KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECNOLOGY

KUMASI, GHANA.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

WELL LOGGING
NAME: FRIMPONG SAMUEL KWAME
INDEX NUMBER: 4029815
DATE:4th December,2018
SP LOG

1. How was the spontaneous potential discovered? why is it an electrical phenomenon?

ANS: Schlumberger brothers 1stlog putting electricity into the formation.

2. What are the units of SP?

ANS: milli-volts (mV)

3. Why could the SP potential be positive, negative, or zero?

ANS: Rmf=RW, straight line. RMF<RW, “+” Saline Mud. Rmf>RW, “- “Fresh Mud. The difference in the values of
Rmf and Rw. SSP=-Klog(Rmfe/Rwe)Sand if negative, Shale is positive.

4. Define diffusion, membrane, and streaming SP potential.

ANS: Membrane Potential: The part of the SP electrochemical potential that occurs between a permeable bed
and the borehole across shale. Clay minerals have a negative charger. Positive ions can move through clay
pore space. Negative ions are repelled by the negatice charge and are restricted from moving through clay
pore space.

SP (spontaneous potential): Naturally occurring (static) electrical potential in the Earth. Spontaneous
potentials are usually caused by charge separation in clay or other minerals, by the presence of a semi-
permeable interface impending the diffusion of ions through the pore space of rocks, or by natural flow of a
conducting fluid (salty water) through the rocks. Variations in SP can be measured in the field and in wellbores
to determine variations of ionic concentration in pore fluids of rocks.
 Diffusion Potential: Diffusion Potential: Ions from more concentrated solution diffuse to dilute solution. Cl-
(anion/smaller) moves faster than Na+ (cation/larger)

5. What is the definition of static SP?

ANS: SSP = Diffusion + Membrane PotentialsSSP = -K log [ Rmfe / Rwe ].

Static Spontaneous Potential (SSP):Static spontaneous potential. The maximum SP that would be
recorded when the SP electrode passes from a position well inside a very thick, porous, permeable
cleansand (or other reservoir rock) to a point well within a thick shale. The static spontaneous potential
given by the sum of the components of the electrochemical potentialis: For NaCI solutions which are
not too saline, RMFE= RMFand RWE= RW; for more concentrated solutions, an activity correction
should be made. Since the static SP in a sandstone is equal to the potential causing current (I) to flow in
a mud column of resistance (Rm), shale of resistance (Rsh), and a sandstone of resistance (Rss), then
SSP = IRM+ IRSH+ IRSSwhere the measured SP is IRm.

6. What are the necessary conditions for the existence of diffusion and membrane potentials?

ANS: Difference between resistivity, permeability, no oil-based mud, shale and sand, no SP deflection in
carbonates so not effective in carbonates. Limitations to SP logs: No SP development for Rmf = Rw. No
SP development in non-conductive mud (oil-based mud) Cannot be recorded in cased hole. Resolution
of SP log varies with Rt/Rm

7. What is ion mobility? What physical variables determine the mobility of an ion in an aqueous solution?

ANS: The ability of an ion to move through porous medium AKA the formation. H2O molecule more
negative so Na+ is attracted to it. Diffuses slower than Cl-. Cl- has smaller atomic radii so it moves
through pure space easier than Na+ which has a large atomic radius.
8. Why don’t oil-base muds support SP potentials?

ANS:
Because they cannot complete the circuit like water-based muds can. Oil has no conductivity. Mud lacks
electrical path; no SP will be generated.

9. Why aren’t the SP readings across carbonate rocks zero (null)?

ANS: They contain some sands and electrokinetic potential from the mud filtrate. They also may contain some
salt water. The divalent bonds in carbonate make the SP not null. If salinity in connate water = salinity of mud
then the SP would be null.

10.Why do SP logs drift with respect to depth?

ANS: Bimetallic formations conduct the charges therefore lowering the spontaneous potential of the shales
and sands in the formation. As being pulled out; shale baseline shift to left and disappears reappears on right.

11.What is static SP (SSP)?

ANS: SSP = Diffusion + Membrane Potentials SSP = -K log [ Rmfe / Rwe ].

Static Spontaneous Potential (SSP): Static spontaneous potential. The maximum SP that would be recorded
when the SP electrode passes from a position well inside a very thick, porous, permeable clean sand (or other
reservoir rock) to a point well within a thick shale. The static spontaneous potential given by the sum of the
components of the electrochemical potential is: For NaCI solutions which are not too saline, RMFE= RMF and
RWE= RW; for more concentrated solutions, an activity correction should be made. Since the static SP in a
sandstone is equal to the potential causing current (I) to flow in a mud column of resistance (Rm), shale of
resistance (Rsh), and a sandstone of resistance (Rss), then SSP = IRM+ IRSH+ IRSS where the measured SP is
IRm.

12.Why are SP readings positive or negative? When is the SP reading positive and when negative?

ANS: When is the SP reading positive and when is it negative? The readings are positive and negative
depending on the mud salinity and the salinity of the formation fluids. It is also dependent on the Rmf vs.
Rw.(high concentration chlorine lower concentration) Positive when Sand and negative when shale. The
deflection may be either to the left (negative) or to the right (positive), depending on the relative salinities of
the formation water and the mud filtrate. If the formation-water salinity is greater than the mud-filtrate
salinity (the more common case), the deflection is to the left.

13.What is the relationship between the electrical resistivity of connate water and the SSP measured across
a clean sand bed?

ANS: SSP = -K * log [ Rmfe / Rwe ], K is a constant - depending on the temperature., Kc = 61 + 0.133 ToF, Kc =
65 + 0.24 ToC, K=71, SSP=-71 * log (Rmf/Rw), When Rmf > Rw; SP deflects to left “Normal SP” (formation
water saltier than mud filtrate), When Rmf< Row; salty mud and fresh formation waters; SP deflects to right
“Reverse SP”, Rmf = Row ; no SP at all.

14. Do SP logs detect the solid or the fluid component of a permeable and porous rock?

ANS: They sense the fluid most of the time but sometime the rock. In hard formations; resistivity’s may be
high except in permeable zones and shales; changes SP curve to left.

15. Are SP measurements sensitive to invasion?

ANS: Yes, they are sensitive to invasion because if there is no permeability then don’t have an SP
measurement. Yes, if the mud cake blocks all the permeability.

16.What is the length of investigation of an SP log?

ANS: N/A refers form to form, usually a high depth vertical resolution = 6-10

17. What is the effect of increased clay concentration on the SP reading across a sand bed?

ANS: If it reduces the permeability then yes it will affect the SP reading. It affects the salinity then yes it will
affect the SP reading. Shifts more positively than clean sandstone would.

18.What is the effect of increased hydrocarbon concentration on the SP reading across a bed?

ANS: Oil is non-conductive; therefore, an increased hydrocarbon concentration will reduce the SP reading
across a porous sand bed. Hydrocarbon saturation will reduce SP; only water-bearing sands should be selected
for Row determination from SP.

19. Why is it sometimes said that the SP log is sensitive to the permeability of a sand?

ANS: Because if a formation is not permeable then there will be no SP reading across the sand bed. The
streaming potential is related to the perm. If mud filtrate and formation H2O have sign of different salinities,
therefore different densities, gravity- induced fluid migration can cause SP anomalies in highly permeable
formations.
20.What are the environmental corrections that are applied to SP logs?

ANS: Corrections to SP logs: Bed thickness, Resistivity of invaded zone, Diameter of invasion, Resistivity of
adjacent shale beds, Resistivity of mud and borehole diameter, Borehole size and temperature.

21.What are the interpretation corrections that one needs to apply to SP logs?

ANS: Interpretation Issues/Corrections: Variable Membrane Efficiency in Shales, Hydrocarbon Saturation, Bed
Thickness, Shoulder Beds, Poor ground that move SP baseline (ex: ocean floor and currents), Cyclical/ saw
tooth SP from magnetized cable (useless), Polarity of SP reversed from incorrect galvanometer connections, SP
electrodes with 2 dissimilar metals (they have different electro chemistry potentials) “bimetallism” extraneous
potential added, Baseline shift (ex: tool raised up hole, SP baseline shift to left will disappear and reappear
(Pacman ways)

22.Explain the procedure used to calculate the electrical resistivity of connate water.

ANS:

23.What petrophysical information (either qualitative or quantitative) does the SP log provide in addition to
that provided by a natural gamma ray log?
ANS: Permeability, hydrocarbons, resistivity of water.
RESISTIVITY

1. Using simple physics arguments, explain why the electrical resistivity of a rock is related to porosity.

ANS: F= 1/Ф 2;
the lower the porosity the smaller the spaces in the rock and the greater the tortuosity or a reduced ability to
flow of the ions. Therefore, it makes it harder the measure the resistivity when the tortuosity is increased

2. Is the electrical resistivity of a rock controlled by its solid or fluid component, or by both?

ANS: The electrical resistivity is controlled by the fluid component most of the time. It is not just the fluid
component when the rock is conductive in cases like (clays, conductive minerals like (graphite, pyrite, iron
ores))

3. List four independent petrophysical/measurement conditions that will cause Archie’s first law to
breakdown?

ANS:
Shale Sands, carbonates, clays, fractures/bugs (secondary porosity), grain shapes and sizes)

4. The porosity variable used in Archie’s equations, is it total or effective porosity?

ANS: The original Archie equation is Total porosity and we still use that. It should be the effective porosity
because that is how the current is able to flow through the rocks.

5. Why is it often said that Archie’s second law is not scientifically sound?

ANS: The original Archie equation is Total porosity and we still use that. It should be the effective porosity
because that is how the current is able to flow through the rocks.

6. Why is the electrical conductivity of clays in contact with water relatively high?

ANS: The electrical double layers in clays and shales cause the conductivity to increase when they are in
contact with water.

7. When does presence of clay/shale in a rock will cause Archie’s first law to breakdown?

ANS: Whenever the clay coats the grains of pores and makes it look like an oil wet rock it will cause Archie’s
first law to breakdown

8. Explain why the wettability of a rock could have a sizable influence on the rock’s electrical
conductivity.
ANS: If the rock is oil wet then it will not have all the paths to flow through and the water will be isolated in
the pores therefore making it unable to conduct electricity. If it is water wet then the electrical paths will be
free to flow through the rock where there is permeability.
 9. Explain why the uncertainty in the estimation of water saturation from electrical resistivity
measurements is much higher at low than at high values of porosity.
ANS:

10.Describe how the tortuosity coefficient, and the cementation and saturation exponents are estimated in
the laboratory from rock core samples. Is there a potential problem in estimating these parameters when
the rock core samples do not exhibit a wide range of porosity values? Explain your answer.
ANS:

11.Give four petrophysical/measurement conditions that will cause Archie’s second law to breakdown.
ANS:

12.Define formation factor and resistivity index.

ANS:

13.List four methods, in order or their reliability, that are used in practice to calculate the electrical
resistivity of connate water.
ANS:

14.What types of carbonate rocks will not abide by Archie’s resistivity-saturation equations?
ANS: Carbonates that have vug or moldic (secondary) porosity.
INDUCTION

1. Why are there two basic types of well-logging tools to measure the electrical resistivity of rock formations?
ANS: Induction logs are better for oil-based muds and later logs are better for water-based muds with high
salinity Induction-oil based muds Laterologs- water based muds with high salinity.

2. What are the factors that need to be taken into account in deciding whether to use an induction or a
laterolog tool?
ANS: Resistivity of the mud (Rmf) and the resistivity of the water in the formation (Rw), Design, Borehole
resistivity, Adjacent beds, Resistivity of undisturbed zone, Invaded zone.

3. How are resistivity tools designed to exhibit variable radial depth of investigation?
ANS: As the length increases between the transmitter and receiver the depth of investigation increases but
the vertical resolution decreases and vice-versa.

4. What is the vertical resolution of induction and laterolog tools?

ANS: Induction = 48” high resolution tools = 12” Laterolog = 30” and the high-resolution tool is 8”

5. How can the separation of the shallow, intermediate, and deep resistivity curves be associated with the
process of mud-filtrate invasion? What petrophysical variables would have the most impact on the
separation of these three curves?
ANS: In the shallow resistivity you will see invasion Middle sees what kind of invasion Deep sees no invasion.
The petrophysical variables that will have an impact are the permeability, the porosity and the Rmf/Rw
6. What would be the petrophysical information available from the ratio of virgin-zone resistivity to flushed-
zone resistivity?
ANS: If the ratio is equal to 6 “invasion and permeable zone” from ratio need values When Rw>Rmf in 8”
borehole that is a clean water bearing invaded zone then Rt>Rxo

7. What types of super-shallow electrical resistivity tools are there available? What are they used for? Why
are they pad tools?
ANS: Microlog , microspherical

log (MSFL) which is used today and is like a dual laterolog, mocroscanner (FMI/FMS) which is an imaging tool
of the formation. To get very good vertical resolution with very small depths of investigation or to figure out
what is going on near the wellbore with the invasion, Use pad tools so that the log will be taken up against the
borehole wall

8. What are the environmental corrections that are applied to resistivity logs?
ANS: Environmental Corrections: Borehole Size, Mud Resistivity and Temperature, Eccentricity, Invasion
diameter > 40 in, Hoe size > 12 in, Bed thinner < 15 ft, Rt/Rs > 10, Rt/Rm > 10

9. Why does one need to worry about bed thickness in the interpretation of resistivity logs in terms of in-situ
hydrocarbon saturation? When are bed thickness corrections necessary?
ANS: Thin beds give incorrect resistivities, Bad resistivity bad saturation, Bed thickness corrections are needed
when beds are less than about 5ft.

10.Why does one need to worry about invasion in the interpretation of resistivity logs in terms of in-situ
hydrocarbon saturation? When are invasion corrections necessary?
ANS: Invasion changes the resistivity measurement, thus having to worry about what can we correct for it and
if the resistivity is changing when going out from borehole then need to make correction. The changes should
be smaller the deeper the readings. You will not get the correct Rt if the resistivity is not deep enough.

11.What is the so-called resolution enhanced resistivity curves?

ANS: Assume that the variations in the shallow logs are the true variations and the deep resistivity logs are
the true values. The square beds are the correct answers. The short readings are affected by washouts and
short spacing and bad boreholes then cannot use enhanced vertical resolution

LATEROLOG

1.What are the advantages of later logs to conventional electric logging?

ANS:
2. What are the differences (electrode configurations, principle, and features) of LL3, LL7 and DLL?
ANS:
3. Try to derive the expression for calculating geometric factor of DLL7.
ANS:
4. What are features of microblogs?
ANS:
5. What is DLL-MSFL tool best used for?
ANS:
6. How can apparent resistivity curves of DLL be used to identify oil/gas bearing formation? Why?
ANS:
7. How the DLL apparent resistivity curves respond to fractures?
ANS: