojo or “eternal
eternal
flame/fire”. As a “reproductive” reactor using a proper fuel, Jojo has
functioned in England, more years, and a new higher version, Monju, was
entered in function.
function Other 3 experimental nuclear reactors,
reactors much
powerfull have functioned, and a power plant of 1500 MW will be
introduced in the commercial circuit in range of 2018‐2030 years.
(3)
 In Sweden, Asea Brown Boveni has achieved a PIUS reactor “with
intrinsec safety”, about what was sustained that can resist at
earthquarkes floods,
earthquarkes, floods fires,
fires explosions and practically at any disaster.
disaster
Also, Asea Brown Boveri was elaborated a method of extraction and
storage of the radioactive wastes. This fact confers to the PIUS
reactor the safety for around 10,000 years.

1.1 Sources of nuclear energy and the environment

 Production of electricity in the nuclear power plants is much
efficient than in the thermoelectric power plants. It can consider that
“the
the burning/combustion of nuclear fuel fuel” produces more than
20,000 times much energy than the burning/combustion of an
equivalent quantity of coal, natural gas, or petroleum product. At the
burning/combustion of fossil fuels are eliminated in atmosphere the
burning products with ill‐fated effects on human health. Because the
nuclear energy does not implied proper combustion but in‐chain
nuclear fission or fussion reactions, it offers a clean solution and
very good efficiency of electricity production.
(4)
 The nuclear energy sources are radioactive materials from which a
special role has uranium and its derivatives, together with polonium
and its derivatives.

1.1.1 Nuclear fuels
 A nuclear fuel element is a distinct solid entity which contains
fissionable material (i.e. nuclides which are fissionable under the
action of the thermal or rapid neutrons).
neutrons) These materials are
presented in form of some fascicles of bars or rods, tubes, write or
curbe plates, but also as ceramic fuel balls obtained through
precursory processing before
b f introduction
d in the
h nuclear
l reactor
(mainly through pressing and synthering of uranium dioxide powders
for preparation of the fuel pills with densities varying in range of
10,330‐105,500 kg/m3).
 The used fuel in the nuclear reactor can be natural or artificial.
The natural fuel can be found free in the nature and can be used as
it is in the nuclear reactor (for example: as uranium 92U235) or
enriched uranium, 1,2 % U235). (5)
 The use of natural uranium leads to electricity production of
minimum 3,500 – 9,000 MW day/t. The artificial fuel is not found in free
f
form in the
h nature, but
b it can be b prepared d from
f other
h elements
l named
d
‘fertiles’ (of very high interest are considered 94Pu239, 92U233).
 Together with the produced usefull energy through the fission
reactions, some reactors have transformed some non‐fissionable
materials (92U239, 90Th232) in fissionable (artificial) materials, used in lower
amount as nuclear fuel for energetic consumption (in converter reactors)
using the thermal neutrons, or in a higher amount using rapid neutrons
(in reproductible reactors).
 After
f the
h manner off fissionable
fi i bl nuclide
lid inclusion,
i l i the
h nuclear
l f l
fuel
elements can be mettalic (inclusively metal aloys), ceramic or disperse.
 For avoiding the direct contact between the chemical compound in
which it is found the fissionable isotop, on one hand, and the moderator
together with the cooling agent, on the other hand, it is usually adopted
the tight covering of this material in metallic mantle, and in the case of
nuclear fuel balls, these are covered in a few graphite and piricarbon
layers. Thus, it results nuclear fuel bars, tubes, plates and balls.
(6)
 Also, these “nuclear fissionable elements” are continuously subdue
to high pressures and high temperatures and in no case it does not
mechanicaly give up before being out from nuclear reactor.
 The solid nuclear fuel elements are used for heterogeneous reactors,
where the fissionable material is separated by the moderator and does
not formed an intimal mixture, as it is happen at the homogeneous
nuclear reactors.
 ((a)) The nuclear metallic fuel elements – can contain uranium in three
different alothropic states, stable in special intervals of temperature (for
example, at the nuclear reactor cooled with gas from Calder Hall
(England) as fissionable material it was used an alloy based on uranium
(England),
and iron (300 ppm), aluminium (600 ppm), carbon (600 ppm), and its
covering mantle was made by magnox alloy.
The metallic polonium is not used as it is as “nuclear
nuclear fuel
element” in nuclear energy reactors (critical mass of approx. 10 Kg), it
has a reduced surface in nuclear fuel element, and thus the heat
t
transfer
f ini high
hi h electricity
l t i it when
h it has
h approx. 35 Kg,K ini form
f off different
diff t
alloys of type: uranium‐polonium‐zirconium, considered as the ‘metallic
combustion’ elements. (7)
 (b) Ceramic nuclear fuel elements. As ceramic fuel materials
which contain fissionable isotops, frequently are used uranium
dioxide, uranium carbon and polonium dioxide. In the nuclear
reactors (with water under pressure and with water in boiling
state) in quality of ceramic fuel material,
state), material the most used is the
uranium dioxide.
 (c) Disperse nuclear fuels. The nuclear fuel material is a mixture
of two phases: one contains the fissionable nuclide under the
thermic or rapid neutrons, and the other has the role of non‐
fissionable matrix. In this sense can be achieved a high number of
combination of such phases, forming disperse nuclear fuels.
 The nuclear fuel elements prepared from disperse materials
resist a long time to the action of physical and chemical agents from
inside of the nuclear reactor, and the effects caused by the
eliberated fission products through the in‐chain reactions will be
located in the non‐fissionable phase, without perturbing of the
good functioning of the nuclear reactor.
(8)
 1.2. Production of nuclear fuels and the environment

1.2.1. Nuclear fuel extraction from mine and the environment

The uranium exploration in Romania was started in 1950 and in
1951 was discovered a very high deposit of uranium ores in Apuseni zone.
 Next, the exploration has lead to discover of a second uranium ore in
Banat mountains; both exploration zones are now non‐exploitable, being
exhausted after years of continuneous exploitation.
 In 1961‐1962 it was discovered a third deposit in the Easten
Charpatians, with resources estimated around of 18,000 tons of uranium,
with
ith possible
ibl supplementary
l t resources off ca 8,000
8 000 tons.
t Th state
The t t off the
th
mine in exploitation is still good, and facilitated production of ores with 0.4
% uranium, in amounts of ca 120 tons U3O8/year, at a very high reported
cost off 80‐85 $/Kg,
$/ a few
f times higher
h h than
h that h off internationall price.
 The uranium mine is a deep mine (300 m deep) and had engaged 1,000
workers, althought the mine production and maintenance implied a
necessary employees of only 300 members.

(9)
 The uranium exploitation and also preparation operations as mortaring
or/and milling arise potential problems due to radon and its derivatives. The
radiation level of the air and water,
water and also those of personal exhibition is
continuously monitoring.
 The exploitation, processing and production units are isolated of urban
zones The process water is recycled and the sedimentation basins or wells
zones.
are designed for isolation of watercourses and ground waters. A high
number of small uranium mines were exploitated in the Western and
Northern part of the country without to be controlled,
controlled especially in 1950,
1950 for
supplying the former Soviet Union. It is always present a potential danger,
especially due to the exploitation wastes. There were not be reported high
contaminations but were not be performed systematic radioactivity testings.
contaminations, testings
 In each county of Romania exists monitoring sections for radioactivity
control by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These sections are
monitored d for
f theh air
i samples
l 4 times
i per day,
d butb are sampling
l alsol daily
d il in
the dry and wet deposits, in the surface and underground waters and also
weekly for the soil and vegetation control. In the areas with mining
exploitations,
l the
h Environmentall Ministry assures the
h serious monitoring and d
control of the principal components of the environment (air, water, soil and
subsoil etc.). 10
1.2.2. The processing/preparation and production of nuclear fuel
There have been reported nuclear fuel productions of 600 tons
with uncertified quality. At the beginning of 1993, the Consortium
Ansaldo and General Electric (AAC) were ordered the first nuclear fuel
load for unityy 1 from Cernavodă nuclear p
power p plant. A CANDU‐6 nuclear
unit needs an initial load of 90 tons of metallic uranium for a loading
factor of 90 %, and the consumption is higher than 90 tons/year.
The p production unit of nuclear fuel is capable
p to obtain around
110 tons/year of metallic uranium. The first initiated project of Cernavoda
nuclear power plant was considered 6 nuclear reactors, but in present
times are operating only two nuclear reactors.
 (a) Production of heavy water
Heavy water (deuterium) was produced at Dobreta Turnu Severin
b the
by th ROMAG SA society i t with
ith coordonated
d t d activity
ti it under
d supervision
i i off
ELECTRICA S.A. Company. At the beginning, it was proposed a heavy water
production program with 12‐16 productive units which was reformulated
at a necesary off 8 productive
d i units. i After,
Af the
h numberb was reduced
d d at 4,4
which can produce each one maximal 90 tons D2O, and in‐time the
amount was reduced at around 7 tons/year. 11
 There were a lot of production problems at this heavy water
company. The production was stoped in 1989 and not refreshed until
September 1992. In Novermber 1992, it was reported a required
production quantity of 8‐10 kg/h for 1993 year. Until the end of 1992,
there were pproduced ca 32 tons with adequate
q quality.
q y There were
problems with the thermal energy quantity needed for functioning the
productive unit of heavy water.
 The thermoelectric power plant which supplies the productive unit
appreciated that 80 % from the burned fuel in the power plant is the
indigen lignite, the other 20 % being oil/petroleum products for
mentaining of lignite combustion having different unsatisfactory
qualities.
 The production costs, without damping, are high, estimated at 300
$/kg D2O.
O The fluctuations in supplying with steam are the cause for
such high costs; the former ROMAG owner belived that these costs
could be reduced at 200 $/kg D2O. The processes implicated in
production
d ti off heavy
h water
t (D2O) require
i high
hi h amountst off H2S,
S fact
f t that
th t
implies the necessity of an adequate control, monitoring and
management. 12
 (b) Stocking of nuclear fuel and the environment. Cernavodă nuclear
power plant has facilities of stocking the wasted nuclear fuel for 10 years
and also capability to extend this period at 30 years.
Thus, the wasted radioactive fuel is stocked in a cement basin. The
radiations emitted by the wasted fuel fascicles can be stoped in case of
selection for a cement basin with 1 m‐thickness of walls and filling it with
water of at least 3 m in height.
There are not known the existance of long term plans for
construction of new advanced and highly controlled deposits for the
wasted nuclear fuel.
There are present possible solutions of deposits for the radioactive
wastes in Carpați mountains at Baița, in an old uranium mine. The costs of
stocking are not in‐detail known.
 The thermal neutrons are absorbed in a lower proportion by the heavy
water related to the common/simple water and as the main result, for self‐
maintaining of in‐chain fission reactions, is sufficient only the presence of
the uranium nucleus in the natural mixture of fissionable fuel,
fuel containing a
known amount of uranium dioxide (ceramic nuclear fuel element)
equivalent with the critical mass of this fissionable nuclide. 13
1.3. Production of the nuclear energy (case study: ROMANIA)
 In the field of nuclear research,
research România has special achievements
beginning with 1957 when in Bucureşti was constructed and
fuctionalized the WWR‐C reactor. The Triga nuclear research reactor,
b l at Piteşti
built i i andd testedd in 1979 using highly
hi hl enriched
i h d uranium
i as
nuclear fuel, was modified for functioning in good conditions using
non‐enriched uranium, but natural uranium.
 In the 1970 year, the Romanian and abroad specialists had taken the
decission to built an electric nuclear plant. The demand was dictated
by the desire and necessity of knownledges transfer and political
considerations in the field of energy sector and industry.
 Romania p possesses pproper
p reserves of uranium and the
Government had selected the project which uses the Candian CANDU
reactor due to the safety in functioning and very good quotations
concerning the performance and earthquark resistence (seismic
resistance).
14
 1.3. 1. Useful energy production in nuclear power plants
 A nuclear power plant is a complex installation for electricity
production from the thermal energy, obtained by initiation of a
nuclear reaction of in‐chain controlled fission, process performed in
th nuclear
the l reactor.
t
 In a nuclear power plant, the reactor fulfills the role of a boiler
in a power plant on coal,
coal natural gas or oil.
oil The heat,
heat produced in
both nuclear reactor and boiler, is necessary for transformation of
water in steam. The steam, thus obtained, rotates the pallets of a
t bi which
turbine hi h puts
t in
i action
ti the
th generator
t producing
d i electricity.
l t i it
 In the case of a nuclear reactor, the used fuel contains uranium.
The heat is produced in reactor through the scindation of uranium
atoms. When an atom is splitted as result of collision with a neutron
in movement, it takes place a significant eliberation of energy and
other
th two–three
t th new neutrons,
t according
di tot nuclear
l fi i reaction.
fission ti
15
 235
Un P .F.  200 MeV  2,5 n
The reaction with 235U initiates fission,
fission associated with the
fission products (P.F.), energy and 2.5 neutrons, which can maintain
the in‐chain reaction. If the neutrons eliberated as result of fission
wouldld be
b possible
ibl to be
b slowed
l d down
d or “moderated”,
“ d d” the
h probability
b bili
of an atomic collition producing heat increases. In this way it is
produced an in‐chain fission reaction, which multiplies the energy
which is eliberated. Thus, it is created enough heat, which transforms
water in steam that can act the pallets of the turbine.
As principle,
principle a nuclear reactor is composed of a central zone,
zone
known as “active zone” in which takes place the in‐chain fission
reaction, a cooling medium which transfers the eliberated heat in the
active
i zone at theh steam generators, and d the
h moderator,
d which
hi h
permits the maintaining of in‐chain reaction through reduction of
netrons’ speed. In the world exists diverse types of nuclear reactors,
all functioning based on the same principle: production of heat
through the fission of uranium atoms.
16
 What is differring for these types of nuclear reactors – nuclear
channel – is the combination manner of the three basic
components.
 The type of reactors used in Canada, taken over by our country
is named CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium),
Uranium) name which
resumes three of the principal characteristics of the reactor:
system is Canadian, using as moderator the heavy water
(d t i ) and
(deuterium), d the
h usedd fuel
f l is
i uranium.
i
 The active zone (“the core”) of a reactor of CANDU type is
situated in a horizontal cylindric reservoir named “Calandria”
Calandria
disposing at the ends of two tail protections formed from steel
plates. The Calandria vessel and its tail protections are
overpassedd by
b 380 tubes
t b – Calandria
C l d i – in i which
hi h are enssembled
bl d
380 smaller tubes named pressure tubes. In these pressure tubes
are introduced the nuclear fuel fascicles, weighting each one ca 25
kg and in which the uranium is present in form of some
compactized and sintetized pills. 17
 Fig.1 ‐
Fig 1 Constructive Detail of 
Constructive Detail of
the reaction zone of a nuclear 
reactor of CANDU type

The moderator (heavy water) without which the nuclear reaction

can not take place, is surrounding the pressure tubes. It has the role of
slowing down the rapid neutrons (speed of ca 10,000 Km/s) resulted
after the fission reaction, until the corresponding speed for thermal
energy (speed of ca 2,2 km/s).
As coolingg agent
g which takes over the heat ggenerated byy the nuclear
reaction in the case of CANDU reactors, is used also heavy water
pumped through the pressure tubes which contain nuclear fuel fascicles.
Heated,, the heavyy water is transported
p at the steam ggenerators where
yields the heat to simple/common water, obtaining the steam, and a
cooled part is recirculated back in the nuclear reactor. 18
 The steam is after transported at the turbine which rotate the
generator producing the electric energy. In this way the circuit with the
nuclear reactor, named also as the primary circuit, is separated by the
circuit designed for production of electricity (electric energy), named as the
secondary circuit.
 The nuclear fuel fascicles are replaced when are consumed with fresh
fuel fascicles. The operations of changing the consumed fuel and re‐
supplying
pp y g with fresh fuel are subsequently q y pperformed in the un‐
functioning reactor, with the help of two machines for loading and
discharging of wasted nuclear fuel barrs (MID).
 Resupplying,
Resupplying as also the majority of routine operations,
operations in the case of
nuclear power plant is controlled through PC (calculator). A second PC (2nd
calculator) is ready to operate in case of going wrong of the first
calculator (PC).
(PC)
 The power level of the nuclear reactor is maintained stabilized under
control through the help of some control barrs made from cadmium. Also,
th entire
the ti production
d ti process, as wellll as theth entire
ti reactor,
t is i protected
t t d
through the help of some safety systems; an important role in this sense
has the two stopping systems in case of a nuclear accident. 19
 Fig. 2 Principle scheme of  a nuclear
power plant: 1 – nuclear reactor; 2‐
thermal agent; 3‐ circulation pumps: 4–
heat exchanger;  5‐ turbine; 6‐ condense; 
7 – electric generator.
7  electric generator

Considering the performances of Canadian reactor concerning the

disponibility/availability factor, must be underlined that 3 of the first 10
nuclear reactors of the world are of CANDU type.
type
 Reactor from Cernavodă plant produces approx. 8–10 % from the
necessity of electric energy in Romania.
 Production of nuclear energy as industrial activity generates
radioactive wastes; because the radioactive processes are known, these
radioactive wastes resulted from operating of the nuclear power plants
can be controlled in complete safety regime.
20
 It exists today general programs of radioactive wastes management
having as principal objective the development and performance of an
advanced operating technique for evacuation and stocking of these
wastes, that are guaranted the insignificant negative effects against the
humans and also the environment.
 Also, there are used some technical terms for measurements on‐line,
situations in which the analysis is directly performed, at the measurement
place/point and,
place/point, and respectively,
respectively off‐line,
off line situations in which the collected
samples at the discharging section are collected, conserved and
transported for further investigation in a specialized laboratory.
 The solid radioactive wastes with intermediary level of radioactivity
resulting from the functioning and maintenance of the nuclear reactor
are stocked or incorporated in cement structure, these types
representing only 1 % from the total of solid radioactive wastes of a
nuclear power plants. In rest, 99 % from wastes are contained in the
wasted fuel fascicles and this represents
p wastes with high
g levels of
radioactivity. The consumed nuclear fuel fascicles are placed in a pool
with water (3m in height), as size of a swimming pool. 21
 Water from the basin has also the role of cooling this wasted fuel, because
takes place its cooling through the recirculation in the cooling and „purification”
systems which evacuates heat in any kind of contaminations.

Fig.3 Simplified
Fig 3 Simplified scheme of a nuclear 
of a nuclear
power plant equipped with 
reactors of CANDU type

 The biological protection of the nuclear power plant. For assuring

protection of the whole personal against radiations, the reactors are equiped
with coverings for biological protection (PB).
From economic considerations are used screening materials, together
with other common construction materials. Thus, for the protection against
radiations
di ti and
d neutrons
t are used:
d steel,
t l cementlead,
tl d watert etc.
t It can be
b said
id
that, considering the screening against the radiations, it is important the
specific mass, and for the neutrons, the content of hydrogen of the screen.
Usually in the nuclear power plant exists few biological protection screens
Usually,
which consider, excepting the reactor, also other parts, respectively the
ensembly of nuclear circuit. 22
 Thus, the biological protection of nuclear system is achieved envelope from
pre‐tensioned cement, lined with a plastic layer. In its interior exists a number of
systems
t which
hi h competet in
i necessity
it case att the
th envelope
l ti hti and
tighting d removall off
radioactive contamination.
For this aim the nuclear plant is equipped with:
 an automatic system of sprinkleing
an automatic system of sprinkleing with common/simple water
with common/simple water
 coolers with air;
 a system for execution and filtration of contaminated air;
 pneumatic access lock equipped with automatic closing systems.
access lock equipped with automatic closing systems.
Reglulations on energy production and nuclear activities
The regulate control of nuclear energetic industry was imposed by the
legislative act: ”The Atomic Energy Act” in 1974, as result of recommendations
from the IAEA report: Code for safety of nuclear power plants. The Act was
established also a Comittee for Nuclear Energy which was replaced after some
ti
times b a National
by N ti l Comission
C i i for f Control
C t l off Nuclear
N l A ti iti (CNCAN) in
Activities i 1990.
1990
The Comission is supervised by the Environmental Ministry and, sometimes, is
considered as a separate institute which directly reports to the Ministry.
CNCAN is responsible for the licence of nuclear activities,
activities including the
nuclear power plants, research reactors, radioactive sources and deposits. It
exists a large number of norms concerning the safety of nuclear power plant. 23