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In the liquid state, most monomers and low molecular mass polymers flow in
much the same way as molten metal’s in that the shear stress needed to make them flow is
directly proportional to the shear strain rate- they are Newtonian fluids. As their
molecular masses increase their viscosities increase but at some point the long thin chains
begin to rearrange themselves under the applied shear stressed to line up in the direction
of flow, and the proportionality between stress and strain rate starts to change- the
polymer has become non-Newtonian. The consequences of the much higher pressures
needed to cast high molecular mass polymers are not difficult to appreciate. In addition,
the arrangements for keeping the mold closed will need to be more robust since the
pressures applied to the mold tend to force the two mold halves open during filling and
feeding. And the molds themselves must be made from stronger materials to withstand
being repeatedly exposed to these pressures.
Reducing the viscosity of the polymer will clearly allow higher flow rates at the
same applied pressures, or permit the use of substantial machinery and tooling. The
polymer chains tangle around each other and form so-called ‘mechanical cross links’,
effectively strengthening the material in the solid state but making it more difficult to cast
in the fluid state. So the grade polymer, which is easy to cast, is going to give inferior
performance in the end product and the best performance will be obtained from a material
that is more difficult to cast.
2.4.1 Extrusion
The extrusion process basically is continuously shaping a fluid polymer through
the orifice of a suitable tool (die), and subsequently solidifying it into a product (extrudate
of constant cross section). In the case of thermoplastics, the feed material, in powder or
pellet form, is most commonly heated to a fluid state and pumped into the die, through a
screw extruder; it is then solidified by cooling after exiting from the die. Extrusion
products are often subdivided into groups that include filaments of circular cross-section,
profiles of irregular cross section, axis symmetric tubes and pipes, and flat products such
as films or sheets.
Figure 1. Extrusion dies can have complex shapes to (a) compensate for die swell, (b) distribute
material across the width of a sheet, or (c) coat a wire.1
1
Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, John A. Schey, 2nd Ed., McGraw Hill, 1987.
Blown film extrusion is the most important process for the production of thin
plastic films from polyethylene. The molten polymer is extruded through an annular die
(normally of spiral mandrel construction) to form a thin-walled tube which is
simultaneously axially drawn and radically expanded. In most cases the blown film
bubble is formed vertically upward. The maximum bubble diameter is usually 1.2 to 4
times larger than the die diameter. The hot melt is cooled by annular streams of high-
speed air from external air rings, and occasionally also from internal air distributors. The
solidified film passes through a frame which pinches the top of the bubble and is taken up
by rollers. Coextruded films with 3 to 8 layers (sometimes up to 11) are also produced by
this process, for use in food packaging2.
2
J. VLACHOPOULOS and J. WAGNER, JR. (eds.): ‘The SPE Guide on Extrusion Technology and Troubleshooting’; 2001,
Brookfield CT USA, Society of Plastics Engineers.
2.4.3 Sheet Thermoforming
Sheet thermoforming, or simply thermoforming, involves the heating of a flat
thermoplastic sheet to a softened state (above the glass transition temperature T g for non-
crystallizing thermoplastics or near the melting temperature T m for crystallizing ones),
followed by the deformation (forming) of the softened sheet into a desired shape by
pneumatic or mechanical means, and finally its solidification into this shape by cooling.
Figure 3. (1) A flat plastic sheet is softened by heating; (2) the softened sheet is placed over a concave mold
cavity; (3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity; and (4) the plastic hardens on contact with the cold
mold surface, and the part is removed and subsequently trimmed from the web.
Products made by sheet thermoforming include skin and blister packs, individual
containers for jelly or cream, vials, cups, tubs, trays and lids. As many as millions of parts
per day can be produced with a tool featuring several hundred cavities. Larger products
are generally made from cut sheets at much shower rates; the heating stage often is the
limiting factor. Transparent products, such as contoured windows, skylights and cockpit
canopies, are often made by this method.
2.4.5 Blow Molding
The basic principle of the blow molding process is to inflate a softened
thermoplastic hollow perform against the cooled surface of a closed mold, where the
material solidifies into a hollow product.
Figure 4. (1) Injection molding of parison, (2) stretching, and (3) blowing.
Figure 7. Typical cavity pressure variations over the entire injection molding cycle are shown here.
The cavity pressure rises rapidly during the filling stage, which is followed by the
holding or the packing stage. Once the gate freezes off, the cavity pressure decays with
time till the part is ejected. At high pressures, a polymer melt is compressible; allowing
additional material to be packed in the mold cavity after mold filling is complete. This is
necessary to reduce non-uniform part shrinkage, which leads to part warp age. Excessive
packing results in a highly stressed part and may cause ejection problems whereas
insufficient packing causes poor surface, sink marks, welds and non-uniform shrinkage.
All thermoplastics are, in principle, suitable for injection molding, but since fast
flow rates are needed, grades with good fluidity are normally preferable. Significant
differences in ease of molding, and the resulting structure and properties of products are
found between amorphous and crystallizing thermoplastics; they concern problems such
as shrinkage, warp age, sink marks, flashing, and short shots.
The pressure distribution inside the mold cavity changes with distance from the
inlet gate. The figure 8 shows a simple part geometry with pressure variations among the
points one, two and three respectively. Further away from the gate, pressure rises slowly
and it decays quicker than at the points closer to the gate. The pressure in the mold cavity
should be more uniform to minimize part war page.
The gate freezes off first because it is thinner than the cavity. Once the part temperature is
well below the polymer solidification temperature, the part is ejected.
There are many details to pay attention in injection molding which affects the
physical properties, they may even cause to the failure of the molding.
Jetting occurs when polymer melt is pushed at a high velocity through restrictive
areas, such as the nozzle, runner, or gate, into open, thicker areas, without forming
contact with the mold wall. This leads to part weakness, surface blemishes, and a
multiplicity of internal defects.
An air trap is air that is caught inside the mold cavity. It becomes trapped by
converging polymer melt fronts or because it failed to escape from the mold vents, or
mold inserts, which also act as vents.
A short shot is a molded part that is incomplete because insufficient material was
injected into the mold. It can be caused by entrapped air, insufficient machine injection
pressure (resulting from high melt resistance and a restricted flow path), pre-mature
solidification of the polymer melt, and machine defects.
A sink mark is a local surface depression and a void is a vacuum bubble in the
core. Sink marks and voids are caused by localized shrinkage of the material at thick
sections without sufficient compensation when the part is cooling.
A weld line (also called a weld mark or a knit line) is formed when separate melt
fronts traveling in opposite directions meet. The formation of weld lines can be caused by
holes or inserts in the part, multi-gate cavity systems, or variable wall thickness where
hesitation or race tracking occurs. The weld lines are undesirable when the strength and
the surface quality are important.