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The Study of
Chemistry
• A. Scientific Method - systematic approach to research.
1. Experimentation.
2. Hypothesis - an interpretation that explains the results of many
experiments.
3. Theory - consistent explanation of known observations; logical
Introduction: interpretations of experimental results.

Matter and Measurement observation → hypothesis→ theory

↑ ↓
← ← ← ← ← ← ←

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Introduction: Matter The Study of
and Measurement Chemistry
• The Study of Chemistry • Matter is made up of almost infinitesimally
• Classification of Matter small building blocks called atoms.
• Properties of Matter • Atoms can combine together to form
• Units of Measurement molecules.
• Uncertainty in Measurement • Element - a fundamental substance that can't
be chemically changed or broken down into
• Dimensional Analysis anything simpler.

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The Study of The Study of
Chemistry Chemistry
• Chemistry is the study of matter and the • Chemical symbol - used to represent specific
changes that matter undergoes. elements
– capitalize the first letter; if second letter is
observation → hypothesis→ theory present, uselower case
↑ ↓ • Periodic Table - a tabular organization of all
← ← ← ← ← ← ← 115 elements.

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The Study of The Study of
Chemistry Chemistry

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The Study of The Study of
Chemistry Chemistry

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The Study of
Classification of Matter
Chemistry
• Matter can exist in one of three states of
matter: a gas, a liquid, or a solid.
– A gas is highly compressible and will assume both
the shape and the volume of its container.
– A liquid is not compressible and will assume the
shape but not the volume of its container.
– A solid also is not compressible, and it has a fixed
volume and shape of its own.

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Classification of Matter Classification of Matter

• A familiar example of a mixture is salt water.

• A sample of salt water has the same
composition throughout.
• It can be separated into pure substances—
water and ordinary table salt—by a physical
process, such as distillation.

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Classification of Matter Classification of Matter

• Matter can also be classified according to its

composition.
• Most of the matter that we encounter exists in
mixtures, which are combinations of two or
more substances.

•Pure water is collected in the flask on the right.

•When all of the water has been distilled from the
mixture, pure salt—NaCl—will remain in the flask
on the left.

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Classification of Matter Classification of Matter

• Mixtures can be homogeneous or

heterogeneous.
• Mixtures can be separated into
– pure substances, and pure substances can be
either
• compounds or
• elements. •Both water and salt are pure substances.
•They cannot be further separated into simpler substances
by any physical process.
•Each, however, can be decomposed into other substances
by a chemical process, namely electrolysis.

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Classification of Matter Classification of Matter

• Salt can also be separated into its constituent

elements, sodium and chlorine, by
electrolysis.
• Sodium chloride also has a constant
Electrolysis composition, as do all pure substances. It is 39
percent sodium and 61 percent chlorine by
mass.

DEMO01-2.MOV

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Classification of Matter Properties of Matter

• The substances produced by the electrolysis of
water cannot be further separated by any
physical or chemical means.
• Oxygen and hydrogen are elements.
• When water is separated into its constituent
elements, the relative amounts of those
elements are always the same.
• Different types of matter have different
distinguishing characteristics that we can use
to tell them apart.
• These characteristics are called physical
properties and chemical properties.
• Physical and chemical properties may be
intensive or extensive.

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Classification of Matter Properties of Matter

• Water is 11 percent hydrogen and 89 percent
oxygen by mass.
• This is an example of the law of constant
composition, also known as the law of
definite proportions.
• Intensive properties such as density, color, and
boiling point do not depend on the size of the
sample of matter and can be used to identify
substances.
• Extensive properties such as mass and volume
do depend on the quantity of the sample.

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Properties of Matter Properties of Matter

• Physical properties are those that we can • One of the chemical properties of alkali metals
determine without changing the identity of the
substance we are studying. such as sodium and potassium is that they
• For instance, we can observe or measure the react with water.
physical properties of sodium metal. • To determine this, though, we would have to
– It is a soft, lustrous, silver-colored metal with a
relatively low melting point and low density. combine an alkali metal with water and
– Hardness, color, melting point and density are all observe what happens.
physical properties.
– Figure 7.15 shows a chunk of metallic sodium, which is
soft enough to be cut with a knife.

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Properties of Matter Properties of Matter

Section 1.3

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Properties of Matter Properties of Matter

• Chemical properties describe the way a
substance can change or react to form other
substances.
• These properties, then, must be determined
using a process that changes the identity of
the substance of interest.
• Sodium metal (Na) reacts rather vigorously
with water to produce sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2).
• After the reaction has occurred, although we
now have evidence of one of sodium metal's
chemical properties, we no longer have
sodium metal.

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Properties of Matter
• Potassium reacts even more vigorously with
water to produce potassium hydroxide (KOH)
and hydrogen gas.
• As with sodium, once we have determined a
chemical property of potassium metal, we no
longer have potassium metal.
• To determine the chemical properties of a
substance, it is necessary to change the
substance's chemical identity.
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Properties of Matter
• The changes undergone by sodium and
potassium when they react with water are
chemical changes, also known as chemical
reactions.
• Matter can also undergo physical changes in
which the chemical identity of the matter
does not change.
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Properties of Matter
• One example of a physical change is the
melting of a solid.
• When ice melts, it changes from a solid state
to a liquid state, but its chemical identity
(H2O) is unchanged.
• All changes of state are physical changes.
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Elements and The
Periodic Table
• Periodic table – grid of the elements arranged in 7
horizontal rows and 18 vertical columns.
• Periods – seven horizontal rows in the periodic table.
• Groups - 18 vertical columns in the periodic table.
– Groups numbered 1A → 8A and 1B → 8B (or 1 →18).
– Actually have 32 groups
• lanthanides (14 elements after lanthanum) and actinides (14
elements after actinium) are not included in the group numbers.
• The elements in a given group have similar chemical
properties.
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Elements and The
Periodic Table
• The periodic table of the elements is the most
important organizing principle of chemistry.
– Regular progression in the size of the seven periods.
• reflects a similar regularity in atomic structure
– Main Group (or Representative) Elements - Groups 1A
- 8A; (two larger groups on the left and the six larger
groups on the right of the table).
– Transition-metal Elements - Groups 1B - 8B; (the 10
smaller groups in the middle of the table).
– Inner transition-metal (or Rare Earth) - the 14 groups
shown separately at the bottom of the table.
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Elements and The
Periodic Table
• Property - any characteristic that can be used to
describe or identify matter.
– Physical properties - characteristics that can be
determined without changing the chemical makeup of
the sample.
– Chemical properties - properties that do change the
chemical makeup of the sample.
– Intensive properties - properties that do not depend
on the size of the sample.
– Extensive properties - properties that depend on the
size of the sample.
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Elements and The Elements and The
Periodic Table Periodic Table
• Groups of elements show similarities in • Nonmetals
chemical properties. – gases, liquids or solids
– Group 1A - Alkali metals; lustrous, silvery metals; – brightly colored
react rapidly with water to form highly alkaline
products. – brittle solids
– Group 2A - Alkaline earth metals; lustrous, silvery – poor conductors of heat and electricity
metals; less reactive than alkali metals.
– Group 7A - Halogens; corrosive, nonmetallic
elements; salt formers.
– Group 8A - Noble gases; gases with low reactivity.

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Elements and The Elements and The
Periodic Table Periodic Table
• Three major classes of elements in the periodic • Semimetals (metalloids)
table. – properties fall between metals and nonmetals
1. Metals - largest category of elements; found on the – brittle
left side of the periodic table (left of the heavy
zigzag line).
– poor conductors of heat and electricity
2. Nonmetals - found on the right side of the periodic
table (right of the heavy zigzag line).
3. Semimetals (metalloids) - elements adjacent to the
zigzag boundary between metals and nonmetals.

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Elements and The
Units of Measurement
Periodic Table
• Metals • The scientific community uses SI units for
– solids (except mercury) measurement of such properties as mass,
– Malleable length, and temperature.
– ductile - can be drawn into thin wires without • There are seven SI base units from which all
breaking other necessary units are derived.
– conduct heat and electricity

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

• The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin,

although the Celsius scale is also commonly
used.
• The Kelvin scale is known as the absolute
temperature scale, with 0 K being the lowest
theoretically attainable temperature.
• K = oC + 273.15

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

• Although the meter is the base SI unit used for

length, it may not be convenient to report the
length of an extremely small object or an
extremely large object in units of meters.
• Decimal prefixes allow us to choose a unit that is
appropriate to the quantity being measured.
• Thus, a very small object might best be measured
in millimeters (1 millimeter = 0.001 meters),
while a large distance might best be measured in
kilometers (1 kilometer = 1000 meters).

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

• Note that there are no units of volume in

Table 1.4.
• For measurements of volume, density, and
other properties, we must derive the desired
units from SI base units.
• In the case of volume, which has units of
length cubed, (length)3, the basic SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter (m3).

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

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Units of Measurement Units of Measurement

• This is an extremely large volume, though, and

more often you will see volumes reported in
liters, L (1 cubic decimeter, or 1 dm3), or
milliliters, mL (which are the same as cubic
centimeters: 1 mL = 1 cm3).
• Density has units of mass per unit volume and is
often reported as grams per cubic centimeter,
g/cm3.

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Uncertainty in
Units of Measurement
Measurement

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Uncertainty in Uncertainty in
Measurement Measurement
• Even the most carefully taken measurements • Whatever the source, all measurements
are always inexact. contain error.
• This can be a consequence of inaccurately • Thus, all measured numbers contain
calibrated instruments, human error, or any uncertainty.
number of other factors. • It is important that these numbers be
reported in such a way as to convey the
magnitude of this uncertainty.

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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• Two terms are used to describe the quality of
measurements: precision and accuracy.
• Precision is a measure of how closely individual
measurements agree with one another.
• Accuracy refers to how closely individually
measured numbers agree with the correct or
"true" value.
Uncertainty in
Measurement
• Consider a fourth-grade student who, when
asked by his teacher how old the Earth is,
replies "Four billion and three years old."
– (The student had been told by a first-grade
teacher three years earlier that the Earth was four
billion years old.)
• Obviously, we don't know the age of Earth to
the year, so it is not appropriate to report a
number that suggests we do.

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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• In order to convey the appropriate uncertainty
in a reported number, we must report it to the
correct number of significant figures.
• The number 83.4 has three digits.
– All three digits are significant.
– The 8 and the 3 are "certain digits" while the 4 is
the "uncertain digit.“
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• As written, this number implies uncertainty of
plus or minus 0.1, or error of 1 part in 834.
• Thus, measured quantities are generally
reported in such a way that only the last digit
is uncertain.
• All digits, including the uncertain one, are
called significant figures.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• Guidelines
– Nonzero digits are always significant–457 cm (3
significant figures); 2.5 g (2 significant figures).
– Zeros between nonzero digits are always
significant–1005 kg (4 significant figures); 1.03 cm
(3 significant figures).
– Zeros at the beginning of a number are never
significant; they merely indicate the position of
the decimal point–0.02 g (one significant figure);
0.0026 cm (2 significant figures).
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• Guidelines
– Zeros that fall at the end of a number or after the
decimal point are always significant–0.0200 g (3
significant figures); 3.0 cm (2 significant figures).
– When a number ends in zeros but contains no
decimal point, the zeros may or may not be
significant–130 cm (2 or 3 significant figures);
10,300 g (3, 4, or 5 significant figures).
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• To avoid ambiguity with regard to the number of
significant figures in a number with tailing zeros
but no decimal point, such as 700, we use
scientific (or exponential) notation to express the
number.
• If we are reporting the number 700 to three
significant figures, we can leave it written as it is,
or we can express it as 7.00 102.
• There is no ambiguity in the latter regarding the
number of significant figures, because zeros after
a decimal point are always significant.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
• However, if there really should be only two significant
figures, we can express this number as 7.0 x102.
• Likewise, if there should be only one significant figure,
we can write 7 x102.
• Scientific notation is convenient for expressing the
appropriate number of significant figures.
• It is also useful to report extremely large and extremely
small numbers.
• It would be most inconvenient for us to have to write
all of the zeros in the number 1.91 10-24
(0.00000000000000000000000191).
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Uncertainty in Uncertainty in
Measurement Measurement
• When measured numbers are used in a calculation, the • Using these rules, we would report the
final answer cannot have any greater certainty than the
measured numbers that went into the calculation. volume of the cube in the example above as
• In other words, the precision of the result is limited by 2.46 cm3.
the precision of the measurements used to obtain that
result.
• For example: If we measure the length of one side of a
cube and find it to be 1.35 cm; and we then calculate
the volume of the cube using this measured length, we
get an answer of 2.460375 cm3.

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Uncertainty in Uncertainty in
Measurement Measurement
• Our original measurement had three significant
figures.
• The implied uncertainty in 1.35 is 1 part in 135.
• If we report the volume of the cube to seven
significant figures, we are implying an uncertainty
of 1 part in over two million!
• We can't do that.
• In order to report results of calculations so as to
imply a realistic degree of uncertainty, we must
follow the following rules.

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Uncertainty in Uncertainty in
Measurement Measurement
• When multiplying or dividing measured
numbers, the answer must have the same
number of significant figures as the measured
number with the fewest significant figures.
• When adding or subtracting, the answer can
have only as many places to the right of the
decimal point as the measured number with
the smallest number of places to the right of
the decimal point.

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Dimensional Analysis

• Solving problems in chemistry requires careful

manipulation of numbers and their associated
units, a method known as dimensional
analysis. Thank You
• For example: What is the volume of a 5.25-
gram sample of a liquid with density 1.23
g/mL?
• The density of the liquid can be used as a
conversion factor.

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Dimensional Analysis

• For the liquid in the example, 1.23 grams are

equal to 1 milliliter (1 mL).
• When the numerator and denominator of a
fraction are equal, the fraction has a value of
1, meaning that we can multiply by it for the
purpose of changing units.

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Dimensional Analysis

• The density conversion factor can be

expressed in either of the following two ways.

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