12/17/15 8:23 AM

Jan16_JPT_Cover.indd 1
JA N UA RY 2 0 1 6 • VO LU M E 6 8 , N U M B E R 1 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
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CONTENTS
Volume 68 • Number 1

14 GUEST EDITORIAL • ENGINEERING DESIGN IN THE

“LOWER FOR LONGER” ENVIRONMENT
For engineering design teams, the market downturn is an opportunity
to review practices and learn from others who have used hard times to
reshape processes through simulation while cutting development time
and costs.

22 YOUNG TECHNOLOGY SHOWCASE

Seminole Services’ Powerscrew Liner System is a new expandable-liner
hanger that is set with torsional energy from the topdrive.

25 TECHNOLOGY UPDATE
Operators are seeking ways to sharply lower the recovery cost per barrel
of oil equivalent (BOE) in unconventional plays. One strategy is to increase
the percentage of refractured wells, as the cost per BOE of refracturing
is substantially lower than that of drilling and completing delineation or
development wells.

32 OFFSHORE SEISMIC FEELING PRESSURES TO CHANGE

Waves in a test pool show the
Seismic innovators are working on new sound sources designed to controlled sound produced by a
produce better subsurface images while addressing challenges raised by device made by Teledyne Webb
scientists and regulators concerned about the environmental impact of Research, one of a new generation
that noise on sea life. of seismic sound sources under
development. Photo courtesy of
38 DOING BETTER IN BAD TIMES Teledyne Webb Research.
Concerned about the long-term impact of the current oil recession, SPE’s
seven technical directors give their outlook for the coming year.

42 INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENTS IN CASPIAN REPUBLICS’

OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
The Caspian Sea region is once again becoming one of the globe’s DEPARTMENTS
important frontiers in oil and gas production. Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
and Turkmenistan are in the midst of intensive efforts to underpin their
6 Performance Indices
developing economies by increased exploitation of massive reserves.
8 Regional Update
46 ROYAL DUTCH SHELL’S JOURNEY TO STRATEGIC 10 President’s Column
COMPETENCE MANAGEMENT 12 Comments
Shell undertook a 5-year program to address some of the universal
18 Technology Applications
challenges of competence management along with several internal
improvement opportunities. The result has been the global implementation 28 E&P Notes
of a strategic solution that fundamentally reshaped how competence is 88 People
managed within the company. 89 Professional Services
91 SPE News
91 Advertisers’ Index
92 SPE Events

An Official Publication of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Printed in US. Copyright 2016, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
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52 EOR PERFORMANCE AND MODELING you the
Omer Gurpinar, SPE, Technical Director, Schlumberger

53 EOR-Feasibility Study for a Large Carbonate Field in Kuwait

superpowers
55 Simulation of Residual Oil Saturation Through Tuning of
Equilibrium Constants
you’ve
58 Designing an Optimized Surfactant Flood in the Bakken always
60 Method for Adaptive Optimization of EOR Performance Under Uncertainty
dreamed of.
62 MATURE FIELDS AND WELL REVITALIZATION
Jesse Lee, SPE, Chemistry Technology Manager, Schlumberger Introducing the world’s
63 Refracturing: A Second Chance To Get It Right Through Diagnostics first X-Ray technology
65 An Integrated Methodology To Locate Oil Opportunities in for oil wells.
Mature Reservoirs VISURAY’s revolutionary VR90
68 Conditioning Mature Vertical Wells To Stimulate and Test not only finds downhole blockages
Shale Productivity faster, it lets you see 2D and 3D
reconstructions of the obstruction.
70 WELL INTEGRITY We’ll illuminate the problem, you’ll
Otto Luiz Alcantara Santos, SPE, Master Technical Adviser, Petrobras eliminate the problem. Better yet,
71 Method of Surface Interception To Access Annulus With Abnormal you’ll eliminate downtime and
Gas Pressure increase profitability.

74 Smart Kick Detection—First Step on the Well-Control-Automation Journey Contact us for a

77 Analytical Model Estimates Flow Rate and Total Discharge in demonstration
Gas-Well Blowouts visuray.com
80 DECOMMISSIONING AND ABANDONMENT
Win Thornton, SPE, Vice President of Decommissioning, Global Projects
Organization, BP

81 Plasma-Based Tool Facilitates Plugging and Abandonment

84 Miniaturized Coiled-Tubing System Reduces Costs During Pipeline
Decommissioning

86 Behind-Pipe-Log-Evaluation Study: Deepwater Subsea Abandonments

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The complete SPE technical papers featured in this issue are available
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 SPE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
OFFICERS
2016 President
Nathan Meehan, Baker Hughes
2015 President
Helge Hove Haldorsen, Statoil
2017 President
Janeen Judah, Chevron
Vice President Finance
Roland Moreau, ExxonMobil Annuitant
REGIONAL DIRECTORS
AFRICA
Adeyemi Akinlawon,
Adeb Konsult
CANADIAN
Darcy Spady, Landar Consulting Corp.
EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
Bob Garland, Silver Creek Services
GULF COAST NORTH AMERICA
J. Roger Hite, Inwood Solutions
MID-CONTINENT NORTH AMERICA
Michael Tunstall, Halliburton
MIDDLE EAST
Vacant
NORTH SEA
Carlos Chalbaud, ENGIE
NORTHERN ASIA PACIFIC
Phongsthorn Thavisin, PTTEP
ROCKY MOUNTAIN NORTH AMERICA
Erin McEvers, Clearbrook Consulting
RUSSIA AND THE CASPIAN
Anton Ablaev, Schlumberger
JPT STAFF
Glenda Smith, Publisher
John Donnelly, Editor
Alex Asfar, Senior Manager Publishing Services
Pam Boschee, Senior Manager Magazines
Chris Carpenter, Technology Editor
Trent Jacobs, Senior Technology Writer
Anjana Sankara Narayanan, Editorial Manager
Joel Parshall, Features Editor
Stephen Rassenfoss, Emerging Technology Senior Editor
Adam Wilson, Special Publications Editor
Craig Moritz, Assistant Director Americas Sales & Exhibits
Mary Jane Touchstone, Print Publishing Manager
Laurie Sailsbury, Composition Specialist Supervisor
Dennis Scharnberg, Proofreader
SOUTH AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Anelise Quintao Lara, Petrobras
Make sure there is a
SOUTH ASIA common understanding
John Hoppe, Shell
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Illustration Tool
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WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Andrei Popa, Chevron
TECHNICAL DIRECTORS
DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS
David Curry, Baker Hughes
HEALTH, SAFETY, SECURITY, ENVIRONMENT,
AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Trey Shaffer, ERM
MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION
J.C. Cunha
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS
Jennifer Miskimins, Barree & Associates
PROJECTS, FACILITIES, AND CONSTRUCTION
Howard Duhon, GATE, Inc.
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AND DYNAMICS
Tom Blasingame, Texas A&M University
DIRECTOR FOR ACADEMIA
Dan Hill, Texas A&M University
AT-LARGE DIRECTORS
Khaled Al-Buraik, Saudi Aramco
Liu Zhenwu, China National Petroleum Corporation
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 PERFORMANCE INDICES

WORLD CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION1+‡ HENRY HUB GULF COAST NATURAL GAS SPOT PRICE‡

THOUSAND BOPD
6
O PEC 2015 MAR APR MAY JUN
Algeria 1370 1370 1370 1370 5 USD/million Btu
Angola 1820 1830 1840 1850 4
Ecuador 553 548 543 541
3
Iran 3300 3300 3300 3300
Iraq 3825 3861 3975 4325 2
Kuwait* 2650 2650 2550 2550
1
Libya 475 505 430 410

2014
NOV

DEC

2015
JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT
Nigeria 2420 2520 2170 2220
Qatar 1525 1531 1532 1537
Saudi Arabia* 9940 9940 10140 10240
UAE 2820 2820 2820 2820 WORLD CRUDE OIL PRICES (USD/bbl)‡
Venezuela 2500 2500 2500 2500

TOTAL 33198 33375 33170 33663 MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
Brent 55.89 59.52 64.08 61.48 56.56 46.52 47.62 48.43

THOUSAND BOPD WTI 47.82 54.45 59.27 59.82 50.90 42.87 45.48 46.22

NON-OPEC 2015 MAR APR MAY JUN

Argentina 531 533 536 534
Australia 249 296 258 301 WORLD ROTARY RIG COUNT†
Azerbaijan 828 882 832 867
Brazil 2413 2394 2412 2396 REGION MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV
Canada 3775 3463 3212 3608 US 889 861 866 883 848 791 760
China 4254 4258 4271 4409 Canada 80 129 183 206 183 184 178
Colombia 1023 1028 1026 1010 Latin America 327 314 313 319 321 294 284
Denmark 153 163 161 157 Europe 116 113 108 109 109 108 108
Egypt 525 503 512 511 Middle East 398 401 391 393 396 403 419
Eq. Guinea 249 249 249 249 Africa 100 103 94 96 96 93 90
Gabon 215 205 205 215 Asia Pacific 217 215 212 220 218 213 208
India 776 751 766 771
TOTAL 2127 2136 2167 2226 2171 2086 2047
Indonesia 763 804 810 822
Kazakhstan 1658 1616 1659 1567
Malaysia 697 676 694 620
WORLD OIL SUPPLY AND DEMAND2‡
Mexico 2356 2235 2263 2283
Norway 1586 1614 1555 1595 MILLION BOPD 2014 2015
Oman 977 960 975 993 Quarter 4th 1st 2nd 3rd
Russia 10182 10163 10196 10234
SUPPLY 95.01 94.42 95.38 96.49
Sudan 257 257 242 257
DEMAND 93.25 92.80 93.38 94.69
Syria 30 30 30 30
UK 867 925 1016 880
USA 9567 9612 9400 9296
INDICES KEY
Vietnam 336 323 300 354 + Figures do not include NGLs and oil from nonconventional sources.
Yemen 91 75 27 27 * Includes approximately one-half of Neutral Zone production.

Other 2544 2493 2469 2467 1 Latest available data on www.eia.gov. Italicized numbers indicate data revised by EIA.
2 Includes crude oil, lease condensates, natural gas plant liquids, other hydrocarbons for refinery feedstocks,
Total 44358 44015 43607 43986 refinery gains, alcohol, and liquids produced from nonconventional sources.

Total World 80100 79883 79246 80116 † Source: Baker Hughes.

‡ Source: US Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration.

6 JPT • JANUARY 2016

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 REGIONAL UPDATE
AFRICA
Z Eni discovered gas and condensate in the
Nkala Marine prospect offshore Congo. The
discovery could hold from 250 MMBOE to
350 million MMBOE in place, the company
said. In a production test, the Nkala Marine 1
discovery well in the Marine XII block yielded
more than 10 MMcf/D of gas and condensate.
Delineation drilling is planned. Eni is the
operator with a 65% interest in the block.
The remaining shares are held by New Age
(25%) and Societé Nationale des Pétroles du
Congo (SNPC) (10%).
Z Sonangol and Total will break ground
on a deepwater oil pumping project that
will increase Angola’s production by more
than 30,000 B/D. Four multiphase, high-
pressure subsea pumps will be installed
at the Rosa field in Angola Block 17 that
will enable the recovery of an additional
42 million bbl, Sonangol said. Total is the
operator of the block with a 40% interest,
with other interests held by Statoil (23.33%),
ExxonMobil (20%), and BP (16.67%).
Sonangol is the concessionaire.
Z Chevron has begun oil and gas production
from the Lianzi Field, a subsea project in
3,000 ft of water that is expected to achieve
production of 40,000 BOPD. Situated in a
unitized zone between Congo and Angola,
Lianzi is the first cross-border offshore oil
development in Central Africa. A 27-mile
electrically heated subsea production flowline
is the industry’s first at this depth. Chevron
is the operator with a 31.25% interest. The
field partners include Total (26.75%), Angola
Block 14 BV (10%), Eni (10%), Sonangol
(10%), SNPC (7.5%), and GALP (4.5%).
Z Shell said that its Leopard Marin discovery
offshore Gabon may be a commercial
gas field. “Leopard is the first potentially
commercial multi-Tcf [trillion cubic ft] find
in a new gas play, and I think that is very
exciting for us and for the government
of Gabon,” said Alastair Milne, Shell vice
president of exploration for Sub-Saharan
Africa, on 29 October at a conference in
Cape Town, South Africa.
ASIA
Z Polish oil and gas company PGNiG
announced the planned December 2015
startup of gas production at its concession
in Pakistan. The project represents the
development of a “tight” gas discovery
8 JPT • JANUARY 2016
earlier in the year with estimated reserves of
159 Bcf. PGNiG plans further exploration in
the concession.
AUSTRALIA/OCEANIA
Z InterOil said that logs from the
Antelope-4 sidetrack-1 well in Papua New
Guinea’s Petroleum Retention License 15
(PRL 15) confirm a southern extension of the
gas-bearing dolomite in the Elk-Antelope
field. The wireline logs intersected the top
of the reservoir at a point 118 ft higher than
the initial Antelope-4 well’s penetration,
and new well data interpretation suggests a
deeper gas/water contact for the field than
previously thought, the company said. Total
is the operator for the PRL 15 joint venture
with a 40.1% interest. InterOil (36.5%), Oil
Search (22.8%), and minority shareholders
(0.5%) are the other participants.
EUROPE
Z Production has started at Lundin’s Edvard
Grieg field in the Utsira High area of the
Norwegian North Sea about 110 miles west of
Stavanger. The field holds estimated proved
and probable reserves of 187 million BOE with
a possible increase resulting from a recent
appraisal well, pending year-end company
reserves certification. Production flows from a
steel-jacket platform in 350 ft of water. Lundin
has a 50% interest in the field license with
other interests held by OMV (20%), Statoil
(15%), and Wintershall (15%).
Z Palomar Natural Resources and San
Leon Energy have spudded the Rawicz-15
development well in the Rawicz field of
Poland’s southern Permian basin. Operated
by Palomar, the well will be drilled to a
planned total depth of 5,250 ft and undergo
a full testing program. In May 2015, San Leon
reported the estimated gross field reserves
to be more than 50 Bcf of gas.
MIDDLE EAST
Z BP has signed an agreement with
the Egyptian government to accelerate
development of the offshore Atoll gas field,
discovered in the East Nile Delta’s North
Damietta offshore concession area in 2015.
The project’s initial phase will include two
development wells that will be tied back to
existing infrastructure, with production to
start in 2018. Completion of the first phase
is expected to spur investment in additional
production wells. Atoll holds an estimated
1.5 Tcf of gas resources and 31 million bbl
of condensate. The field will be operated
by Pharaonic Petroleum Company, a joint
venture of BP, the Egyptian Natural Gas
Holding Company, and Eni.
Z The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company is
moving ahead with development projects
that will increase United Arab Emirates
oil production over the next 2 to 3 years
to 3.5 million B/D from a current level
of 2.9 million B/D, company Director
General Abdullah Nasser al-Suwaidi said
recently. The projects represent about
USD 35 billion of planned total investment
and will target offshore development, a
shift from the company’s historical onshore
focus. Al-Suwaidi said that the UAE could
not afford to lose global market share by
curtailing supply.
NORTH AMERICA
Z Magnolia Petroleum is participating
in a 10-well drilling program operated by
Continental Resources in the Woodford
formation of south-central Oklahoma.
Drilling began in November and is expected
to conclude in March. Magnolia is hopeful
that the drilling program will help to balance
the company’s product mix of 56% oil and
44% gas more evenly.
SOUTH AMERICA
Z Petrobras has discovered oil at the Pitu
North 1 extension well in the Potiguar Basin
offshore Brazil. Situated 37 miles off the
coast of Rio Grande do Norte state in 6,050 ft
of water, the well was drilled to a final depth
of 13,780 ft and is the first extension of a 2013
discovery in the Pitu area. Profile analyses
and fluid samples were used to prove the
latest discovery, which will now undergo
laboratory analysis. Petrobras, the operator,
holds a 40% interest in the concession
(BM-POT-17). BP (40%) and Petrogal (20%)
hold the remaining interest.
Z Production from the Vaca Muerta shale
of Argentina is expected to double by 2018,
according to a study by Wood Mackenzie.
Yearly production is expected to increase
by 10% in 2016 and grow at a markedly
higher rate by 2020 as YPF and its joint-
venture (JV) partners decrease drilling and
completion costs, the study said. YPF will
likely need to make more JV deals to develop
its 6.3-million-acre position in the shale play,
Wood Mackenzie concluded. JPT
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 IMPROVING PEOPLE’S LIVES
The Grand Challenges for Engineering
Nathan Meehan, 2016 SPE President
The first brief flight at Kitty Hawk in
1903 did not immediately make the
Wright brothers famous; however, within
5 years, enthusiasm for the new technol-
ogy began to spread around the world.
Louis Blériot won a prize for flying over
the English Channel in a heavier-than-air
craft in 1909, and Charles Lindbergh won
the USD 25,000 Orteig prize for the first nonstop flight between
New York and Paris in 1927. Multiple teams competed and spent
hundreds of thousands of dollars pursuing the prize. Technical
advances developed by the competitors led to multiple advanc-
es in aviation, revolutionizing the way the world works.
Louis Blériot was present to meet Charles Lindberg when
he landed in France in 1927.
To contact the SPE President, email president@spe.org.
10
Incentivizing Technological Innovation
The concept of an inducement prize (as opposed to a recog-
nition prize such as Nobel Prizes) is well established for the
solution of a problem that is important to society. The British,
Spanish, and Dutch governments all offered monetary prizes as
early as 1567 for breakthroughs in determining the longitude
of a ship at sea. Many scientists and engineers worked on this
problem, resulting in substantial advances in timekeeping, tele-
scopes, and other technologies. The French government offered
a large prize during the Napoleonic wars for a way to safely and
cheaply preserve large amounts of food, leading to pasteuriza-
tion advances.
The Ansari XPRIZE challenged teams to build a spaceship
capable of carrying three people to 100 km above the Earth’s
surface twice within two weeks. The USD 10-million prize was
awarded in 2004 and has sparked other XPRIZES designed to
encourage advances in oil spill cleanup, adult literacy, medi-
cine, and various technologies. The concept is to specify an au-
dacious goal that will benefit mankind if a significant break-
through is made.
SPE R&D Committee Identifies Grand Challenges
The National Academy of Engineering incorporated input from
leading technological minds to identify 14 “grand challenges”
for engineering for the 21st century. Several of these dealt with
energy, including making solar energy more commercial, pro-
viding energy from fusion, and carbon sequestration.
The SPE Research and Development (R&D) Committee identi-
fied five grand challenges for the petroleum industry including:
◗ High-resolution subsurface imaging
◗ Challenges in reusing produced water
◗ In-situ molecular manipulation
◗ Increasing hydrocarbon recovery factors
◗ Carbon capture and sequestration
◗ An additional focus on the environment, including
minimizing the footprint of oil and gas activities, and oil
spill prevention and response were added, so these are
often referred to as the “5+1” challenges.
A series of white papers and articles were published in the
Journal of Petroleum Technology and on SPE.org to discuss the
importance of each challenge. In 2014, SPE launched an R&D
competition to encourage new talent and new ideas from out-
side mainstream petroleum engineering to address our indus-
try’s technical challenges. The finals of the first competition
JPT • JANUARY 2016
took place at the 2014 SPE Annual Technical Technology Con-
ference (ATCE) in Amsterdam, where six finalists presented
proposals for projects addressing five of the 5+1 challenges.
The recipients were Vaibhav Bahadur for Electrical Mitiga-
tion of Hydrocarbon Fouling for Reduced Chemical Inhibitor
Utilization; Mustafa Akbulut and Cenk Temizel for Stimuli-Re-
sponsive Supramolecular Assemblies as Displacement Fluids in
EOR; and Omar Laghrouche for Multi-Wavelength Sized Finite
Elements for Efficient Subsurface Imaging. The next competi-
tion’s finalists (pending funding) will present at the SPE ATCE
in San Antonio, 9–11 October 2017. While there are cash prizes,
they are not intended to fund the research, but to serve as a cat-
alyst for such research.
SPE also provides research grants to support innovative re-
search by new faculty related to petroleum engineering. These
awards are highly competitive and must address one of the
grand challenges identified by the SPE R&D committee.
I have looked at the 5+1 challenges carefully, and I think
there is a lesson to be learned. In a sense, these challenges help
to find hydrocarbons, get them out, make them better, and
eliminate any negative impacts. There is nothing about drilling
and completing wells faster or cheaper. Why is that?
The motivation for a grand challenge is to focus on impor-
tant areas that will provide significant benefits. It should also
address other areas that either are not receiving significant
funding or where funding has not made sufficient advances.
Drilling and completion efficiency seems to many to be full
of tractable problems receiving plenty of technical attention
and getting excellent results in the form of new drilling and
completions technologies.
Historically, stuck pipe has been a major cause of nonpro-
ductive time while drilling. In the early days of horizontal drill-
ing, mud motor and measurement-while-drilling failures over-
took stuck pipe as the top problems in the company in which I
worked. We shared the data on these failures with the technol-
ogy providers who made amazingly rapid responses (in retro-
spect). Drilling deeper, we encountered higher temperatures
requiring the service companies to continually improve their
capabilities and, as a result, reliability at lower temperatures
skyrocketed. Ultimately, horizontal drilling became routine.
During a recent visit to a petroleum engineering department,
I asked a student to draw a well on the chalkboard; she instinc-
tively drew a horizontal well. A senior statesman of indepen-
dent oil and gas companies whose company is a very active op-
erator told me, “I don’t even remember the last vertical well I
drilled. Don’t suppose I will ever drill one again.”
XPRIZES and grand challenges are not needed to motivate
the development of many aspects of facilities and well construc-
tion as the economic prize is clear. Riserless drilling? Intelligent
wells? Multilateral wells? Factory drilling? These technologies
are attractive because they deal with machinery we can make
and in which engineering really comes to the fore. Like an air-
plane, a rocket ship, or a machine to clean up oil spills, it is re-
ally about advancing our engineering skills.
The large amount of capital investment required in our indus-
try drives, more or less, the conventional evolution of technol-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
ogy in drilling and completion. Within this context, it may be
telling that one of the 2014 R&D competition finalists’ propos-
als was built on the premise that business organizational issues
and not technology shortcomings have, so far, prevented car-
bon capture and storage from taking off.
Our current 5+1 challenges are written fairly broadly. We do
not have a specific, measurable goal like an XPRIZE, and I am
not sure one is needed. Our technology needs to continue to
evolve, and the 5+1 challenges may need to be revisited.
For this reason, I have asked the R&D Technical Section Board
to reexamine these challenges, consider whether they need to
be updated, and whether a drilling and completions challenge
fits with the other important research areas. I am looking for-
ward to the results. JPT
Sources
ATCE Announces R&D Competition Winners, http://www.spe.org/
news/article/atce-set-for-rd-competition 30 October 2014.
New Approaches to Challenges Win USD 60,000 in R&D Contest,
http://www.spe.org/jpt/article/7812-sidebar-1-to-post-7808/.
Research and Development Competition, http://www.spe.org/
industry/competition.php.
THE HOTTEST
NAME IN TEMPERATURE SENSORS.
Pyromation. For decades, we’ve been custom designing and
manufacturing temperature sensors for the oil & gas industry.
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Oil & Gas
11
 COMMENTS EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Bernt Aadnøy, University of Stavanger
Syed Ali—Chairperson, Schlumberger
Tayfun Babadagli, University of Alberta

Trying to Get in Balance

William Bailey, Schlumberger
Ian G. Ball, Intecsea (UK) Ltd
Mike Berry, Mike Berry Consulting
John Donnelly, JPT Editor
Maria Capello, Kuwait Oil Company
Simon Chipperfield, Santos
Nicholas Clem, Baker Hughes
All signs point to another bleak year for the oil and gas indus- Alex Crabtree, Hess Corporation
try. Major operators have begun announcing significant capital Gunnar DeBruijn, Schlumberger
spending cuts, and analysts see no quick fix to the current global
Alexandre Emerick,
supply/demand imbalance. Petrobras Research Center
ConocoPhillips’ and Chevron’s announcements last month of Niall Fleming, Statoil
deep cuts in 2016 capital spending were likely the first in what is Ted Frankiewicz, SPEC Services
expected to be a wave of further reductions by operators in the
Emmanuel Garland, Total
wake of the lowest oil prices in a decade. Chevron plans to slash
Stephen Goodyear, Shell
its budget 24% to USD 27 billion, with the most spending on international exploration
Reid Grigg, New Mexico Petroleum Recovery
and production projects and the second-largest amount going to US projects, includ-
Research Center
ing shale development in Texas. ConocoPhillips said it will spend USD 7.7 billion this
Omer M. Gurpinar, Schlumberger
year, a 25% decline from the reduced levels it spent in 2015.
A.G. Guzman-Garcia, ExxonMobil (retired)
Other major operators echoed those sentiments that this year may be even more
difficult than 2015. The outlook for 2016 was on the minds of many executives at last Greg Horton, Consultant

month’s International Petroleum Technology Conference in Doha. Global oil supply John Hudson, Shell

is still increasing faster than demand despite the plunge in oil prices and it will take Morten Iversen, BG Group
a while to reverse that trend, Total Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Patrick Pouyanné Leonard Kalfayan, Hess Corporation
told reporters at the conference, which is organized by SPE and other industry asso- Tom Kelly, FMC Technologies
ciations. “The market is oversupplied and production capacity will continue to grow Gerd Kleemeyer, Shell Global Solutions
because a lot of projects were sanctioned in 2013 and 2014. Many of those projects International BV
will be coming on line this year and in 2017,” he said. “(Total) does not expect a price Thomas Knode, Statoil
recovery in 2016.” Marc Kuck, Eni US Operating
Oil production from the US Gulf of Mexico is currently rising, as many megaprojects Jesse C. Lee, Schlumberger
invested in several years ago are now coming on line. Output from the Gulf of Mexico Silviu Livescu, Baker Hughes
is about 19% higher now than it was a year ago, according to the US Energy Informa-
Shouxiang (Mark) Ma, Saudi Aramco
tion Administration.
John Macpherson, Baker Hughes
ConocoPhillips’ Ryan Lance CEO said at the conference that US production is now
Casey McDonough, Chesapeake Energy
running at about 9.1 million B/D, down from 9.6 million B/D in the first half of last
year. US output will likely decline another 500,000 B/D this year, he said. That may Stephane Menand, DrillScan

not be enough, depending on the amount of oil Iran produces this year and with the Badrul H Mohamed Jan, University of Malaya
world oversupply currently estimated at 2 million B/D. Iranian production could add Lee Morgenthaler, Shell
anywhere from 500,000 B/D to 700,000 B/D to the market in 2016, according to a Michael L. Payne, BP plc
recent estimate from Barclays. Saudi Aramco’s CEO had a more positive view of the Zillur Rahim, Saudi Aramco
world oil market. Amin Nasser said he thought the market would begin to balance this Jon Ruszka, Baker Hughes
year and that his company was continuing to invest in upstream projects to meet future Martin Rylance, GWO Completions
world demand. Engineering
Analysts Tudor, Pickering, Holt and Co. said that oil companies have canceled or Otto L. Santos, Petrobras
delayed final investment decisions on about 150 projects in the past year that would Luigi A. Saputelli, Hess Corporation
have produced 125 billion bbl of oil equivalent. That could leave the world oil-short a few Sally A. Thomas, ConocoPhillips
years from now if global demand continues to rise as expected. JPT
Win Thornton, BP plc
Xiuli Wang, Minerva Engineering
Mike Weatherl, Well Integrity, LLC
Rodney Wetzel, Chevron ETC
Scott Wilson, Ryder Scott Company
Jonathan Wylde, Clariant Oil Services
Pat York, Weatherford International
To contact JPT’s editor, email jdonnelly@spe.org.

12 JPT • JANUARY 2016

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 GUEST EDITORIAL

Engineering Design in the

“Lower for Longer” Environment
Alex Read, Director, Business Development, Oil & Gas, CD-adapco

A recurring theme in the earning state- “For engineering design
ments of oil and gas companies in recent
months is the desire to survive not only teams, (the current
“lower (prices) for longer,” but to use market) is an opportunity
the current market downturn, and the
resulting urgency, as an opportunity to to review practices and
reshape organizations to ensure that learn from others who
they are stronger and better able to
thrive in the years ahead. Clearly, the have used downturns
industry needs to reduce costs and con- to reshape processes
tinue to innovate without compromis-
ing safety, but how? In other industry through simulation while
crunches, such as that experienced by cutting development time
automotive manufacturers in 2008–09,
simulation played a key role in helping and costs.”
to reduce engineering design costs and
lead times, while allowing manufactur-
ers to continue to deliver new and inno- Key to this has been the rapid
vative solutions. improvement in computer hardware
While each company’s view on how to and software technology, as well as
tackle this new paradigm will differ, for innovative licensing models that enable,
many it will be to continue the day job rather than penalize, the use of high-
(deliver quality and innovative products performance computing and cloud solu-
and solutions), but at reduced devel- tions. Through the development of cloud
opment time and cost, without com- computing, engineers now have ready
promising safety. First principles-based and cost-effective access to computer
engineering simulation tools will be a resources that would have been unimag-
key enabler, as companies will increas- inable a decade ago. These improve-
ingly rely on simulation-based  design ments allow engineers to increase the
exploration. The initial driver will number of design and operating con-
be to reduce engineering costs and ditions evaluated, and to move beyond
time, but companies will also ben- the physical test to simulate real-world
efit from simulation as an innova- conditions at full scale, such as subsea
tion enabler. separators with real process fluids at
Alex Read is the director, business development, oil & gas, for
CD-adapco, the largest privately held CFD-focused provider of
computer-aided engineering software. In 14 years at CD-adapco,
he has worked as a project engineer, led the customer support
team for northern Europe, and helped found CD-adapco’s
operations in Houston and São Paulo, where he led both the sales
and technical teams. Read now leads the company’s global
activities in the oil and gas industry, focusing on helping oil and
gas firms succeed through simulation.
high temperature and pressure, or the
behavior of a floating platform during
a hurricane.
The importance of simulation is evi-
dent in three specific examples: two
from the recent CD-adapco Oil, Gas, and
Chemical Computational Fluid Dynam-
ics (CFD) Conference, and one from out-
side our industry.
Fluid control valve (FCV) design by
Schlumberger. At the CD-adapco con-
ference, Reda Bouamra of Schlumberger
shared the company’s work designing
downhole FCVs. Scale deposition is a
significant flow assurance challenge
as it can reduce production, is cost-
ly to remediate, and can cause FCVs to
jam, so Schlumberger’s objective was
to develop an FCV that was less sus-
ceptible to scale. Its integrated CFD-
experimental design process helped the
company achieve this, while reducing
engineering lead times and costs.
Schlumberger used CFD to design
a testing program, ensuring it was as
close to real well conditions as pos-
sible, and focused on the scenarios of
most interest. It was able to validate
CFD methods, enabling confident use of
CFD to explore conditions and designs
not tested.
One of the major benefits of simu-
lation is the ease with which, having
created the initial validated model,
alternative designs or scenarios can be
evaluated. This, plus the detailed infor-
mation provided, enables engineers to
come up with and efficiently test new,
innovative solutions.
The industry’s move toward standard-
ized solutions, reusable across multi-
ple projects, introduces the need to
verify equipment performance across

14 JPT • JANUARY 2016

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 a wide range of operating conditions.
Validated simulation provides a cost-
effective way to achieve this. The bottom
line: An  integrated CFD-experimental
approach enabled Schlumberger to
reduce the time and cost of the design
process, while enabling evaluation of
more designs in real well conditions.
Virtual wave basin at Technip. Jim
O’Sullivan, vice president and chief
technology officer at Technip USA,
explained how Technip has used a
“numerical wave basin” approach on
projects ranging from full-scale, vortex-
induced motion of a deep draft semisub-
mersible to ringing on a gravity-based
structure. Ringing relates to structur-
al deflections occurring at frequencies
well above incident-wave frequencies.
Traditionally, the offshore sector has
relied on physical testing and potential
flow codes to evaluate hydrodynamic
design. However, both present challeng-
es: physical testing is expensive, time-
consuming, and results have to be trans-
lated from model to full scale. Potential
flow codes omit (or have to be tuned
to mimic) important physical phenom-
One Stop for ena such as viscous effects and break-
ing waves.
Everything JPT Technip also integrates CFD and
Get all your online JPT physical test programs by modeling
content in one place at the physical test beforehand and focus-
www.spe.org/jpt ing the test on the right area, reducing
the chances of failure. It validates the
Responsive Design CFD against the test, then uses CFD to
SPE members can access explore additional designs and condi-
the latest issue of JPT tions as well as behavior at full scale
from any of their devices. under real sea conditions.
Optimized for desktop, Using a validated “first principles”
tablet, and phone, JPT is design tool such as CFD means results
easy to read and browse do not have to be tuned, which reduc-
anytime you are online. es unforeseen problems late in the
design cycle or field. The bottom line:
By using CFD-based design exploration,
Technip is able to efficiently optimize
Offline Access design, using a process that better rep-
resents operating conditions, thereby
Download PDF versions reducing risk.
of 180+ issues dating
back to 1997 for reading Evolution of simulation in the auto-
online or when an motive industry. The final exam-
Internet connection is ple comes from outside the oil and gas
not available. industry. Whether it is a global econom-
ic crisis, new competitors entering the
16
market, or changes in regulation, the
auto industry has continually had to
push to deliver innovative solutions at
reduced time and cost.
Those that have succeeded have done
so by progressively reducing reliance
on traditional methods (expensive
and time-consuming physical proto-
typing) in favor of extensive engineer-
ing simulation.
Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) undertook
a strategic shift beginning in 2008. Its
goal was to not only survive an econom-
ic downturn but to significantly expand
its product offering and sales, while
increasing profit. It wanted to under-
take 40 “product actions” in 5 years.
This is no small undertaking as today’s
vehicles are highly complex with rough-
ly 9,000 customer requirements and
3,000 assessments needed for sign-off.
The business drivers and challenges,
as laid out by Andy Richardson, JLR’s
head of simulation, could easily have
come from an oil and gas outfit: devel-
op new technologies while managing
greatly increased system complexity;
identify failure modes and establish
countermeasures to achieve right first
time design; reduce in-service failures;
simulate the full range of use cases; and
reach optimized product design efficien-
cy and reduced production costs.
JLR is well on its way to reaching its
goal of robust engineering design ready
for sign-off before the first prototype is
built, and it is doing so while delivering
financially, with 15% or more growth in
earnings before interest, taxes, depre-
ciation, and amortization in each of the
past 5 years. The bottom line: By devel-
oping a culture of simulation during
lean times, driven by a need to cut costs,
JLR was able to embrace the innovation
potential generated by these techniques
and fully capitalize on opportunities as
market conditions improved.
The current “lower for longer” mar-
ket conditions present significant chal-
lenges to the oil and gas industry. For
engineering design teams, it is also an
opportunity to review practices and
learn from others who have used down-
turns to reshape processes through sim-
ulation while cutting development time
and costs. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Introducing a new controlled optimization
process for multistage completions
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SPE HFTC,
Learn from every frac. booth 201

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©2015, NCS Multistage, LLC. All rights reserved. Multistage Unlimited is a trademark of NCS Multistage, LLC.
 TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
Chris Carpenter, JPT Technology Editor
Safety Valve
The Weatherford Optimax series of
safety valves has a long track record
of guarding against catastrophic loss of
well control. More than 5,000 tubing-
retrievable safety valves (TRSVs) have
been provided worldwide, with zero fail-
ures. The success of the valves can be
attributed largely to two aspects of the
design and manufacturing process: the
hydraulic system, which eliminates com-
mon points of failure, and the exten-
sive internal testing program. The
series offers a variety of valves suited
for deployment in diverse wellbore sizes
and conditions (Fig. 1). The three new-
est valves in the portfolio extend ser-
vice to environments with pressures up
to 15,000 psi and temperatures up to
350°F. A 7-in., super-slim TRSV provides
an effective barrier in large-bore, high-
rate gas completions; a 4½-in. TRSV
is optimized for high-pressure/high-
temperature applications; and an addi-
tional 4½-in. TRSV is designed for
deepwater applications. After under-
going a robust internal testing pro-
gram, all three valves were qualified to
the V1 validation grade under the new
American Petroleum Institute 14A 12th
Edition standard.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.weatherford.com.
Fig. 1—With rigorous testing standards and an extensive
track record, the Optimax series of safety valves from
Weatherford offers robust safety valves for offshore
environments.
18
Cable Orientation Beacon
Silixa introduced its cable mapping ser-
vice, a cost-effective, low-risk solution
for mapping the orientation of downhole
optical sensing cables in order to avoid
cable damage during perforation. Fiber-
optic cables (FOCs) installed on the out-
side of completion casing are at risk of
being damaged during perforation. To
avoid damaging the FOC, the perforation
charges are oriented away from the FOC.
In order to achieve this, the orientation
of the FOC must be determined when the
installation is complete. The Cable Ori-
entation Beacon (COB) is an autonomous
downhole sensor that is installed adja-
cent to the FOC under a standard midjoint
clamp (Fig. 2). Unlike traditional sen-
sors that use wireline electromagnetic or
ultrasonic tools inside the casing to detect
the presence of the cable on the outside
of casing, Silixa’s COB measures its own
orientation using an internal sensor, then
transmits those data to the FOC by an
acoustic signal. The acoustic signal is read
at surface and translated back to an orien-
tation in the form of an angular position
around the outside of the casing relative
to the high side of the borehole. Use of the
COB reduces overall costs by eliminating
the need for tractored wireline services.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.silixa.com.
Fig. 2—A Cable Orientation Beacon from Silixa.
Extended-Reach-Well-
Drilling Solution
M-I Swaco, a Schlumberger compa-
ny, has developed a water-based drill-
ing system with engineering flexibility
designed to help operators quickly and
successfully address the challenges of
shale plays, including their economic and
environmental constraints. The novel,
low-cost chemistry of the HydraGlyde
high-performance water-based drilling-
fluid system reduces torque, drag, shale
swelling, and dispersion. It delivers a
rate of penetration (ROP) comparable
with that of oil-based mud, with optimal
hole-cleaning characteristics and high
levels of wellbore stability in high-angle
build sections and long lateral sections.
This is made possible with the company’s
HydraSpeed ROP enhancer, which deliv-
ers lubricity that mimics that of oil-based
mud (Fig. 3). The system also deliv-
ers a high-quality filter cake and a low-
tortuosity wellbore that minimizes the
risks of differential sticking. The cost-
effective HydraGlyde system addresses
several challenges associated with shales,
including accretion in the surface hole,
wellbore instability, mud losses in the
intermediate section, solids buildup, and
hole cleaning in the horizontal section.
A specially engineered primary shale
inhibitor provides a high degree of well-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Fig. 3—The HydraGlyde water-based-drilling-fluid system
delivers ROP comparable to that of an oil-based mud.
(Image courtesy of Schlumberger)

bore stability, and a proprietary encapsulator minimizes clay

dispersion and enhances wellbore integrity.
◗ For additional information, visit www.slb.com.

Retrievable Bridge Plug

Peak Well Systems introduced the Simultra Retrievable Bridge
Plug, suitable for gas wells and other extremely challeng-
ing applications. The new Simultra range incorporates Meta-
Plex technology, a unique hybrid metal/elastomer seal that
delivers both exceptional performance and improved recov-
ery reliability. Without having to rely purely on elastomer ele-
ments, Simultra Retrievable Bridge Plugs have the smallest
running diameter in their class; offer a larger internal flow
path; provide the highest available seal integrity; and retract
to smaller than their original diameter, thereby ensuring reli-
able deployment and recovery (Fig. 4). Set and retrieved with
Peak’s modular, nonexplosive PowerTool, deployment is pos-
sible in vertical and horizontal wells with all conventional con-
veyance methods, providing operational flexibility and con-
fidence. Peak successfully completed V0 gas tests at 135°C
and 7,500 kpsi on its 4½-in. Simultra plug. Further testing
in October has now extended that range to 175°C. Simultra
Retrievable Bridge Plugs are currently available for industry-
standard tubulars in 4½- and 5½-in. casing sizes, with a 7-in.
option expected to complete testing in early 2016.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.peakwellsystems.com.

Fig. 4—Peak Well Systems’ Simultra

Retrievable Bridge Plug.

JPT • JANUARY 2016


Fig. 5—Chemineer’s Kenics heat exchanger.
Heat Exchanger
Kenics heat exchangers from Chem-
ineer offer a highly efficient design con-
sisting of streamlined Kenics static-
mixer elements for superior performance
compared with conventional straight,
empty-tube heat exchangers. Conven-
tional straight, empty-tube designs
allow laminar buildup from the process
fluid on the internal tube walls, which
Fig. 6—Optical Cable Corporation’s solutions include ruggedized cables
and connectors that ensure the survival of fiber-based automation/control
architectures for onshore and offshore oil and gas operations, even in the
harshest conditions.
20
inhibits flow and diminishes the heat-
transfer process. Kenics heat exchang-
ers use static-mixer elements in each
heat exchanger tube to greatly reduce
the film buildup on the internal walls
(Fig. 5). Process fluid is pushed continu-
ously from the center of each tube to the
wall and back to the center. This elimi-
nates thermal gradients and boosts the
inside film coefficient. Product perfor-
mance characteristics of the Kenics heat
exchanger include a more-uniform, con-
sistent transfer process; three to seven
times greater heat-transfer rates than
empty tubes; mixer elements that cre-
ate a self-cleaning wiping action; mini-
mization of fouling; surface renewal at
the tube wall that reduces the chance of
thermal degradation; plug-flow charac-
teristics that produce uniform heat his-
tory; reduction of temperature gradi-
ents; and allowance for viscous materials
to cool to the near-freezing point.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.chemineer.com.
Ethernet Connectivity Cables
To protect infrastructures against disas-
ters, promote worker safety, and facili-
tate automated functions ranging from
drilling to wellhead and transport-
pipeline operation, oil and gas operators
are turning increasingly to fiber-optic-
cable suppliers for end-to-end commu-
nications and control solutions. Many
such solutions include ruggedized cable
and connectors, such as those offered
by the Optical Cable Corporation, that
ensure survival of fiber-based automa-
tion/control architectures for onshore
and offshore oil and gas operations, even
in the harshest environments (Fig. 6). As
fiber-optic cable emerges as the medi-
um of choice in many industrial arenas,
the DIN rail enclosure plays an increas-
ingly important role. Mounted to a stan-
dard DIN rail—the metal rail used to
mount various electrical components
(e.g., terminal blocks, motor starters, cir-
cuit breakers) in a control cabinet—a DIN
rail enclosure provides a central location
where external and internal wiring can
be connected quickly and efficiently. This
type of enclosure is ideal for production
applications and the industrial automa-
tion side of businesses. Today, the oil and
gas industry is turning from highly pro-
prietary communications systems to the
more enterprise-wide prevalent Ether-
net communications protocol through
fiber-optic cable. The appropriate DIN
rail enclosure provides an optimal con-
nection for fiber cable that can be termi-
nated in a fixed position.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.occfiber.com.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Subsea Asphaltene Inhibitor
Baker Hughes introduced its high-
performance, low-dosage FATHOM XT
SUBSEA525 inhibitor that helps con-
trol asphaltene deposition in deepwater
wells, providing better flow assurance
and reducing remediation costs by min-
imizing the risk of blockages in produc-
tion lines and equipment. The inhibitor
was designed and certified for offshore
applications using a proprietary quali-
fication protocol and a stringent labo-
ratory evaluation method to enable full
compatibility with subsea equipment
and effective performance at low treat-
ment levels (Fig. 7). During production,
crude oils can deposit asphaltenes inside
pumps and pipes, creating serious pro- Fig. 7—Baker Hughes’ FATHOM XT subsea asphaltene inhibitor reduces
duction issues such as plugged flowlines remediation costs.
and clogged equipment, resulting in the
need to stop operations and perform applied at low treatment levels during ability by use of the company’s propri-
costly remediation procedures to get initial production and throughout the life etary 16-test qualification protocol. The
production back on line at acceptable lev- of the well. The low dosage rate simplifies FATHOM XT SUBSEA525 inhibitor is the
els. Many times, these procedures offer supply logistics, reduces on-site storage, first of a new line of high-performance
only temporary relief. To lessen the risk and lowers handling risk. Baker Hughes asphaltene inhibitors. JPT
of asphaltene deposition and to enhance tests and qualifies all FATHOM XT chem- ◗ For additional information, visit
flow, the FATHOM XT inhibitor can be icals for materials compatibility and reli- www.bakerhughes.com.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 21

 YOUNG TECHNOLOGY SHOWCASE
Metal-Formed Liner Hanger Avoids
High-Setting-Pressure Requirements
Frank Mullins, General Manager, Seminole Services
Seminole Services announced the com-
mercialization of its first product,
the Powerscrew Liner System, a new
expandable-liner hanger that is set
with torsional energy from the topdrive
(Fig.  1). The Louisiana-based compa-
ny began development on the tool and
associated equipment in the fall of 2012.
Rooted in solid mechanics and materi-
al science, the company provides engi-
neered wellbore solutions to explora-
tion and production companies actively
engaged in drilling oil and gas wells.
In the evolution of liner hangers,
mechanically set systems were devel-
oped first. While many operators believe
mechanical systems are more robust and
provide superior sealing integrity when
compared with hydraulically set hang-
ers, older mechanical systems typically
lack reliability, especially in applications
requiring longer liners in deviated well-
bores. In large part, this is because of the
risks associated with reaming a mechan-
ical hanger to setting depth. Reliability
rates were increased with the introduc-
tion of hydraulically set hangers, which
allowed a greater range of applications.
However, the newer setting method suf-
fers from its own limitations, such as
flow-area restrictions, compatibility
with drilling-fluid additives, and a mul-
titude of potential leak paths.
With the advent of expandable-liner
hangers, further increases in setting reli-
ability were achieved along with even
A A
Fig. 1—Graphic of Powerscrew.
22
greater applications. The increase in reli-
ability stemmed, at least in part, from
greater success reaming the liner to
setting depth. The higher reliability of
expandables is perhaps a consequence of
greater flow area at the liner top and the
lack of external setting devices. This has
led to many new developments in drilling
with liners (DWL).
Nevertheless, expandable-liner hang-
ers continue to suffer from potential
leak paths associated with high hydrau-
lic pressure sourced at the mud pumps.
The hydraulic pressure provides ener-
gy to the running tool necessary in
setting the liner top. In most expand-
able systems, pressure pushes the roll-
er/expansion cones/sleeve through a
metal-formed tubular by use of a mul-
titude of pressurized connections and
fluid ports. By contrast, the torsion-
ally set system combines the latest in
metal-forming technology along with
the best features of mechanically set sys-
tems. The result is a setting process that
does not require high hydraulic pres- Fig. 2—MLR mandrel.
sures and eliminates the risks associated
with reaming the liner to setting depth mandrel provides microupsets, increas-
and DWL. ing the post-formed collapse resistance
of the set liner top. Also, helical stretch
Novel Features. In addition to torque as forming has less friction and therefore
the primary method of energy transfer, requires less force to forge a metallic
other novel features of the tool include tubular downhole. The tool incorporates
a patent-pending helical stretch meth- a high-strength (drop) ball-activated
od of metal forming using a multilead single-use clutch that disengages the
rifling (MLR) mandrel (Fig. 2). The MLR running tool from the liner upon reach-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
 join the best:
4-8 April 2016
Düsseldorf, Germany I www.tube.de

join the best — welcome to the world’s leading trade fair for the tube
industry! Those who wish to find comprehensive information about the
latest innovations in tubes and pipes, manufacturing, processing machinery
and tube accessories need look no further. It can all be found here at the
world’s most important exhibition — the meeting point for international
experts, specialists and global market leaders. Special focal point at
Tube 2016: Plastic tubes. A special area is reserved for them, because the
question of materials is becoming more and more important.

An important fixed date in your calendar — your visit to Tube 2016 in

Düsseldorf!

Fig. 3—Powerscrew going in the hole at Catoosa,

Oklahoma.

ing setting depth and initiates the metal-forming process with

the application of torque.
The torsionally set tool does not suffer from pressure losses
associated with setting hydraulically in extremely deep wells.
The tool has been qualified with optional hardened slips, a dif-
ficult incorporation given the ductility needed for metal form-
ing. The integral slips were qualified by use of a hardening pro- International Tube and Pipe Trade Fair
cess proprietary to Lone Star Heat Treating of Houston. Along Internationale Rohr-Fachmesse
with the slips, two types of packer elements are used. Both
the top and the bottom of the set liner top contain profiled,
pressure-energized packer elements that are mirrored to pro-
vide maximum differential-pressure containment. The second
type of packer elements is fully energized upon setting and used
to prevent gas migration. Hanging capacity and pressure con-
tainment are paramount to any premium hanger system, and
the ability to achieve both at high temperature will continue to
be an engineering challenge.
Plant and Pipe and Tube Bending and Tube
Machinery Processing Forming Manufacturing
Machinery Technology and Trading
Proven Design. After several component-level and subas-
sembly tests over the years, the first wellbore installation on a
full-scale prototype was field tested on 22 October 2014 at the
Catoosa facility, Well Lucy 6G, in Hallett, Oklahoma (Fig.  3). A
7⅝-in. liner was reamed to setting depth, cemented in place, Tube
Accessories
Profiles Plastic Tube
Forum
disengaged, and set with torsional energy from the topdrive.
A drop in torque indicated full integration of the liner top
into the 9⅝-in. intermediate casing, and the running tool was Messe Düsseldorf GmbH
P.O. Box 10 10 06 – 40001 Düsseldorf – Germany
Tel. + 49 (0)2 11/45 60-01 – Fax + 49 (0)2 11/45 60-6 68

www.messe-duesseldorf.de
JPT • JANUARY 2016
 Powerscrew Seng Loads
12,000
10,000
Topdrive Torque (-lbf)
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0 chances of a good cement bond.
Military Time
Fig. 4—Topdrive torque while setting the Powerscrew in Lucy 6G.
retrieved from the well (Fig. 4). With
success on the first run came the real-
ization that the setting torque needed to
be lowered. This issue was resolved by
working with our planetary-gear vendor,
Creative Motion Control (CMC). CMC
was able to customize a solution spe-
cific for our unique downhole applica-
tion and was able to reduce the setting
torque by 50%. In addition to the suc-
cess with the running tool, a torsionally
set 7⅝-in. liner top was qualified under
extreme well conditions at Oiltool Engi-
neering Services (OES) in Willis, Texas
(Fig. 5). The set liner top was able to
withstand the maximum load capacity
of OES’s hydraulic ram at 500,000 lbf,
simulating liner weight. Also, 4,000-
psi differential hydraulic pressure and
3,000-psi differential gas pressure were
maintained continuously from below
the set system without the benefit of
cement. Finally, under combined load,
the set liner top withstood 300,000-lbf
load and 3,000-psi hydraulic pressure at
300°F, reaching a project milestone.
Wide Appeal. While Seminole’s target
market is the Gulf of Mexico (GOM),
the technology can be used in any land
Fig. 5—Liner top being set at 300°F or offshore application where reliabil-
for further laboratory testing. ity is of paramount importance. Failure
24
rates can be as high as 40% for con-
ventional hanger systems, so reliabil-
ity is an industry goal. The increase in
expandable-liner systems used in
the GOM is an indication that metal-
forming technology is being adapted for
the most-challenging wells and will only
continue to increase in market share,
given increased competition. Finally, of
particular interest is the lesson that run-
ning a production liner with a reliable
hanger system, rather than employing a
long tapered string, could be the differ-
ence between a successful completion
and a problem. The benefits associated
with running a liner with a hanger sys-
tem include the following:
◗ A rotating liner hanger improves the
◗ The presence of a liner-top packer
adds a barrier to annular flow near
the bottom of the well.
◗ The arrangement allows for the
omission of the differential fill tube,
a potential failure mechanism for
the float collar.
◗ The negative test is potentially
simpler to conduct and interpret.
◗ The well is better configured to
control and repair a leak in the
liner by leaving the well filled with
drilling mud to a greater depth and
by placing the drillpipe at a greater
depth in the well during the test.
In summary, the Powerscrew elimi-
nates potential leak paths while setting
with torsional energy from the topdrive
or rotary. This new liner hanger uses a
patent-pending MLR mandrel that forms
the liner top (through helical stretch)
with greater post-formed collapse resis-
tance than that of a typical expandable
tubular. These unique characteristics
are complemented by other exceptional
features, such as a high-strength run-
ning tool, high hanging capacity, and
impressive pressure containment and
zonal isolation with packers and cement-
ing accessories. The tool has been rig-
orously tested both in the field and in
the laboratory and has shown respect-
able results. Finally, though somewhat
underused, expandable-liner hang-
ers have proved themselves in the
most-demanding applications. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
TECHNOLOGY UPDATE
Leveraging Subsurface Insight, Screening,
and Diversion Technology in Refracturing
Doug Walser, SPE, Halliburton
A challenging commodity price envi-
ronment has forced operators to seek
methods for sharply lowering recovery
cost per barrel of oil equivalent (BOE) in
unconventional plays.
Some reduced costs have resulted from
the overcapacity of global services. Other
reductions have resulted from declining
industry activity, which has increased
the availability of personnel and led to
a renewed focus on maximizing drilling
and completion (D&C) process efficiency.
A portion of the recovery cost reduc-
tion has resulted directly from incre-
mental technical innovations and pro-
cess improvements that were difficult
to achieve when operators and service
companies were concerned chiefly with
D&C execution.
Older processes were designed to max-
imize early production, whereas a num-
ber of newer technologies focus on max-
imizing net present value (NPV). High
NPV is most often achieved by reducing
uncertainty and manipulating the cost
portion of the NPV equation, especially
when the commodity price and/or dis-
count rate is uncontrollable.
D&C portfolios have primarily con-
tained a mix of delineation wells and
development wells. Delineation wells
have a higher cost per BOE but a higher
potential for accelerating reserve recov-
ery. Development wells have a lower cost
per BOE but a lower potential for accel-
erating recovery. This mix of wells is
appropriate for periods when margins
are high enough to cover the associat-
ed D&C costs. However, the loss of such
margins in a low-price environment has
prompted adjustments to lower the aver-
age cost per BOE.
One strategy for lowering that cost
is to increase the percentage of refrac-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
tured wells in a portfolio. Typically, the
cost per BOE of refracturing is sub-
stantially lower than that of drilling
and completing delineation or develop-
ment wells.
Recently, the development and
implementation of effective stimula-
tion diversion techniques and great-
er focus on candidate screening have
narrowed the window of uncertainty
in executing refracturing operations
in horizontal wells. These improve-
ments have reduced the economic risk
of these operations and created further
incentive to shift portfolio strategies
toward refracturing.
Taking advantage of refracturing
opportunities in a portfolio involves
four steps.
1. Screen the best candidate proper-
ties, based on reservoir quality and the
potential to exceed the original comple-
tion quality.
2. Design the optimal refracture treat-
ment to place new conductive fractures
where desired and reconnect existing
ones.
3. Execute the refracture treatment
for coverage of all selected lateral areas,
using the latest processes, techniques,
and materials.
4. Diagnose the refracture perfor-
mance and optimize the refracture design
for analogous properties, using state-of-
the-art diagnostic tools.
This article primarily discusses the
candidate selection process.
Screening Candidate Properties
The impact of refracture candidate
selection on the overall commercial suc-
cess of a project is well known. How-
ever, there is considerable disagree-
ment in the industry about the relative
influence of the various components of
the process.
While operators sometimes seek ini-
tially to “fix our poor performer,” after
due diligence (or an unsuccessful field
trial), they usually look at more statisti-
cally reasonable alternatives. Some oper-
ators consider the best candidates to be
those with the highest original initial pro-
duction and with potential to improve,
while others claim the best are those with
improvement potential and the highest
estimated ultimate recovery (EUR).
Additionally, some express interest in
properties with the highest decline rates.
When used to the exclusion of other
factors, these approaches will some-
times result in commercially success-
ful production profiles. However, more
often than not, the results are erratic
and unpredictable.
The preferred method described in
this article has been developed with input
from numerous sources and represents
a cross section of industry thinking. It
includes the participation of operators,
service providers, and various sources of
capital funding.
Refracture candidate selection involves
geostatistics and fundamental physics. A
clear relationship exists between com-
mercial success and both reservoir qual-
ity and the potential of refracturing to
increase the total exposed fracture sur-
face area.
In its simplest form, reservoir quality
is generally proportional to kh, where k
is the effective permeability to the dom-
inant reservoir fluid and h is the height
of the exposed propped fracture in the
productive reservoir column. Often, kh
is not known in a given acreage posi-
tion because k is not easy to evaluate or
measure. For matrix flow in an ultralow-
25
 10,000
1,000
Daily Rate (Mcf)
100
10
0 1,000
Fig. 1—A decline-curve analysis based on actual production, assuming no refracturing on day 1,509.
permeability target, the Darcy equation
is applied:
Q=−kA(∆P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)
µL
where Q is production rate, A is the total
exposed surface area, ∆P is the pressure
drop from a given reservoir grid block
in three-dimensional (3D) space to the
“nearest superhighway” (i.e., a propped
fracture), µ is the reservoir fluid viscosity,
and L is the distance to the same “near-
est superhighway” (i.e., fracture spacing).
A and L are the only variables that can
be effectively controlled by adjusting the
stimulation material volume, as well as
the fracture initiation location and distri-
bution, and are often related to the stim-
ulation practices in place at the time the
well was completed. Therefore, methods
to increase A and decrease L become a
means to recover additional reserves that
would not otherwise be accessed in a rea-
sonable time frame.
The industry learning curve has pro-
gressed in a stepwise manner so that it is
possible to assume that the regional val-
ues of A and L are relatively constant dur-
ing any historical time period. Though
localized differences exist in completion
practices, parameters such as stages per
26
15-Year EUR of Original Completion=2.2 Bcf
Hyperbolic exponent=1.6
Hyperbolic decline constant=94%
Actual
Predicted
Actual cumulative
Predicted cumulative
2,000 3,000 4,000
Producing Days
1,000-ft, lateral length, bbl of fluid per
ft, and lbm of proppant per ft generally
remained within a small window of varia-
tion in a given legacy time frame.
This lack of variation in a particular
play or acreage position essentially treats
A and L as constants and allows the use of
decline-curve analysis as a tool to quali-
tatively compare the relative formation
permeability from one completion to
another. The general form of the rate vs.
time equation
(dq/dt)/q=−Dqn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
is often applied as the more specific non-
linear hyperbolic decline
qt=qi (1+nDit)–1/n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
where n is the hyperbolic exponent and
Di is the hyperbolic first-year decline
rate. Classical decline-curve analysis is
not a rigorous method to isolate or deter-
mine k or kh, but under certain circum-
stances, it is a proxy for comparing k
when A, L, and h are relatively consistent
across a group of properties. If Di is low,
properties where A can be significant-
ly increased (and/or L decreased) infer
that k can be comparatively higher. These
properties can become top candidates
for refracturing.
2,500,000
2,000,000
Cumulative Production (Bcf)
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
0
5,000 6,000
The refracturing candidate selection
process revolves around balancing prop-
erties with better reservoir quality and
those with the most potential for increas-
ing A and decreasing L. Reservoir qual-
ity can be determined by rigorous geo-
logical and geophysical interpretation, or
classical decline-curve analysis if A and L
both have a small window of variability.
Identifying opportunities to improve A or
L depends on examining the stimulation
and completion practice at the time of
the original completion and comparing it
with the current industry understanding
and practice.
Situations of interest include the
following:
1. The most common scenario is low
total exposed fracture surface area A
and high distance L, most often associ-
ated with wide fracture spacing along
the lateral. The refracture potential then
is dependent on the ability to discourage
the flow of stimulation fluids and prop-
pants into the lowest-pressure reservoir
volumes and divert the flow to newly
induced fractures along the lateral.
2. Often, the original exposed frac-
ture surface area is low because of an
insufficient pumped volume per stage.
This is generally addressed by perform-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
 10,000
1,000
Daily Rate (Mcf)
100
10
0 1,000
Fig. 2—A decline-curve analysis based on actual production, beginning at the time of refracturing.
ing treatments with increased volumes
of fluid and proppant and diverting, as
appropriate.
3. Sometimes, the total exposed frac-
ture surface area A is low because of
Stokes’ law considerations:
2g(ρp−ρf )R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
Vs=
9µ
where Vs is the maximum proppant set-
tling rate in a given fluid, (ρp−ρf ) is the
density differential between the prop-
pant and fluid, R is the radius of a typi-
cal proppant grain, g is the gravitational
constant, and µ is the apparent viscosity
of the carrier fluid. If the proppant set-
tling rate is high, then the total exposed
surface area A can be greatly reduced,
especially above the lateral elevation.
4. Occasionally, the exposed fracture
surface area A is low because of the
large average proppant diameter and an
inability to prop the narrower fractures.
The solution involves pumping a refrac-
turing treatment with smaller-average-
diameter proppants and simultaneously
attempting to improve on either catego-
ry 1 or 2.
5. Often, an older delineation (parent)
horizontal wellbore is refractured as a
protective measure against lost reserves
JPT • JANUARY 2016
11-Year EUR of Refracture Treatment Alone=2.5 Bcf
Hyperbolic exponent=1.6
Hyperbolic decline constant=74%
Actual
Predicted
Predicted cumulative
2,000 3,000 4,000
Producing Days
associated with asymmetric fracturing
from the stimulation of offset develop-
ment wells. There is additional commer-
cial benefit if the delineation well hap-
pens to fit into category 1 or 2.
6. A number of miscellaneous scenari-
os could provide opportunities for refrac-
turing. They are relatively rare and should
be approached with caution, especially in
light of the numerous candidates that
easily fit into categories 1 and 2. These
might include a)  a repairable wellbore
with a mechanical problem, b) crushed
proppant, or c) scenarios where extreme
scaling, asphaltene, or paraffin deposi-
tion have been positively identified.
Locating and defining a series of
refracturing candidates with the high-
est potential for commercial success
also requires due diligence regarding
the mechanical integrity of the wellbore
and wellhead. In some cases, additional
action over and above the simple exam-
ination of records may be required and
may involve operations such as pressure
testing, bond logging, or isolating por-
tions of a given wellbore.
Case History
Fig. 1 illustrates the production from
a Marcellus lateral that produced from
3,000,000
2,500,000
Cumulative Production (Bcf)
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
0
5,000 6,000
fractures sparsely spaced along the lat-
eral during the original completion. Not
only was the well located in an acreage
section thought to be above average, the
decline constant was slightly lower than
the average of those of peer properties.
These factors suggested the presence of
a reservoir with reasonable kh, despite a
15-year EUR figure of only 2.2 Bcf.
Approximately 4 years after the origi-
nal completion, a retreatment program
was pumped with additional clusters
and multiple cycles separated by diver-
sion material. The incremental cumu-
lative production for the remaining
11 years of the original 15-year period
increased by 2.5 Bcf, and the refractur-
ing operation was a clear commercial
success, with a payout of approximately
2 years (Fig. 2).
Conclusions
The candidate selection process involves
understanding reservoir quality, original
stimulation effectiveness, and the poten-
tial to access additional reserves. The sta-
tistical success of refracturing a group of
ultralow-permeability horizontal wells
depends on a rigorous candidate selec-
tion process, robust stimulation design,
and expert operational execution. JPT
27
 E&P NOTES
Saudi Aramco Moving Forward
on Unconventionals
Trent Jacobs, JPT Senior Technology Writer
With the world’s fifth-largest estimated
shale gas reserves, there is great potential
for Saudi Arabia to replicate North Amer-
ica’s unconventional growth. Saudi Aram-
co’s unconventional program became
operational in 2013 and the company has
been working with major service compa-
nies, including Halliburton and Schlum-
berger, to develop the reserves.
The primary driver is the country’s
pressing need to find new supplies of
gas to replace the domestically produced
crude oil used to generate most of its
electric needs, demand that can reach as
high as 900,000 B/D in summer. Anoth-
er major aim is to use unconventional gas
to bolster the country’s growing petro-
chemical industry.
Ali Almomen, an unconventional gas
production engineer at Saudi Aramco,
said the company has completed the
exploration and appraisal phases of its
derisking strategy and is in the middle
of various pilot stages. He provided an
overview of the company’s progress at
the recent SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition in Houston. “We are
trying to fine-tune the technology, try-
ing to reduce the cost, and improve the
[estimated ultimate recoveries] further,”
he said.
To accelerate the effort, the nation-
al oil company has so far committed at
least USD 10 billion to its unconvention-
al exploration program and is actively
recruiting experienced unconvention-
al experts from North America to join
its ranks.
The company’s unconventional ambi-
tions are focused on three different areas
in Saudi Arabia. The first is located in the
northern part of the country. The target
formation is called the Qusaibia Hot Shale
and is found at a depth between 6,000 ft
28
Saudi Aramco has so
far committed at least
USD 10 billion to its
unconventional exploration
program and is actively
recruiting experienced
unconventional experts
from North America to
join its ranks.
to 8,000 ft. The shale is considered to be
relatively shallow and is the source rock
for conventional gas fields in the area.
The gas produced from this area will sup-
port a major mining project still under
construction and a new power plant.
The other two plays are in the eastern
province and located along the periphery
of the Ghawar oil field, the largest con-
ventional oil field in the world. These two
areas will benefit from their proximity
to existing infrastructure and the large
amount of geological data already col-
lected from the development of Ghawar.
The play located to the south of Gha-
war is a deep tight sandstone formation
where five appraisal gas wells have been
drilled so far. Sitting just east of Ghawar
is the third play where Saudi Aramco
is targeting a tight carbonate formation
called the Tuwaiq Mountain—the source
rock for the giant oil field. The company
believes this field is comparable in many
respects to the Eagle Ford Shale in Texas.
“Sometimes, it is better than the Eagle
Ford in terms of the permeability and
porosity,” Almomen said.
The Tuwaiq Mountain formation is
split into two tiers. The upper tier has
nearly double the total organic content
of the Eagle Ford while the lower tier is
about the same. A pilot well drilled in
the Tuqaiq Mountain formation had an
average 30-day initial production rate of
3 MMscf/D of gas and 1,800 B/D of oil.
In addition to core samples and
openhole logs, sonic logging tools and
diagnostic fracture injection testing
are being used to make key determina-
tions about each formation’s permea-
bility, pore pressure, and in-situ stress
state. Using this information, comple-
tion engineers are placing as many as
16 fracture stages along the laterals.
They are placing the stages only in the
areas that appear to have the best pro-
duction characteristics and are avoid-
ing areas with poor reservoir quality.
Based on production logs, Almomen
said this strategy has resulted in 95%
of the perforation clusters contrib-
uting to production in some of the
best cases.
The company’s plans include using
microseismic surveys and chemical trac-
ers to better characterize fracture net-
works and to determine how cluster stag-
es are contributing to production. The
company is also investigating technolo-
gies to overcome the challenges involved
with hydraulic fracturing in the middle
of the Arabian Desert. “We are experi-
menting with local sand and we’re doing
some research on water management,
testing, and trying to create a decent frac
fluid using sewage water, seawater, and
other fluids,” said Almomen.
He added that once the company
reaches the development phase, it will
continue work on driving down costs
and adopt factory-mode drilling tech-
niques pioneered by shale producers in
the US and Canada.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Enhancing Sand Strength for Fracturing Applications
Pam Boschee, Senior Manager, Magazines
Sustaining the fast economic growth in
Saudi Arabia requires a ramp up of the
gas supply. A strategic objective of Saudi
Aramco is exploring and developing deep
and unconventional gas reservoirs, many
of which are considered extremely tight.
These formations need hydraulic fractur-
ing to allow the hydrocarbons to be effi-
ciently produced. Unlike in North Amer-
ica, the infrastructure to commoditize
the drilling and production processes is
immature in Saudi Arabia. Therefore,
many cost-reduction measures have to be
exhausted, especially on materials. Prop-
pant is the main material used in frac-
turing and, therefore, reducing its cost
affects greatly the economics of any frac-
turing operation.
Although the country has abundant
natural sand resources, the strength of
the sand is insufficient to withstand clo-
sure stress in most of the gas reser-
voirs. New technology can enhance the
local sand strength to make it deployable
in deep formations with closure stress
greater than 10,000 psi.
The company is developing new tech-
nologies to further maximize the eco-
nomics of hydrocarbon resources and
to promote growth of the domestic eco-
nomic potential by becoming a potential
exporter of upstream oil and gas tech-
nologies and products. With increasing
hydraulic fracturing activities in the coun-
try, Saudi Aramco is carrying out mul-
tiple hydraulic fracturing research and
TABLE 1—PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS
Saudi Sand Pile
Cemented by
Parameters Chemical
Unconfined
compressive 2,900 psi
strength
Channel
conductivity at
10,000 md* ft
12,000-psi closure
stress, 300°F
*md is millidarcy
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Natural Saudi sand. Photos courtesy
of Saudi Aramco.
development programs in its upstream
Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC).
One of the most important initiatives is to
enable fracturing with Saudi local sand.
A short-term solution is to integrate
the local sand in a pillar fracturing tech-
nique. The pillar fracturing creates aggre-
gated and competent sand piles. Among
the sand piles are open channels to allow
hydrocarbons to flow freely into the well-
bore. Pillar fracturing design provides
the benefit of rapid fracture cleanup and,
therefore, maximizes initial production
rates as well as long-term sustained pro-
ductivity. Various chemical and physical
means are being investigated to stabi-
lize the aggregated sand piles so that the
fracture propping pattern is sustained
over the life span of a well. The goal is to
properly use this low-cost resource with
sound engineering practices to achieve a
cost-effective fracturing technique.
Commercial Conventional
High-Strength Nonpillar
Proppant Pack Using
Cemented by the High-Strength
Same Chemical Proppant
2,800 psi — begin in early 2016. The cost of the prop-
8,500 md ft 400 md ft
Saudi sand coated with resin.
The mid-term solution is to develop
new materials to coat the sand grains
so that the actual strength of each
individual sand grain is significantly
increased. This will broaden the range
of the applicability of the Saudi local
sand to fracturing treatment designs by
allowing the use of the local sand in
conventional proppant packing pattern
instead of being limited to the pillar
fracturing techniques.
EXPEC ARC’s unconventional re-
sources department and a technology
collaborator have worked together in
defining R&D protocol and performing
lab tests on the pillar fracturing technol-
ogy with Saudi local sand. The lab test-
ing showed that pillars created by Saudi
sand and a chemical agent can withstand
closure stress greater than 12,000  psi.
Parallel testing using commercial high-
strength proppants indicated compara-
ble performance. The effluent contained
nearly no fines nor crushed particles,
and the conductivity remained near infi-
nite, indicating the flow channels are
propped open effectively even at very
high closure stress. Table 1 illustrates
the performance of the material.
Saudi Aramco is planning field trials to
pant material in fracturing is expected
to be reduced by at least 50% using this
technology combined with Saudi local
sand. The next phase of development
is to find low-cost chemical means to
enhance the sand grain strength.
29
 Competing Companies Building Robots to Place Receivers
Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor
Autonomous Robotics’ first offering is
built around a rounded yellow device
that looks like a little flying saucer. It is
more of a seismic saucer because it is
designed by the UK startup to “fly” from
a drop-off point in the water to a desig-
nated spot on the seabed, where it will
record seismic data until it is ordered
to return.
The company was one of two firms
displaying flying nodes under develop-
ment at the recent Society of Explo-
ration Geophysicists (SEG) annu-
al meeting in New Orleans. The other
was Seabed Geosolutions, which has
been working with Saudi Aramco since
2012 to develop a flying node called
Spice Rack.
At the SEG meeting, Seabed presented
a new version of its self-propelled node
at its exhibit booth. An animated video
showed its flying nodes being released
from a basket lowered into the water by a
remotely operated vehicle (ROV). A com-
pany representative said it was work-
ing with Saudi Aramco on an update for
the project.
While most offshore seismic ser-
vice sectors are in a deep slump, node
demand is relatively stable because the
technology is most often used for cre-
ating high-quality surveys in producing
fields, said John Moses, a regional sales
director for Seabed.
While ropes can be used to place
nodes in water depths to 1000 m, ROVs
are needed for accurate placement at
greater depths, he said. ROVs are pre-
cise, which is required for repeated sur-
veys over time showing field changes.
But the cost of using them limits the size
and density of the arrays placed, reduc-
ing the kinds of work that can be done
and the quality of the output.
Developers of self-propelled nodes are
out to lower the placement cost in deep
water. Autonomous Robotics believes
its self-propelled nodes are 10 times
faster than ROV-placed nodes, said Dave
Grant, chief executive officer of Autono-
mous Robotics, with up to 1,200 nodes
30
The seismic receiver node made by Autonomous Robotics is propelled by two
thrusters as shown at the right and left sides. A third thruster, which is about
the size of a round of cheese, is located in the middle of the node and is used
to help lift the node from the bottom after recording seismic data in water
depths to 3000 m. Photo courtesy of Autonomous Robotics.
placed a day compared with a high esti- shallower depths where less power is
mate of 100 per day using an ROV. required in transit, Holloway said.
“For ROV-deployed nodes, as you Autonomous Robotics is currently in
increase the density, the cost of a survey the process of building a prototype of
escalates because of the limited pace of its flying node, Grant said. That is the
deployment. The cost goes up much less centerpiece of an automated operation.
rapidly with flying nodes,” said Arran The company’s modular system that can
Holloway, engineering manager for be installed on an offshore work ves-
Autonomous Robotics. sel, such as an ROV handler, includes
The precision of the placement an automated handling system that will
is expected to be as good as an ROV move the nodes to and from storage
because the navigation system used for racks to stations where they are cleaned,
the autonomous flying nodes is the ultra- charged and the data downloaded, and
short baseline (USBL) method used for also to the cages used to lower them into
ROVs, with modifications expanding the the water.
number of devices it can control. The company’s vision of robotic off-
The nodes from Autonomous Robot- shore operations is generally based on
ics will combine an internal navigation building blocks that are now in use. “A
system with course corrections from two lot of the technology is used for slightly
moving vessels, the main node vessel different purposes offshore,” Holloway
and a smaller autonomous surface vessel said. That includes the material cover-
that stays in contact with the nodes as ing the outside of the saucer, the small
the main vessel moves out of range. thrusters, the navigation system, and
Autonomous Robotics will use heave- software used for placement.
compensated launch and recovery sys- Each of the saucers has three thrust-
tems to lower cages full of its saucers to ers, two aimed horizontally on the sides
below the turbulence of the surf zone. propelling it forward, and a third verti-
At their maximum depth of 3000 m, the cal one near one end helps peel it off the
nodes are expected to be able to remain bottom when it is time to return and to
in place 60 days, and likely longer at adjust its glide angle.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Flow Sensor Technology Seeks to Replace the Coriolis Meter
Trent Jacobs, JPT Senior Technology Writer
Australian technology developer MezurX
is touting its newly introduced flow,
density, and mud monitoring system
as a significantly better alternative to
the widely used Coriolis meter. Using
an advanced set of sensors, the X-Ome-
ga provides real-time information
that can be used on rigs for early kick
detection and managed pressure drill-
ing (MPD).
Bruce Henderson, president and
CEO of MezurX, claims the technology
involves “a completely different way of
measuring density and flow” while offer-
ing more reliability and a smaller foot-
print than Coriolis-based systems.
And despite the current price envi-
ronment, Henderson said several ser-
vice companies and offshore operators
are showing interest in the X-Omega sys-
tem and work has already been award-
ed. “It’s an interesting time for us,” he
said. “I think that during a downturn in
the industry, new technology is always
attractive to keep costs down and make
things more efficient.”
4402 mm
(173.3 in.)
X-Omega 12 in.
The X-Omega needs less than a third of the head space to be installed on an
offshore rig compared with a Coriolis meter. Graphic courtesy of MezurX.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
The company behind the development of the X-Omega is hoping to disrupt the
world of flow monitoring technologies by offering a more reliable and smaller
system. Photo courtesy of MezurX.
MezurX is listed on Chevron’s website
as one of several firms the oil and gas
major is funding through its venture cap-
ital division to promote the development
of emerging upstream technologies.
The X-Omega was created by integrat-
ing the company’s proven flowmeter and
pressure sensor technologies, along with
software to interpret the data.
As drilling mud enters the system
through a return flowline, the fluids are
first measured by a density module that
1266 mm
(49.9 in.)
4382 mm
(172.5 in.)
Original
Coriolis+spools
contains a pressure sensor, then a wedge-
meter analyzes the flow velocity, and a
second density module on the back end
takes another pressure measurement.
This simultaneous measurement of two
parameters delivers real-time flow data
required for MPD operations, as well as
early kick detection, and reduces non-
productive time.
Coriolis meters used on offshore rigs
typically require height clearance of
about 14 ft vs. the 4 ft needed to install
the X-Omega. The modularity aspect of
the X-Omega system means it can be con-
figured horizontally, vertically, or at right
angles to address rig design. One benefit
of this nearly-in-line capability is that the
pressure drop in an X-Omega meter is
about 35% less than a Coriolis meter of
equivalent capacity because the internal
passageways of the X-Omega have a larg-
er diameter and have less obstruction,
Henderson said.
The new system has yet to be used in
the field, but Henderson said the com-
pany’s confidence relies on the estab-
lished track record of its individual com-
ponents, which have been used on rigs
for various applications in identical drill-
ing environments. The flow sensor has
been used on offshore rigs to measure
both oil- and water-based drilling muds.
The pressure sensor technology has also
been used offshore for early kick detec-
tion and undergone extensive testing
at the company’s flow loop simulator in
Brisbane, Australia. JPT
31
 Offshore Seismic Feeling
Pressures to Change
Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor
S
eismic surveys are created using
bursts of acoustic energy that are
referred to as “marine sound, or
noise, depending on your perspective.”
With that thought, John Young, direc-
tor of the sound business line for CSA
Ocean Sciences, introduced a recent
panel discussion that included seismic
innovators working on new sound sourc-
es designed to produce better subsurface
images as well as scientists and regula-
tors concerned about the environmental
impact of that noise. At that session and
others at the recent annual meeting of
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists
(SEG), there was discussion about mul-
tiple ways to move away from the intense
pulses of acoustic energy produced by air
guns. The industry standard emits both
useful sound for seismic imaging and
higher-frequency noise that dissipates in
the ground.
One sign that this talk may lead to
alternatives to air guns for marine seis-
mic is a joint industry project by three
major oil companies backing a new gen-
eration of offshore seismic sound sources
designed to reduce noise and improve the
seismic signal.
Their goal is to “de-risk” vibrator
technology, said Mike Jenkerson, geo-
physical advisor for marine seismic
at ExxonMobil, who represented the
Marine Vibrator Joint Industry Project
(JIP) at the conference. The JIP managed
by Texas A&M University is supporting
development and testing to determine if
there is an alternative to air guns that is
effective and reliable even with a smaller
acoustic signal.
The signal is the critical difference
between sounds created using controlled
vibrations and air guns, which are called
impulsive sound sources and create loud,
sharp booms as a large volume of air is
emitted. Marine science and regulato-
ry experts on the SEG panel indicated
that research on the impact of subsea
32
noise on sea life is likely to gradually lead
to increasing limits on seismic surveys,
where noise regulation is already a costly
fact of life.
“A big concern is that regulators will
make it more difficult to use impulsive
sources in many areas,” said Rune Teng-
hamn, vice president geoscience and
engineering for PGS, which is one of
three companies chosen by the JIP to
develop an alternative. “This is the main
driver for using marine vibrators.”
Regulations, based on laws passed
decades ago when whales were the main
concern, are evolving to protect a grow-
ing range of marine life from outside
noise sources. The US National Ocean-
ic and Atmospheric Administration’s
(NOAA) regulations are based on multi-
ple mandates designed to protect marine
life and places such as fishing grounds.
Leila Hatch, a marine ecologist for Stell-
wagen Bank National Marine Sanctu-
ary, said the goal is to expand protection
“beyond species to an ecosystem level.”
The regulatory pressure is push-
ing new air gun designs that narrow the
sound frequencies emitted. They have
also inspired lower-intensity survey
ideas, such as the “popcorn method”
from BP. This approach could signifi-
cantly reduce the peak energy of air gun
arrays, which are normally fired in uni-
son, by setting each gun off in succession,
like corn popping.
Dolphin Geophysical supports an air
gun designed by the man who invent-
ed it, Stephen Chelminski, who says his
new design can send out more useful fre-
quencies with less environmental impact.
Shuki Ronen, external and collaborative
research manager for Dolphin Geophysi-
cal, said the seismic company is looking
for better seismic sources because, “We
do have regulators looking at us and ask-
ing what we are doing.”
“Noise does represent a 21st century
environmental problem,” Hatch said. Air
guns add to the noise from cruise ships,
freighters, and workboats, among other
things, in complex industrialized areas
of the ocean, said Hatch, who cochaired
the NOAA working group that developed
tools to map the many sources of under-
water noise created by human activity.
This long-term program to bet-
ter understand background noise in US
waters is not related to NOAA’s effort to
revise a key measure of the effect of noise
on the hearing ability of marine animals.
The noise study, though, is an example
of the growing number of large, wide-
areas data sets being created by envi-
ronmental researchers. Over time, more
data matter because permits are based
on detailed estimates of the number of
animals affected and the noise they expe-
rience. Different databases can lead to
different outcomes and new models for
determining the impact of noise during a
permit review.
The US Bureau of Ocean and Energy
Management (BOEM) is currently writ-
ing an environmental impact statement
covering seismic surveys in the Gulf of
Mexico and has asked NOAA to consider
rule changes based on that report. This is
likely to change the regulatory approach
taken in the Gulf of Mexico to align it
more with the Arctic and Atlantic oceans,
said Sarah Courbis, principal scientist at
Smultea Sciences, an environmental con-
sulting firm.
This may cause problems for some
companies seeking permits for wide-area
surveys. The method used to estimate
the number of animals affected by sound
could result in totals that appear high
based on standards permitting activi-
ty that has a “negligible impact” and
affects only “small numbers” of animals,
said Courbis.
“In large-scale seismic projects, small
numbers can be a confusing metric to
evaluate, and NOAA has had difficulty
with lawsuits associated with negligible
JPT • JANUARY 2016
impact findings in data-poor situations,”
Courbis said.
Sound sources with a smaller acoustic
signal might help reduce such concerns
as the industry moves to multiple sound
source surveys.
“The less sound in the environment,
the lower the number of marine mam-
mals that would be expected to be
harassed,” she said, adding that if the
number of animals affected proves to be
lower—which will need to be verified
when marine vibrators have been built—
that could make “it more likely that per-
mits can be issued.”

Multiple Options
Marine vibrator work goes back decades,
to sonar system projects, providing a
technical foundation for seismic system
development.
Tenghamn was among those working
on vibrators back in the 1980s, several
employers before he was hired by PGS.
A diagram explaining how the device
works, which appeared in a recent pre-
sentation, is nearly identical to one that
appeared in a PGS publication in 2005.
A big difference now is the PGS device is
one of three with development support
from the Marine Vibrator JIP.
The three companies that founded the
JIP in 2010 represent a critical element
that has been missing for those develop-
ing marine vibrators—customer demand
for an alternative to the air gun. The JIP
chose three companies to develop marine
vibrators: PGS; Applied Physical Science
(APS), which is part of aerospace and
defense company General Dynamics; and
Teledyne Webb Research. They were cho-
sen from among 36 initially contacted by
the JIP, which is managed by the Texas
A&M Engineering Experiment Station.
The APS and PGS devices use electro-
magnetic force to create sound by mov-
ing metal parts. The APS device activates
a piston that vibrates a metal endcap, and
the PGS device vibrates a spring that acti-
vates an outer shell. The Teledyne design
produces a controlled sound by com-
pressing an air bubble inside a cylinder.
While the devices vary in patent-
The signal created by an experimental marine vibrator creates a growing
protected ways, all use precise, elec- pattern of waves. The controlled acoustic energy from the device by Teledyne
tric control systems to create “coherent Webb Research appears to push the water up before gravity pulls it back.
sound.” The controlled output of a vibra- Photos courtesy of Teledyne Webb Research.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 33

 Electrical Coil
Flextensional

Spring Element Magnetic Circuit

Inside the PGS device (right) is a system where a magnetic coil vibrates a spring, activating an outer shell creating two
resonating sources of sound within a limited spectrum. Images courtesy of PGS.

tor can be crudely compared to a bass

speaker, while an air gun is like a big
bubble popping.
The word coherent is used to describe
lasers because the photons are direct-
ed into narrow beams. The output of a
coherent sound source is described by
Andrey Morozov, chief scientist for Tele-
dyne, as waves with a predictable, fixed-
phase relationship, and the signal spec-
trum as “clean, harmonic content.”
“The motivation is from the environ-
mental side. But I am not sure that is the
main strength,” he said during an SEG
presentation. “A coherent source can
change dramatically the quality of the
data. No matter how you design an air
gun, it cannot produce coherent sound.”
Vibrators reduce peak sound by deliv-
ering the same amount of energy an air
gun would emit in a millisecond, and
Housing spread it out over seconds. The JIP is
Permanent Magnets Stator Electrical Coils
requiring that devices emit an evenly
Rolling Element Seal distributed signal over bandwidth from
N N
5 Hz to 100 Hz. This would increase the
Drive Shaft Linear Bearing
S S
amount of signal at the bottom end of
the range, which is valued by geophysi-
u1 u2
Piston
cists for determining rock properties
Velocity
S S and imaging deep layers. Past 100 Hz,
N N Damped the JIP’s specifications require a rapid
Mechanical
drop in those higher-frequency sounds.
Piston Spring
The novel compressed bubble approach
was chosen by Teledyne because past
Armature
work suggested it was better suited to
I1 I2 Electrical current
producing ultra-lower frequency sound,
said Morozov.
Electromagnetic force is used to activate pistons positioned in the endcaps of The test of whether the devices can
the sound source made by Applied Physical Sciences, which calls it the Champ
System. A one-quarter size model is shown above. Images courtesy of Applied
deliver on their promise could begin
Physical Sciences. this year. “The JIP is showing progress

34 JPT • JANUARY 2016

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 The marine vibrator from Teledyne Webb Research is lowered into a test pool at the Woods Hole Oceanagraphic
Institution. The vibrator signal is produced by applying pressure to two gas bubbles in the rubber-covered resonators
at the ends of the device, producing a chirp sound. Photo courtesy of Teledyne Webb Research.

in meeting its objective of demonstrat-
ing the viability of the marine vibrator
technology,” Jenkerson said. The goal is
to complete the project in 3 to 4 years.
APS is moving toward testing a full-
scale model of its design. “A quarter-
scale model of our device has been suc-
cessfully demonstrated and a full-scale
version will be fabricated and test-
ed in 2016,” said Jim McConnell, APS’
chief engineer.
This competition is not designed to
pick a winner. The JIP hopes the effort
results in multiple competing marine
vibrators. Competition could help ensure
that there is a financially attractive alter-
native to air guns, which are relatively
inexpensive and reliable.
To ensure that marine vibrators
can stand up to hard use common on
a long seismic shoot, the JIP’s stan-
dards set a minimum service time be-
tween maintenance.
The three companies involved in the
JIP are not the only ones working on
new sound sources. Another made by
Geokinetics was recently tested in the
Gulf of Mexico. “We were very successful
at getting back all the energy intended
to put in the ground, so it was working,”
said Bill Pramik, vice president of acqui-
sition technology at Geokinetics.
Full-scale survey work will require
arrays of 10 or more units that fit into
current survey systems. “I doubt anyone
(developing a marine vibrator) will have
an array ready in 2 years,” he said.
The tests in US waters require a per-
mit under rules for new and unusu-
al technology, said Chad Vaughan, a
BOEM geologist. He said the permit is
commonly referred to using the acro-
nym: a NUT. Despite the acronym,
Pramik said the agency is supportive,
and the permitting process is not much
more difficult than that required for a
traditional survey.
Less Impact
Before launching the marine vibrator
project, the JIP commissioned an exten-
sive environmental review to see if a
vibrator would present less risk than an
air gun. It was done by the E&P Sound
and Marine Life Program, whose 100
backers include the companies in the
Marine Vibrator JIP.
The program’s 2011 study, based on
information available at the time, con-
cluded that lower peak volume and con-
trolled signals “should, in most respects,
have less environmental impact than sur-
veys using air gun arrays.”

36 JPT • JANUARY 2016

 But the coauthor of the study, Bill Elli-
son, chief scientist for Marine Acoustics,
pointed out the available data did not
include field testing because no one has
created an array capable of producing
the sound needed for a test simulating a
seismic survey.
The lower sound intensity of a marine
vibrator is expected to be less like-
ly to startle marine animals or damage
their hearing.
Significantly reducing the intensity of
the sound above 100 Hz limits the num-
ber of animals that are thought to hear
and communicate in that range. Those in
that large category include whales with
teeth, such as sperm whales, and dol-
phins, as well as many fish and inver-
tebrates. There are exceptions. Some
baleen whales, whose food is collected
in a strainer-like mouth, are sensitive to
sounds in the lower frequencies used for
seismic—though only one species, the
Bryde’s whale, is rarely found in the Gulf
of Mexico.
There is no final answer to the ques-
tions created by seismic noise reg-
ulations. The system now uses data
from laws written decades ago to pro-
tect whales and other large mam-
mals. Over time, the underlying law
and science have gradually evolved. It
is a slow process that ultimately will
reflect a more detailed, complex view
of ocean noise and its impact on the
marine ecosystem.
“NOAA regulations are evolving,” Cour-
bis said. “There is always new science.”
During the SEG panel discussions, it
was pointed out that the sounds emitted
by vibrators may also cause problems.
“The potential impact of marine vibra-
tors is unknown. I cannot tell if impact is
negative or positive,” said Gerrit Blacqui-
ere, a senior research scientist at Delft
University of Technology. He pointed out
that vibrating sound sources reduce the
peak energy by spreading the signal over
a longer period, but that may not help if
the animals are affected by the cumula-
tive energy.
“It will be imperative that industry
model and test the output of this technol-
ogy in order to scientifically support the
technology as a less impactful alternative
to air gun arrays,” Courbis said.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Marine Vibrator Joint
Industry Project
Members: ExxonMobil, Shell, Total
Goal: Develop and test multiple marine vibrators with a goal of proving it
is a viable sound source.
Management: Texas A&M University
Outreach: 36 companies contacted and 19 asked for information
Companies Chosen: Applied Physical Sciences, PGS, Teledyne Webb
Research
Status: The next step is building full-scale prototypes for testing, which
could occur in 2016.
Vibrator Specifications
Output: From 10–100 Hz: 200 decibels (dB) re: 1 µPa/Hz at 1 m
From 5–10 Hz: 190 dB re: 1 µPa/Hz at 1 m
Noise reduction: Rapid reduction in output above 100 Hz, dropping by
40 Hz at 150 Hz
Durability: 72 sweep hours between minor maintenance
720 hours between pulling in and switching out the vibrators
Applications: Built for offshore service in towed and stationary modes
Able to operate in shallow water where air guns do not
While the hum of the seconds-long associate professor of conservation
signal of a vibrator may interfere with technology in the engineering school at
communication or mask environmental Duke University.
sounds used to sense danger or find food, A recent test of a marine vibrator
the problem is not unique to vibrators. in the Gulf of Mexico by Geokinetics
The lower-frequency sounds created by involved towing the company’s proto-
an air gun shot travel a long way and con- type unit on a catamaran behind a boat
tribute “to the more chronic ‘hum’ under equipped to power it. When the vibrator
water,” Hatch said. The control offered was shut down, a pod of marine mam-
by marine vibrators could offer an oppor- mals approached the device. Pramik said,
tunity to better balance environmental “I think they wanted to find out why
concerns and industry needs. it stopped.”
Measuring whether a whale is both- As scientific research adds to the list
ered by a particular sound is compli- of possible problems caused by marine
cated by the inconsistent reactions of noise, the industry is moving toward
intelligent creatures, whose movements survey methods using multiple sound
and motivations are hard to observe and sources for more shots per day. Onshore,
understand. There are various theories as where vibrators are the standard seis-
to why dolphins are often seen swimming mic source, surveys using as many as
behind seismic survey boats. But the sort 10 onshore vibe trucks can multiply the
of test done to judge what humans hear number of shots per day. The result is
and if a loud sound causes temporary or better surveys done in fewer days.
permanent deafness cannot be done on “As soon as we get marine vibrators,
animals in the wild, Courbis said. when we go to lots and lots of (sound)
“We need to design good experiments sources, that will raise environmental
that are sensitive to what we want to issues,” said Ray Abma, a senior research
measure,” said Douglas Nowacek, an geophysicist at BP. JPT
37
 TECHNICAL DIRECTORS OUTLOOK
Doing Better in Bad Times
Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor
The oil bust is forcing change, which
is often difficult and sometimes for
the better.
Another major round of layoffs hit
exploration and production workers late
last year, as companies came to the pain-
ful conclusion that a recovery is not com-
ing any time soon. The cost pressures
behind those cuts are also a force for more
positive changes in the industry, such as
simplified project designs, revised com-
pletion designs, and the application of
unconventional innovations to conven-
tional exploration and production.
The seven technical directors on the
SPE Board of Directors are concerned
about the long-term impact of this
wrenching period. They addressed the
issue during a panel discussion on “Man-
aging the Future Impact of Current Cost
Cutting” at the 2015 SPE Annual Tech-
nical Conference and Exhibition. And it
was on their minds as they talked about
the industry’s future for this article.
One danger they cite is that money
saved now by reducing the number of
experienced petroleum engineers could
have financial consequences later in the
form of more expensive wells that are
less productive, or shortages of skilled
professionals.
“It is very hard for any professional in
the industry to lose his or her job,” said
J.C. Cunha, SPE’s technical director for
Management and Information, adding,
“These people are capable of doing a lot
of other things. They will not sit and wait
2 to 3 years when the industry begins to
look for them.”
The industry is cutting expenses, but
lasting productivity will depend on how
it measures costs. “We have to make
sure that the drive to cut costs doesn’t
impact the cost-effectiveness of wells,”
38
“It is very hard for any
professional in the industry
to lose his or her job,” said
J.C. Cunha, SPE’s technical
director for Management
and Information, adding,
“These people are capable
of doing a lot of other
things. They will not sit
and wait 2 to 3 years when
the industry begins to look
for them.”
said David Curry, the technical director
representing Drilling and Completions.
Rather than focusing on the number of
days it takes to drill, the industry should
design and build wells to maximize prof-
itable output.
“We need to have closer alignment of
everyone making the wells,” he said. “We
are still not consistently at a point where
all the contracts around well construction
encourage and reward that cooperation.”
The number of college graduates being
hired by oil and gas firms is down at a
time when enrollment in many petro-
leum engineering programs is still near
record levels. The days have passed when
a petroleum engineering degree prom-
ised a high-paying job. Dan Hill, the
director for Academia, said graduates
now have to adjust to find work.
“We are telling students that the easy
times are over,” he said. “You have to
work at it to get a job, like students in any
other discipline. You will need to knock
on doors, be willing to go to geographic
locations that were not your first choice,
and maybe take a sub-engineering posi-
tion to get started.”
One piece of advice offered to gradu-
ates, as well as professionals in the field, is
that they should not limit their options by
sticking to one category, such as uncon-
ventional engineering, said Tom Blasin-
game, the technical director for Reservoir
Description and Dynamics. For exam-
ple, innovations used in unconventional
developments could be valuable for com-
panies developing conventional fields.
“There will be a critical need for those
who can cross-pollinate ideas, concepts,
and practices across the different reser-
voir domains,” he said.
There is also powerful economic moti-
vation for completion engineers to stop
and take a look at their current meth-
ods, and for operators to scale back com-
plex project designs. The goal needs to
be “a design that is as simple as it can be
that accomplishes your objective,” said
Howard Duhon, the director for Projects,
Facilities, and Construction.
In this period, faster information
uptake is a competitive necessity for pro-
fessionals in this business. “A lot of them
are losing jobs and want to get rehired.
A lot want to improve their skills so they
will be more valuable to their company,”
said Jennifer Miskimins, the director for
Production and Operations.
The downturn has affected many of
SPE’s member volunteers. Budgets for
training, travel, and conferences are lim-
ited, and job cuts have hit some sec-
tors hard. Those with jobs are busier
and have had more demands placed on
them, cutting their time to volunteer.
“But some people have been laid off and
are volunteering (more). They are step-
ping up because they have more time
JPT • JANUARY 2016
and want to stay connected,” said Trey
Shaffer, technical director for Health,
Safety, Security, Environment, and
Social Responsibility.
J.C. Cunha,
SPE Technical Director,
Management and Information
More job cuts hit
exploration and
production opera-
tions late last year
as operators and
service companies
reduced costs for
what looks like a long
downturn in oil and gas prices. Cunha
said he understands the short-term finan-
cial pressure, but based on the cost of
talent lost during past downturns, “we
should be a little smarter.”
“When you do these layoffs, you lose
expertise that takes years to produce,” he
said. “Later on, when the industry gets on
its feet again and it wants to get that exper-
tise, a lot of times it will no longer be there.”
Cunha’s comments are based on his
experience during the downturn that
stretched from the early 1980s until early
this century. During that period, fewer
college graduates were hired, leading to
a workforce where most exploration pro-
fessionals are either near retirement age
or early in their careers, and companies
have again slowed college hiring.
This downturn could accelerate the
generational change in the industry. But
a rapid shift to younger workers would
require more training and experience,
both of which are in short supply. Deep
cuts have slashed spending for training.
Cunha spoke to one training company
operator who said his business was off
80%. Reducing training at a time when
workers are being asked to do more, and
do it better, adds risks, he said.
When asked if it is possible to accel-
erate the development of key technical
leaders, Cunha responded, “Do you know
how long it takes for an engineer to get 10
years of experience? It takes 10 years.”
While he recognizes that career paths
are not as absolute as that quip, there is a
limit to how fast even the brightest hires
can acquire experience and expertise.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Another worry is large reductions in
research and development budgets at ser-
vice companies, which have been cradles
of innovation.
The risk in all of this is that, 5 years
from now, a company might be spending
USD 100 million more for a deepwater
well “because it does not have the right
people or has not developed the right
tools,” Cunha said.
Jennifer Miskimins,
SPE Technical Director,
Production and Operations
As exploration and
production has
slowed, those still
with jobs in drill-
ing and comple-
tions are trying to
find ways for their
companies to drill fewer
wells without producing less oil. Finan-
cial pressures demand rethinking well-
established systems.
“People are stepping back” and recon-
sidering how things are done, said Mis-
kimins, who is a completion consultant
for Barree & Associates. “We get requests
from companies: ‘We are shut down
through the end of the year. We are going
to pick up in February or April. What can
we do differently? What can we learn?’”
One thing to consider is whether less is
just as good as more. She has been involved
in studies based on completions data from
operators using meter-by-meter data gath-
ered using fiber-optic cable. Often when a
tightly spaced series of spots is fractured in
a stage, many will not produce. That may
be because of the stress created in the area
by fractures so close to each other.
“We are getting one contributing frac-
ture out of three or four in a cluster. How
can we fix that? How can we do it more
efficiently down the road?” she asked.
Fixing that within a company requires
convincing field operations teams that
they should break from what was working
when oil and gas prices were higher. And
there are wide divides in how things are
done among completion companies devel-
oping similar formations.
Sometimes engineers follow differ-
ent paths because they are not all look-
ing at the same sort of data. Fiber-optic
monitoring is a powerful analytical too,
but the cost—about USD 1 million plus
the people, equipment, and software to
interpret it—limits its use.
There is a lot more data being employed
by companies to find drilling sweet spots
and, in this economic climate, Miskimins
sees more sharing as pressure increases
to optimize assets.
“The industry is past the point of a land
rush where everybody is working on leas-
ing” and not wanting to reveal their plans,
Miskimins said, adding, “Now there are
people with established positions starting
to share data more so than in the past.”
Howard Duhon,
SPE Technical Director, Projects,
Facilities, and Construction
When Duhon joined the
SPE Board of Direc-
tors, oil was selling
for USD  100/bbl.
The industry’s focus
was on producing
more oil at almost
any cost. Projects be-
came more and more complex, as did
the organizations designing and building
them. Now with oil selling for less than
half as much, the cost and time added by
complex designs and organizations is a
pressing issue.
“There is a focus on doing things more
inexpensively on several fronts,” said
Duhon. This requires rethinking how
projects are designed and built, in part
to reduce the cost of complexity. One
major oil company is developing a new
deepwater discovery by copying a simple
design and fast-tracking it. “I am not sure
they would have gone that route when oil
was USD 100/bbl,” Duhon said.
To better understand how complex-
ity magnified the time and cost of mega-
projects, Duhon created an SPE Work
Study Team to examine the problem. Low
prices have made addressing complexity
an industrywide concern.
“There is some inherent complexity. It
is complex business, a complex environ-
ment, and we will never have simple proj-
ects,” he said. But the industry needs to
reconsider how it designs and manages
39
 construction projects to make them “as
simple as it can be and still accomplish
the objectives.”
While the oil industry is inherently
global, spreading a project over multiple
time zones to tap experts and lower-cost
labor in distant places comes at a cost.
“Engineering is now frequently being
done on four different continents and
with many more subject matter experts,”
Duhon said. “It is hard to get decisions
made, it is hard to know who gets to
make decisions, and we have important
decisions being made by MBAs who have
never been on a platform,” he said.
Part of the problem is the steady addi-
tion of engineering studies, which are
often poorly integrated into design work.
Often these are safety reviews of what
is considered the completed design that
add complexity by creating late changes
and out-of-sequence work. One goal of
the complexity study is to consider how
to better integrate safety studies into
the design effort. Another is to look at
a project that was done 20 to 30 years
ago, and compare its deliverables and
management with a current project to
understand why cost increases have out-
stripped the general inflation rate.
“That certainly resonates now, and will
hopefully resonate when the price of oil is
back up to USD 100/bbl,” he said.
Tom Blasingame,
SPE Technical Director, Reservoir
Description and Dynamics
Blasingame sees the
lines between uncon-
ventional and con-
ventional reservoir
technologies blur-
ring, and then dis-
appearing. Methods
developed to extract
oil and gas from a virtually imperme-
able source rock can be extended to
more profitably develop marginal, near-
conventional reservoirs that would not
have been considered for development
20 years ago. New approaches can also be
used to get more out of high-quality con-
ventional reservoirs.
“We will be able to deploy reservoir
characterization and reservoir stimula-
40
tion methods from unconventional reser-
voirs that will substantially improve our
understanding as well as the reservoir
performance of such ‘conventional’ res-
ervoir systems,” he said.
Cross-pollination of ideas is a technical
opportunity and an economic necessity.
“We are working at the molecular
level on the problems related to uncon-
ventional reservoirs and it has to have
an effect across the board for conven-
tional and near-conventional reservoirs
as well,” Blasingame said. “Work at the
nano-scale to the operational domain of
oil and gas production will significantly
improve our ability to model and opti-
mize well and reservoir performance for
all reservoirs.”
Those skills are valuable in this time
of low prices as investor-owned oil com-
panies seek reservoirs with better rock
that has more production potential at a
lower cost. Increasingly, unconventional
reservoirs will be competing for limited
development dollars with conventional
and near-conventional reservoirs.
Low prices are challenging the limits
of technology, services, and operational
practices for unconventional reservoirs.
The effort has taken a toll on many of
those still working to eke out profits from
difficult reservoirs.
“I think people have unconventional
fatigue,” he said, explaining that “the speed
and breadth of change and the steepness
of the knowledge curve have really chal-
lenged many people and companies.”
In this brutal job market those who
have mastered the physics and chemistry
of unconventional reservoir systems will
have gained a unique edge in the form of
a fundamental understanding of all res-
ervoir systems.
“I have been advising people who want
to work on unconventional reservoir sys-
tems to think about using such skills to
move between unconventional, conven-
tional, and deepwater reservoir systems,”
Blasingame said. “Individual engineers
will have to manage their careers through
continuous education as well as deepen-
ing and sharpening their skills.
“The current downturn has provided
an opportunity to focus on both the sci-
ence and the practice of well and reservoir
performance in unconventional reser-
voirs, but many, many questions remain,”
he said. “Frankly, people need time to
think about how to adjust their priorities
to the realities of unconventional reser-
voir systems. Just focusing on operations
and production is no longer sufficient.”
Blasingame’s objective is to ensure that
advances in reservoir description and
dynamics have a broader impact, touch-
ing areas ranging from conventional and
deepwater development to operations
and logistics.
“I want to engage with anyone who has
an interest and aptitude to help build a
framework within SPE to establish the
role of reservoir description and dynam-
ics as a central theme in reservoir devel-
opment, management, and exploitation,”
he said.
Trey Shaffer,
SPE Technical Director, Health,
Safety, Security, Environment,
and Social Responsibility
The importance of con-
sidering the impact
of a project beyond
the fence line is a
priority for Shaf-
fer. The aim is to
make managers see
that success requires
more than achieving technical goals.
“Sustainability and social interaction
are some of the most difficult things to
address for our engineers,” said Shaffer.
Digital tools are being employed to
expand the reach of the HSE technical
discipline. Using USD 50,000 in grants
from Schlumberger and the SPE Founda-
tion, Shaffer is spearheading an effort to
produce a series of compelling video pre-
sentations, called SPE PetroTalks, which
will offer presentations by experts in
sustainable business methods and posi-
tive social interaction programs.
The discipline also has begun holding
virtual workshops with online participa-
tion that reached more than 500 mem-
bers this year. The first virtual workshop
discussed reducing workplace injuries
and fatalities. The meeting drew 75 per-
sons in Kuala Lumpur, and another 100
online from places as far away as Russia
and the United States. Remote partici-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
pants were able to comment and vote on
questions raised during the “Getting to
Zero” workshop discussion.
“The topic, Getting to Zero, looms large
because over the past decade the number
of on-the-job deaths in this industry has
been unacceptable,” Shaffer said.
To improve safety systems, SPE has
been working with the US Bureau of Safe-
ty and Environmental Enforcement and
the Center for Offshore Safety to create
a near-miss reporting system. The long-
term effort has led to a summit planned
for 2016 on how best to gather data on
near misses in offshore operations and
apply what has been learned to reduce
risks on the job.
“The goal of that collaboration is to
look at determining how offshore opera-
tors in the Gulf of Mexico can begin to
voluntarily share near-miss data that are
related to safety,” Shaffer said. “Having
quality data could reveal trends and issues
to help the industry operate more safely.”
The meeting should result in a tech-
nical report, and Shaffer is hoping that
gathering new data leads to lasting
changes. “We have to be careful not to
get trapped in the mode of data for data’s
sake,” he said. The data need to be used
to review operations because “a lot of
time the behavior of people is at the
heart of the problem,” he added.
David Curry,
SPE Technical Director, Drilling
and Completions
Factory-mode drilling
can slash the time
needed to build a
well. Whenever it
is mentioned, the
industry thinks
of many identical
wells. But Curry says it
is time to revise the model based on mod-
ern mass-production methods.
To succeed, automakers and oil com-
panies need to employ manufacturing
systems that balance cost, quality, and
design. The totally standardized assem-
bly line literally went out with the Ford
Model T. The low-cost cars that were sold
only in black were a huge success until cus-
tomers turned to more appealing mod-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
els from competitors offering options on
their mass-produced machines.
Now the auto plant making the Mini
Cooper line near Oxford in the UK is
able to mass-produce cars with so many
options that they are unlikely to make
two that are identical. All those differ-
ent vehicles are made on the same pro-
duction line. The plant epitomizes the
auto industry’s trend of flexible manu-
facturing, which mixes standardization
and customization, requiring both well-
trained workers and automation.
Curry sees some companies using
analogous advanced well-manufacturing
approaches as a way to reduce costs.
“They are combining standardized
well types, modular completion compo-
nents, and a clearly structured decision-
making process,” he said. This allows the
completion design to be finalized in more
or less real time based on the environ-
ment encountered while drilling.
Designs with the flexibility to adapt
to changing downhole conditions and
functional demands as a well ages could
reduce its lifetime cost.
It may seem odd to raise questions
about short supplies in the future during
a period of massive overproduction. But
the International Energy Agency reports
that the current global oil surplus is a rel-
atively slim 1.5 million B/D, and global
demand growth should outpace oil pro-
duction growth this year. While prices
may not rise, inevitably more drilling will
be needed to fill the gap as production
from current wells declines.
Large-scale staff reductions and early
retirements will have thinned the pool
of skilled drillers. More automated drill-
ing operations could help compensate
for that, but the industry has to make the
investment in automation now to ensure
it will be there when needed.
“If we are not careful, we will not be
able to safely and efficiently build the
wells needed to deliver the amount of
hydrocarbons the world will need 5 or 10
years from now,” Curry said.
Dan Hill,
SPE Technical Director, Academia
Petroleum engineering schools too often
lack the real-world well data needed
to prepare students for a competitive
job market. It was a common theme
heard by Hill when he visited petro-
leum engineering departments over the
past year.
“They all use data from wells and res-
ervoirs in their courses and research,” he
said. The schools need actual well logs,
production data, and core descriptions
and “some programs have a lot of diffi-
culty coming up with this sort of thing.”
Often the data on hand are limited
to formations found near the university
so students may become familiar with
permeable sandstone but lack
any data from a shale
play. The goal is to
create a central
online reposito-
ry of shared data
administered by
SPE. To begin with,
Hill, the petroleum
engineering department head at Texas
A&M University, said the school would
offer its data sets on the Gulf of Mexico
and unconventionals.
Hill is also seeking data donations
from companies. To protect proprietary
information, data that could identify a
particular field can be removed. Data
from older fields that are no longer criti-
cal assets can be valuable to students.
Over the next year, SPE’s Educa-
tion and Accreditation Committee has
been asked to turn this idea into a real-
ity. He said SPE is the logical choice to
create this online resource because it
has so many connections in academia
and industry. “To me it is the obvi-
ous organization to do something that
will benefit students around the world,”
Hill said.
More field data are needed because a
common part of most petroleum engi-
neering programs is the senior project,
which tests a student’s ability to do an in-
depth analysis. The quality of the work
and the presentation can have an impact
on a student’s job prospects because
industry people often attend.
“It requires students to bring together
everything they have learned. It is much
more meaningful when a project is done
with actual data,” Hill said. “If anyone can
help with a data set, contact me.” JPT
41
 Innovative Developments in Caspian
Republics’ Oil and Gas Production
Chris Carpenter, JPT Technology Editor
T he past decade has seen the Caspian
Sea region come into its own as one
of the world’s most important frontiers
in oil and gas production. Though it saw
some of the first oil-producing wells of
the modern era, the region’s importance
to the global industry—if not to the Sovi-
et Union, which long constituted most of
its shoreline—waned as the Middle East
took center stage. But with exploration
and production (E&P) efforts expanding,
geopolitical realities changing, and tech-
nology bounding forward, the Caspian
has again moved into the spotlight.
42
Along with the Russian Federation
and the Islamic Republic of Iran, three
Central Asian republics—Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan—share
the Caspian’s extensive shoreline and,
to varying degrees, its enormous poten-
tial for oil and gas production. All three
republics are in the midst of intensive
efforts to underpin their developing
economies by increased exploitation of
massive reserves.
Boundary and rights disputes among
the neighbors over Caspian waters are
common, and often greatly complicate
A tanker is loaded from
Turkmenistan’s Aladja jetty.
Photo courtesy of
Dragon Oil.
investment opportunities. Azerbaijan’s
oil reserves are estimated to be approxi-
mately 7 billion bbl, with gas reserves of
35 Tcf; Kazakhstan’s oil and gas reserves
both rank well within the world’s top 20,
at 30 billion bbl and 1.5 Tcm, respectively;
and Turkmenistan’s gigantic gas reserves
are among the world’s largest at 17.5 Tcm.
In their third decade of full indepen-
dence, all three nations have encountered
challenges in contacting, producing, and
exporting their impressive resources.
Some of these challenges, such as strug-
gles with creating an efficient infrastruc-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
ture and a skilled domestic labor force,
are endemic to emerging nations, while
others are particular to the broad range of
climactic and environmental conditions
that encircle the world’s largest enclosed
inland body of water. As the three young
republics search for the best way to solid-
ify economic and geopolitical identities
as stable industry producers, a prolifera-
tion of companies has established a pres-
ence both on- and offshore. Most Caspi-
an oil production currently comes from
onshore fields, but offshore production
is viewed as the primary target of future
development. The goal now is to success-
fully expand and nurture these economic
identities while best serving the world’s
energy needs in a period of uncertainty.
Two recent SPE conferences brought
together industry professionals in an
effort to better understand the region’s
geophysical and economic complexi-
ties. The first of these, the SPE Russian
Petroleum Technology Conference, ran
from 26–28 October in Moscow’s Info-
Space venue. The conference, held annu-
ally since 2006, provided attendees a
unique opportunity to share experience
and ideas in a noncompetitive environ-
ment, and a chance to establish business
contacts both with domestic and interna-
tional companies. More than 170 papers
were submitted in both English and Rus-
sian, with the 22 technical sessions cov-
ering a wide range of topics important to
E&P in Russia and Asia in general; many
of these papers concentrated on fields
and facilities in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
and Turkmenistan. In addition to paper
and panel presentations, 12 ePoster ses-
sions were held.
The second regional conference, the
SPE Annual Caspian Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition (CTCE), followed last
year’s successful inaugural meeting in
Kazakhstan. The 2015 meeting was held
from 4–6 November in Azerbaijan’s cap-
ital of Baku, and was attended by more
than 500 professionals. Conference co-
chairs were Khoshbakht Yusifzadeh of
the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan
Republic (SOCAR) and Martyn Smith of
BP. More than 50 papers were submitted
in both English and Russian. Twelve tech-
nical sessions across the program focused
on the issues faced by the E&P indus-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Kazakhstan’s Bolashak oil and gas processing plant. Photo courtesy of North
Caspian Operating Company.
try in Azerbaijan and the broader Caspi-
an region. Thirty-six oral papers and 25
posters were presented, covering drill-
ing and completions; reservoir descrip-
tion and dynamics; projects, facilities,
and construction; production and opera-
tions; health, safety, and environmental
and social responsibility; and data man-
agement and information. Panel sessions
featured both decision-making person-
nel in the private sector and regional gov-
ernment representatives, who clarified
and discussed the relationships that must
develop between the two spheres. The
conference also offered training courses
on advanced completion techniques and
sand control.
The scope and number of SPE papers
presented at both conferences make clear
the Caspian’s critical importance. While
all five Caspian nations were the sub-
ject of papers, presentations, and panel
discussions, the works devoted to the
three young Central Asian republics bor-
dering the sea provide a glimpse into
the widening development, and the ambi-
tious goals, of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
and Turkmenistan.
Azerbaijan:
Many Hands, One Goal
Since the historic signing of the 1994
multiparty production-sharing agree-
ment (PSA) better known as the “Con-
tract of the Century,” Azerbaijan’s oil and
gas sector has concentrated on diversify-
ing, and thus maximizing, the econom-
ic muscle behind its production efforts.
The opening of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan
(BTC) pipeline in 2006 opened the door
to solving the considerable problem of
how to export Azerbaijani oil to Europe,
a process that must overcome not only
political realities but daunting geophysi-
cal ones as well. In a short period of time,
Azerbaijan’s geopolitical profile rose dra-
matically, as it, like its fellow newly-mint-
ed Central Asian republics, offered the
market an alternate source of petroleum.
The effect on the nation of more than
9 million was powerful enough that the
anniversary of the signing of its PSA, 20
September, is celebrated as “Oil Work-
ers’ Day,” and even Western popular
culture took note of the nation’s new
importance, as a fictional stand-in for
the BTC pipeline played a central role in
the 1999 James Bond film The World Is
Not Enough. But the nation’s reality has
been eventful enough, as it has weath-
ered conflicts with neighbors and a loca-
tion in a region only growing in geopoliti-
cal significance.
Azerbaijani oil production current-
ly focuses on the offshore Shah Deniz
natural-gas field and the Azeri–Chirag–
Guneshli (ACG) oilfield complex, also
offshore in Caspian waters. The latter
complex alone provides 80% of Azer-
baijan’s oil production, while the former
offers neighboring states viable alterna-
tives to their current limited access to
oil. But both resources have experienced
technical and infrastructure difficulties
that are only exacerbated by the Caspi-
an’s demanding waters, which are some-
43
 times battered by major storms and often
freeze over in the northern reaches. The
fire last December on Platform No. 10 of
the Guneshli field was a tragic reminder
to the industry of the importance of facil-
ity integrity in a meteorologically volatile
environment; the stricken platform pro-
vided much of the nation’s production,
and it is likely that output will be hin-
dered for some time. As the region comes
to emotional and economic terms with
the disaster, more attention will focus on
the ACG, emphasizing the need to make
production more efficient and safe.
Technical complications also prevent
optimal production in Azerbaijani assets;
the more frequent of these presented
a common theme for many conference
papers. Among these issues are the need
to enhance the output of mature wells
and to reduce their nonproductive time
(NPT), as well as the necessity of reduc-
ing cost-intensive hindrances such as
sand and clay deposits in wells.
CTCE papers based upon the expe-
rience of Azerbaijani oil production
understandably centered upon the coun-
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44
try’s primary resources, the Shah Deniz
and ACG. In paper 177359, Aliyeva and
Novruzaliyev (2015) present a novel
method of introducing gas lift to existing
ACG wells in the form of a gas-lift-insert
system (GLIS) installed along with addi-
tional measures to prevent annular gas
release. The authors describe the speedy
installation of the system with the result
of a productive well restart. While the
GLIS does have associated downsides,
such as a heightened risk of tubing-to-A-
annulus communication and a nonper-
manent nature, it can reduce the rig time
required for installation significantly (in
approximately 7–11 days) compared with
a conventional tubing retrofit (approxi-
mately 30 days).
The task of reducing NPT in another
major Azerbaijani field is addressed in
paper 177400. Price et al. (2015) describe
the establishment of a team dedicat-
ed to providing an integrated subsur-
face description of the field, followed by
the implementation of a 3-year plan to
reduce NPT by a variety of means.
Finally, several papers deal with the
topic of sand control in oil fields. Kazi-
mov and Ahmed (2015) explore a vari-
ety of techniques in paper 177338 to
increase the effectiveness of dispersed-
solids removal. The aspects of sand con-
trol examined in this paper include adap-
tation of gravel-slotted filters, drilling-in
with no perforation, producing sand con-
solidation, and sand-plug removal by
means of tools.
Kazakhstan: Strengthening
Infrastructure, Overcoming
Hostile Environments
Kazakhstan’s promise, and the techni-
cal and environmental difficulties it has
faced, are well-documented, from the
early difficulties faced in the enormous
Kashagan field to the problems encoun-
tered in working in a sensitive and highly
variable environment that ranges great-
ly in both water depth and tempera-
ture. It has sometimes been difficult to
match limited facilities with the phys-
ical requirements needed to transport
oil (as was the case with faulty pipe-
lines in Kashagan’s early years). In addi-
tion, the lack of a large domestic core
of highly trained workers, exacerbated
by the age gap between retirement-age
professionals and those just joining the
workforce, has meant that the nation
has struggled to create an infrastructure
with the degree of autonomy it desires,
despite its extensive agreements with
international stakeholders. The CTCE
papers written about the experience of
the industry in Kazakhstan center largely
on these points, and on recent advances
that bring the nation closer to its goal of
efficiently producing and exporting its
hydrocarbon resources.
Paper 177355 (2015) by a consortium of
writers from Russian institutions, delves
into the creation and refinement of a sys-
tem to model and predict pollution pat-
terns in territories belonging to Belarus,
Kazakhstan, and Russia. As the paper
asserts, there is a need to create spe-
cialized environmental expert systems
(EESs) to assess the impact of oil pollu-
tion and support appropriate environ-
mental management decisions. The use
of EESs in the event of accidents involv-
ing oil spills is the key to the efficiency
of their localization and liquidation of
consequences. An EES provides efficien-
cy in obtaining the necessary informa-
tion in the required form with the level
of response and the evolving situation.
The methodology covered in the paper
creates an effective information base to
solve these problems by reducing the
time for the development of management
decisions, and allowing the optimal use
of information for modeling and fore-
casting of contamination of the geologi-
cal environment.
Etuhoko et al. (2015) discuss the use of
electrohydraulic robotic tools that per-
form well interventions on electric line
(e-line) in paper 177388. Having come
of age in recent years, the tools can now
be used to accomplish tasks previous-
ly done with the use of jointed pipes
and coiled-tubing-conveyance systems.
Surface real-time monitoring and con-
trol features are required to ensure that
such tasks done by robotic tools are suc-
cessfully achieved with high accuracy.
As the demand has increased to use this
type of powered device in more-hostile
well environments such as those seen in
Kazakh waters, service companies have
developed technologies to expand their
JPT • JANUARY 2016
operating range. Starting in late 2013,
the robotic-technology solution has been
used in Karachaganak Petroleum Operat-
ing’s horizontal sour wells to close stimu-
lation sleeves when required for reservoir
fluid management, to convey perforation
guns and production logging tools, and
to mill fracturing balls and ball seats.
Iran. The targeted carbonate deposits
are characterized by high heterogeneity,
greatly complicating the prediction of
reservoir-rock distribution. The authors
pose the methodology of constructing
a geological model of the field based on
the climate-stratigraphic method, and
offer recommendations for gas stimu-
lation depending on the lithofacies
features of productive deposits. The
proposed approach enables the calcu-
lation of the gamma ray and gamma-
spectrometry spectral trends sensitive
to the conditions of sedimentation. JPT

Turkmenistan: Seeking For Further Reading

Partnerships in Gas Production SPE 177359 Gas Lift: Fast and Furious Kazakh-Belarus Russian Joint Project
While Turkmenistan, the least populated by F. Aliyeva and B. Novruzaliyev, BP. by A. Khaustov and M. Redina, Peoples’
of the three republics, has significant oil Friendship University of Russia; and
SPE 177400 Understanding a Complex
reserves, estimated by the United States S. Mamchik, Research Centre on Geology
Overburden To Deliver Safe and
Energy Information Administration to be Productive Wells at the Giant Shah
et al.
600 bbl as of early 2015, its future eco- Deniz Gas-Condensate Field, Offshore SPE 177388 Hostile Environment Electric-
nomic strength is closely tied to its vast Azerbaijan by G.R. Price, D. Hall, and Line Well Interventions Optimize
natural gas reserves. Although many mul- K. Kaiser, BP et al. Operations in Kazakhstan by M. Etuhoko,
tinationals are already involved in Turk- M. Viti, and S. Zmeyevskiy, KPO et al.
SPE 177338 Sand Control in the Wells of
men operations, including Eni, Dragon SOCAR Oilfields by Sh.P. Kazimov, Oil Gas SPE 176626 Pay-Zone Distribution of CSR
Oil, and Petronas, in recent years China, Scientific Research Project Institute, and Field Using the Climate-Stratigraphic
rather than Russia, has emerged as the F. Ahmed, SOCAR. Approach by V. Yalalova, I. Volnov, and
most successful foreign investor in Turk- A. Ermilov, Lukoil.
SPE 177355 IT for the Remediation of the
menistan’s gas sector.
Geological Environment Polluted With Uncovering the Caspian. 2014. Supplement
The nation nevertheless seeks in- Petroleum Products: Experience of the to J Pet Technol 66 (11).
creased partnerships in its efforts to
create an adequate pipeline network.
Given that the country is home to the
Galkynysh gas field, the world’s second-
largest, it is no surprise that a number
of huge pipeline ventures are under way,
from the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan- DISCOVER
BETTER
Pakistan-India line to the East-West line 7 - 9 MARCH | HILTON PRAGUE
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to the Caspian coast. Recent steps have #SGC16
been taken to extend existing agree-
ments; at the end of 2014, for instance,
the PSA covering Eni’s involvement in the
Nebit Dag (an onshore area in the west of
DESIGNS.
the country that contains five developed
oil and gas fields) was extended until
FASTER.
2032, a 10-year extension. : DESIGNING THE SUBSEA FACTORY
Even as the nation strives to improve
its infrastructure and to offer increased
investment scenarios, operators work
to optimize the exploration and devel-
opment of existing gas fields to spur
on that growth. Among the papers ori-
ented toward Caspian E&P at the SPE
Russian Petroleum Technology Confer-
ence was 176626. Yalalova et al. (2015)
addressed the need for improved model-
ing techniques for a large gas-condensate
field in the Amu Darya basin, situated in
info@cd-adapco.com
the central and eastern parts of Turk- cd-adapco.com
menistan, the western part of Uzbeki-
stan, and the north of Afghanistan and

JPT • JANUARY 2016 45

 TALENT & TECHNOLOGY
Royal Dutch Shell’s Journey to Strategic
Competence Management
Brent A. Kedzierski, Learning Manager, Shell Upstream Americas
In 2001, Shell began globalization of
competence management with the
implementation of its SAP human
resources information technology (IT)
platform. Hoping to capitalize on this IT
investment, Shell’s various disciplines
and functions began enthusiastic efforts
to create competence frameworks and
job competency profiles that could be
managed within a single repository.
The following decade of organic growth
resulted in a proliferation of compe-
tence frameworks that blanketed the
organization. Complexity, inconsisten-
cy, and redundancy were some of the
unintended consequences of leverag-
ing a global IT platform without tightly
managing the overarching competence
management practices.
When Shell reviewed its compe-
tence management infrastructure in
early 2010, pockets of excellence sur-
faced. Unfortunately, for most areas the
value of competence management was
crumbling under the weight of over-
engineered deployments. Capturing
large volumes of data on employees’
competencies was deceptively attrac-
tive and comforting to management as
well as those in the organization tasked
with managing workforce capability.
However, these data did not necessar-
ily translate to valid or reliable informa-
tion at an aggregate level for a variety
of reasons, most notably due to incon-
sistencies associated with assessments.
As the repository grew, managing ever-
changing individual competence data
proved cumbersome and problematic.
Brent A. Kedzierski is learning manager for Shell Upstream Americas. He holds an MA
degree in human resource management from Marymount University and a BS degree
in training and communications from Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
46
Competence management was clear-
ly presenting several challenges, ten-
sions, and dilemmas. In short, leader-
ship knew the approach was missing the
mark against an increasingly dynamic
internal and external environment.
Framing the Opportunity
Leadership was intent on successfully
challenging longstanding approaches to
competence management and applied a
project management methodology typi-
cally reserved for capital projects. The
project commenced in 2010 with an
“opportunity identification” phase and
the subsequent framing of the oppor-
tunity. By the time the project go/no go
decision gate was reached, the project’s
decision review board, which consist-
ed of several of Shell’s top executives,
had a clear picture of the prize as well
as the challenges and global impacts of
a project of this scale. With a “go” deci-
sion reached, Shell was now on its way
to developing a new solution for compe-
tence management aimed at delivering
tangible outcomes:
◗ Simplify and strengthen the
relevance and value of the
individual development process.
◗ Define and win acceptance
for a pragmatic, common,
risk-based approach to
allow business directors to
demonstrate that health, safety,
security, and environment
(HSSE)-critical positions have
been identified and filled
by people with the requisite
competencies. Staff in these
positions design, implement, or
maintain barriers established
for managing major accident
risks or are line leaders in
organizations with these risks.
During the early stage of the project,
there was plenty of skepticism across
the organization that the project could
achieve a profound change in Shell’s
entrenched processes. The challenge of
defining a new global solution was exac-
erbated by issues related to stakeholder
control, perceived regrets, and individ-
ual bias. It was clear that many stake-
holders had vested interests in main-
taining the competence management
practices they had built. Additionally,
since competence management prac-
tices touched everyone in the organi-
zation, most had strong opinions and
believed they spoke from a position
of expertise based on the highs and
lows of their own experience. From the
start, there was an appreciation that
change would not be easy and would
require significant energy to win over
the hearts and minds of a global com-
munity on a very personal and emo-
tive topic.
Creating a Strategy
Shell’s competence management strat-
egy created a clear distinction between
competence development and compe-
tence assurance. Ambiguity evolved
over time between these two concepts
in large part from the ways competen-
cies were managed in the organiza-
tion’s IT system. Regardless, whether
a competency was needed to manage
major accident risk or to simply sup-
port effective job performance, the pro-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Fig. 1—The SAP human resources “my competencies” screen.
cess of assessing, storing, tracking, and
reporting competencies was essentially
the same. Competencies were assigned
based on job competency profiles or
HSSE-critical position requirements
and self-assessed with manager review
and approval. The exception to this was
in operational areas where competen-
cies for assurance were managed at the
local site level using a variety of assess-
ment methods that were later leveraged
as internal best practices. Fig. 1 shows
an example of competencies in the IT
tracking system.
Fig. 2 illustrates how Shell now dis-
tinguishes competence assurance and
development. The solution was based on
the belief that not all risks are equal and
only a subset of competencies and roles
in Shell required assurance. The major-
ity of competencies across the organi-
zation were developmental in nature.
These non-assured or developmen-
tal competencies were viewed as com-
petencies that contribute to individu-
al performance and are important to
the organization’s overall capability, but
JPT • JANUARY 2016
presented no need to be managed with
the same rigor as competencies criti-
cal to major accident risk management.
From a human performance perspec-
tive, lack of a developmental competen-
cy could affect value creation but did not
present risk in the execution of safety-
critical activities.
Competence
assurance
Competence development
Fig. 2—Distinctions between assurance and development.
Shifting mental models relative to
competence development and assur-
ance was difficult for many in the orga-
nization. Employees were accustomed
to seeing their competencies in the IT
system and having control to self-assess
with manager approval. Self-assessment
with managerial approval was viewed
Focused only on highest risk
positions, task s, or roles
Using a consistent approach
across Shell
Focused on development for
staff
Using a simplified and
streamlined approach
47
 *
*Permanent total disability
Fig. 3—Risk assessment matrix.
as a valid, practical, and long-standing
approach for managing all the compe-
tencies stored in the IT system. How-
ever, this approach was insufficient
for the more rigorous assurance stan-
dards that were established and over-
complicated for the more individualized
development strategy.
To simplify competence develop-
ment and sustain a heavier invest-
ment in assurance, the complexity of
the existing landscape needed to be
reduced. In response to this challenge,
all disciplines and functions conduct-
ed a holistic review of their compe-
tence management infrastructure.
Reviews were conducted in accor-
dance with new guidelines that were
based on consultation with external
thought leaders as well as internal and
external best practices. The exercise
resulted in a 75% reduction in com-
petencies and job competency profiles
across Shell.
48
Competence Assurance
Solution
The strategic intent behind the new
competence assurance solution was to
create a clear framework for target-
ing people who manage major accident
risk and need competence assurance.
Each solution was designed in line with
the company’s risk assessment matrix
(Fig.  3), which defines thresholds for
the likelihood and impact of any poten-
tial risk. The competence assurance
solutions seek to address any circum-
stance where a lack of competence with-
in a clearly defined workforce popula-
tion has the potential to affect major
accident risk management.
The assurance solution with the
smallest population covers HSSE-
critical leaders. Relevant employees are
defined as senior line management in
organizations with major accident risk
responsibilities. The “leader” group
also includes operations or technical
management positions responsible for
defining or delivering risk management
for major accident risks. The interme-
diate population includes Shell’s tech-
nical authorities who are designated
experts charged with safeguarding the
integrity of technical decisions in areas
with the potential for major accident
risks. The largest assured population
covers frontline barrier management
staff. These are staff in operational posi-
tions that directly implement or main-
tain barriers to major accident risks
(Fig. 4).
Once assurance populations were
defined, each associated role was
reviewed against the applicable com-
petence framework (e.g., well engi-
neering, production operations) and/or
risk-based activity. Competencies and
activities with the potential to impact
targeted risk management levels were
flagged for assurance and assigned to
individuals. Assessment protocols that
JPT • JANUARY 2016
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winner
is a
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information on nominating a colleague today.

*
*Permanent total disability **As low as reasonably possible
Group Risk Assessment Matrix (RAM)
Fig. 4—Competence assurance populations.
specified how competence would be
assessed were then designed based on
consultation with internal and exter-
nal assessment experts. The aim was to
achieve a level of rigor in the assurance
processes such that results delivered
“competent and can show it” outcomes.
The cornerstones of the assessment
protocols were:
◗ Clearly defined populations.
Focusing competence assurance
strictly on the highest-risk
positions and competencies as
documented in Shell’s HSSE control
framework
◗ Qualified assessors. Requiring
the use of trained and qualified
assessors
◗ Valid and reliable assessments.
Requiring the use of structured
assessments to ensure “skill” level
proficiency
◗ Monitoring and control. Tracking
results (competent or not yet
competent) in one IT system with
companywide reporting capability
Once assurance protocols were in
place, subject matter experts (SMEs)
were trained in assessment development
and tasked with developing assessments.
50
**
SMEs were provided access to internal
and external assessment experts as need-
ed to ensure quality. The new assurance
protocols and supporting infrastructure
represented a material improvement
over the more subjective practices used
in the past.
Competence Development
Solution
The strategic intent behind the new
competence development solution was
simplicity and employee value. The shift
was in moving away from reviewing an
extensive list of tick boxes in an IT sys-
tem to promoting a deeper and more
individualized conversation between
the employee and his/her line manager
based on simplified competence materi-
al. Using the tick boxes as the foundation
of the annual development process made
the annual review exercise an admin-
istrative activity, which detracted from
the quality of a personalized conversa-
tion. The former process was based on
the employee self-assessing in the sys-
tem followed by the line manager receiv-
ing an electronic notification prompting
them to validate the employee’s self-
assessment. The tick boxes were based
on job competency profiles that in some
People with RAM red & yellow 5a/b
risk responsibilities require
competence assurance
LEADERS
TECHNICAL
AUTHORITIES
FRONTLINE BARRIER
MANAGEMENT
cases attempted to serve as a guide for
the development needs of hundreds of
staff. The relevance of the job competen-
cy profile to the actual job that an indi-
vidual performed was often a stretch.
The development conversation today
focuses on the manager and employee
working together to co-create an indi-
vidual development plan, focusing on
the key competence development areas
required for the current role with an eye
toward future roles. This is a significant
improvement from the past as employ-
ees had so many assigned competen-
cies that it was difficult to determine
where to focus and what to prioritize for
development. Now employees refer to a
simplified job competency profile as a
reference and the focus is on what the
employee and manager believe is most
relevant for the employee’s development
and growth.
Business Results to Date
The competence management project
spanned a 5-year period beginning in
2010 and achieved all the goals defined
during the opportunity framing process
within the timeline shown in Fig. 5.
The project was by no means easy.
Every design decision involving people
JPT • JANUARY 2016

Competence Build and Assess all Move to Operate
solution commence assurance sustain and embed
design assessments populations solution solution
2010–2012 2013 2014 2015 2016+
Fig. 5—The competence management solution timeline.
development as well as data and risk improved and fully globalized how com-
management was fueled by passionate petence is managed.
debates and challenges from numerous From a competence development per-
global stakeholders. From a best prac- spective the feedback has been good.
tice perspective, there were two critical Employees have expressed they do not
success factors for the project. The first miss reviewing the extensive list of com-
was that the solution was based on a set petencies each year. Also, the sky has
of strategic choices that were ground- not fallen with the removal of employee
ed on carefully vetted facts, beliefs, developmental competencies from the
and values. These choices guided all IT system. While some still want gran-
decisions affecting the design of the ular data on employee competencies,
solution. The second was in the align- the conversation is shifting to discuss-
ment and collaboration between human ing more relevant and mature strate-
resources, HSSE management, and the gies for assessing aggregated organiza-
line in working together to deliver a tional capability as was the goal. From
common organizational goal. The result an employee value proposition, the
has been the successful implementation idea was to put individual development
of what is a highly auditable and sus- squarely in the hands of employees
tainable solution that has fundamentally and their line managers to enable more
SPE’s Competency Management Tool
SPE recently partnered with organizations, such as the Society
International Human Resource of Exploration Geophysicists
Development Corporation to create and the American Association of
an SPE Competency Management Petroleum Geologists, and also
Tool, which is free to members. to generic course titles reflecting
The tool can be used to assess the those offered by third-party
competencies needed to perform course providers.
specified key technical jobs in the In developing a learning plan,
oil and gas industry. the user will be able to choose
The tool will identify competency priorities for closing competency
gaps and help members develop gaps, select the most appropriate
individual learning plans to learning resources, and determine
close these gaps. Learning the pace at which learning
plans will refer users to SPE should take place. For more
training resources, along with information, please go to
resources offered by sister www.spe.org/training/cmt.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
focused and relevant planning, rather
than having the focus be on filling in tick
boxes in an IT system.
From a competence assurance per-
spective, the project goal was to have all
targeted populations “audit-ready” by
1 January 2015. Audit-ready meant that
more than 90% of HSSE-critical posi-
tions have assessments and gap closure
plans in place (<10% factoring in turn-
over and staff movement). The audit-
ready goal was aggressive given that
the majority of assurance-based assess-
ments were developed in 2013 and only
available in most cases by the begin-
ning of 2014. This meant that all tar-
geted organizations had 12 months to
assure their populations against rigor-
ous assessment protocols. The assured
population in Shell represents about
20% of the workforce. In considering
the assurance population numbers in
light of the 80/20 rule, these numbers
seem right. At the time of this writ-
ing, the competence assurance process
recently concluded a self-imposed inter-
nal audit. The internal audit further val-
idated the effectiveness of the solution’s
overall implementation and manage-
ment as well as offered recommenda-
tions for further enhancement.
Conclusion
For more than 30 years, the vast major-
ity of organizations have implemented
some form of competence management.
Despite best intentions, most have
struggled with the design, integration,
and sustainability of their programs.
Given that backdrop, nowhere is effec-
tive competence management more
critical than in high-risk industries
such as oil and gas where the threat of
catastrophic failure exists daily. Shell’s
5-year journey sought to address some
of the universal challenges of compe-
tence management along with several
internal improvement opportunities. In
doing so, the company challenged many
of its long-held competence manage-
ment practices and underlying assump-
tions. The result has been the global
implementation of a strategic solution
that fundamentally reshaped how com-
petence is managed. JPT
51
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
EOR Performance and Modeling
Omer Gurpinar, SPE, Technical Director, Schlumberger
Efforts to increase recovery factors in icantly more successful compared with
all types of oil reservoirs keep increas- the older ones from 1980s.
ing, regardless of the fluctuations in oil Mitigating declining pressures in the
prices. It is a historical fact that, when 1970s and 1980s was basically handled
oil price drops, industry’s focus turns by injection of water with simple vertical
to produce/recover more oil where the injectors with limited design. Now, com-
oil is already found. In my career, this is panies think about low-salinity (LoSal)
the sixth oil-price crush I have seen, and options every time pressure maintenance
the same behavioral change is happening with water is considered. Alternative-
again. The only difference between now ly, companies can design reliable water-
and my first experience, in the 1980s, is alternating-gas (WAG) -injection schemes
that the need for enhanced-oil-recovery by placing the right-trajectory wells in
(EOR) applications today is a must, not the right locations of heterogeneous res-
a luxury. Luckily, activity in the world of ervoir systems, which were already illu-
EOR is continuing and for the better. minated sufficiently with advanced res-
Recovery-optimization efforts of the ervoir characterization. Placing in-situ
national oil companies are expanding sensors and digital feedback mechanisms
with larger and well-designed EOR pilots enables companies to optimize the new
and even with offshore chemical EOR recovery process significantly. To start
projects. It is worth mentioning here that with, instead of just going with pressure
the EOR experience gathered by the inter- maintenance, smart EOR screening sys-
national oil companies and service com- tems that might have already been used
panies over the decades is definitely find- may be more promising EOR options.
ing its way to provide a stable foundation Accessibility to fast EOR pilots suitable
to those new EOR projects. Additionally, for the heterogeneity of the reservoir
new EOR projects are getting the benefit could be used, and the decision for field
of the significant enhancements in res- expansion takes place much faster and
ervoir characterization and evaluation, more reliably than it did in the 1980s.
flow physics, EOR chemicals, modeling More-reliable modeling capabilities, cou-
capabilities, conformance capabilities, pled with cloud computing, are providing
and monitoring and control systems. All an environment in which refining EOR
those are happening; therefore, it is safe decisions in the presence of the uncer-
to say the new EOR projects will be signif- tainties of the reservoirs is now possible.
Omer Gurpinar, SPE, is the technical director of enhanced oil
recovery for Schlumberger. He leads Schlumberger in development
of technologies and services to help improve recovery factors in oil
fields. Gurpinar has more than 35 years of industry experience in
various aspects of numerical reservoir modeling, with specific
focus on naturally fractured reservoirs, reservoir optimization, and
EOR. He has contributed to recovery optimization for numerous oil
and gas fields globally. Since joining Schlumberger in 1998,
Gurpinar has served as the vice president or technical director in various segments. He
holds BS and MS degrees in petroleum engineering. Gurpinar is a member of the JPT
Editorial Committee.
52
Limited design capability, smaller num-
ber of field tests, and lack of monitoring
and control were the reasons most EOR
projects did not perform in the past. All
those issues are history now.
Over the last year, irrespective of the
inclement times in our industry, funda-
mental sciences, EOR physics, numeri-
cal modeling, monitoring and control-
ling capabilities, and EOR chemicals all
demonstrated advancements. Ironically,
fast exploitation of the unconventional
liquids is considered to be one of the key
reasons for the drop in oil prices; there
are efforts to identify EOR potential for
those reservoirs. The efforts consist of
advancements in reservoir characteriza-
tion suitable to those unique reservoir
systems, smarter fracturing fluids, and
EOR pilots.
As a result of the continuing momen-
tum in EOR efforts, many excellent tech-
nical papers were developed and, once
again, selecting only a few was rather
difficult. The following pages provide
some insights on how EOR is being test-
ed for “tight/light” reservoirs, CO2/LoSal
WAG experimentation, and giant-field
EOR applications. JPT
Recommended additional reading
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 173322 A Four-Phase-Flow Model
To Simulate Chemical EOR With Gas
by Mohammad Lotfollahi, The University
of Texas at Austin, et al.
SPE 174648 Novel Visualization of
Chemical EOR Flooding Using a Lab-on-
a-Chip Setup Supported by an Extensive
Rheological Characterization by J. Wegner,
Clausthal University of Technology, et al.
SPE 173205 Reduced-Order Models
for Rapid EOR Simulation in Fractured
Carbonate Reservoirs by S. Agada,
Heriot-Watt University, et al.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
EOR-Feasibility Study for a
Large Carbonate Field in Kuwait

T his paper presents the results

of reservoir simulations for the
Mauddud reservoir in the Sabiriyah
petrophysical and geological data. A sec-
tor simulation model was obtained from
the upscaling of the sector geocellular
approximately four orders of magnitude
lower than the water/oil IFT with no sur-
factant present.
field (SAMA) in Kuwait, which is a high- model. The sector simulation model was The initial coreflood results on outcrop
temperature and high-salinity carbonate calibrated with the production, pres- cores showed excellent performance of
reservoir. The subject reservoir has been sure, and other surveillance data from the surfactant/polymer (SP) process. FP
under pattern waterflood. Many wells the wells in the sector-model area. The 3330S polymer was used for mobility
experienced water breakthrough with history-matched model was then used to control. Subsequently, the SAMA reser-
considerable increase in water cut perform gas-EOR-forecast simulations. voir cores were used in the coreflood
because of high reservoir heterogeneity Details of this process are provided in the experiments. A final recovery of 91% of
and adverse mobility ratio. This complete paper. the waterflood residual oil was achieved
study provides technical analysis from this SP coreflood experiment. The
of the viability of enhanced-oil- Chemical-EOR Laboratory high recovery factor demonstrates the ef-
recovery (EOR) processes; the results Experiments ficacy of the chemicals selected.
indicate the potential for significant Chemical-Fomulation Selection. A The most meaningful oil-recovery
improvement in recovery efficiency over chemical formulation consisting of metric is the final oil saturation after
continued waterflooding. C28–25PO-45EO-carboxylate as the SP injection (Sorc). The Sorc in the SAMA
primary surfactant and a mixture of composite SP coreflood experiment was
Introduction C15–18-IOS and C19–28-IOS cosurfactants approximately 0.03, a very low and fa-
SAMA is a giant carbonate oil reservoir was selected. No cosolvent was required. vorable value that indicates a very effec-
covering more than 200 km2 in northern Tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraace- tive chemical formulation.
Kuwait. Oil production began in January tic acid (EDTA) was used to chelate fer-
1958 and continued under primary re- ric ions because the reservoir core was Salinity Gradient. The salinity gradi-
covery until 2000. In 1998, a waterflood found to contain ankerite. EDTA also ent during the SP coreflood is one of the
pilot was conducted successfully. As a re- tends to convert an oil-wet rock to water- most important design variables that de-
sult, inverted-nine-spot waterflood pat- wet, an added benefit because the SAMA termine chemical-flood performance. In
terns were implemented in 2001. As of reservoir rock is oil-wet. general, the salinity of the SP slug should
2011, the fieldwide water cut reached ap- be lower than the formation-brine salin-
proximately 30%. Microemulsion Phase-Behavior ity and the salinity of the polymer drive
and Coreflood Test. The laboratory should be lower than the salinity of the
Sector Model solubilization-ratio data were matched SP slug.
A large sector model was developed to by use of the phase-behavior model in The core was flooded with synthet-
study field-scale fluid-flow behavior in a widely used simulator to obtain the ic hard produced brine with a salinity
SAMA. The first step in generating a sec- input parameters for pilot simulations. of 101,000 ppm total dissolved solids
tor model was to identify an area of inter- The optimum solubilization ratio shows (TDS). The salinity of the injected SP slug
est (AOI) suitable for EOR applications. A a value of approximately 12.5. The cor- was 73,000 ppm TDS, which is the opti-
sector geocellular model was then devel- responding interfacial tension (IFT) is mum salinity of this chemical formula-
oped for the selected AOI with available approximately 0.002 dynes/cm, which is tion. The polymer solution was then in-
jected at a lower salinity of 41,000 ppm
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights TDS, to provide a negative salinity gra-
dient and a final salinity in the Type I
of paper SPE 173255, “EOR-Feasibility Study Through an Integrated Laboratory
phase-behavior environment.
Evaluation and Reservoir Simulation for a Large Carbonate Field in Kuwait,”
by F.  Koyassan Veedu, D.E. Thomas, P. Wang, K. Eskandaridalvand, and EOR Pilot-Scale Model
J. Hornbrook, DeGolyer & MacNaughton; G.A. Pope, The University of Texas at Austin; Fine-Grid Pilot-Scale Model. A fine-grid
and E. Al-Maraghi, B.B. Singh, B.S. Al-Matar, B.A. Al-Saad, M.M. Al-Qahtani, and model with an areal cell size of 5×5  m
S. Tiwari, Kuwait Oil Company, prepared for the 2015 SPE Reservoir Simulation was designed for the pilot-scale model
Symposium, Houston, 23–25 February. The paper has not been peer reviewed. area. The number of cells in the fine-

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 53

 Effective Porosity (m3/m3)
0.325 Producer 2 Producer 3
0.275
0.225 Injector 1
0.175
0.125
0.075
0.025
Producer 1
Producer 4
Fig. 1—Porosity distribution in the fine-grid simulation model.
Oil saturation was
reduced to low value
(2 to 5%) in the
SP-flooded zone.
0.00 0.25
Fig. 2—Oil-saturation cross section through the injector after 19 days of
SP-slug injection.
grid simulation model is 3,996,400. A
vertical grid resolution of approximately
0.75 m was used, which resulted in a total
of 100 layers. Fig. 1 illustrates porosity
distribution and a histogram from the
fine-grid simulation model. The inverted-
five-spot pattern was the pattern used
for the waterflood pilot conducted in
1998. The pilot-scale model is inside the
waterflood-pilot area. Acceptable rep-
resentation of the waterflood-pilot data
using the fine-grid simulation model
helped validate the model construction
and provide fluid-saturation distribu-
tions in the pilot-scale model area.
Once the history match of the water-
flood pilot using the fine-grid simula-
tion model was completed with the Sorw
value of 31.5%, an EOR pilot-scale sim-
ulation model for performing chemical-
and gas-EOR simulations was extracted
from the history-matched fine-grid sim-
ulation model.
Pre-EOR-Waterflood Simulation. A
pre-EOR waterflood simulation was per-
formed before the chemical or gas injec-
tion to condition the pilot area. A total
54
2 4 6 8 10
16
14
12
10
(%)
8
6
4
2
0 During the simulations, CO2 in-
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32
Effective Porosity
0.50 0.75 1.00
volume of water corresponding to 0.225
pore volumes (PVs) was injected for a pe-
riod of 90 days. The results indicate that
the injected water has reached the pro-
ducer after 90 days of water injection.
The pre-EOR-waterflood recovery was
estimated to be approximately 9.7%.
SP Simulation. A 0.3-PV SP slug contain-
ing 1.5 wt% surfactants and 3,500  ppm
polymer was injected after the pre-EOR
waterflood. The SP slug was injected at an
injection rate of 5,800 B/D. Fig. 2 shows a
cross-sectional view of oil saturation after
19 days or 0.05 PV of SP-slug injection.
The surfactant reduced the oil saturation
in the flooded zone to low values between
2 and 5%. Use of polymer in the SP slug
improved the overall sweep. The SP slug
was followed with the polymer drive, with
a polymer concentration of 3,500 ppm.
The chemical SP process was estimated to
increase oil production significantly. The
total oil recovery for the SP process was
60%, compared with 35% for the water-
flood. Thus, an incremental oil recovery
of 25% over the waterflood was achieved
with the SP process.
Continuous-Gasflood Simulation. Car-
12 14 16
bon dioxide (CO2) was chosen for gas-
injection processes for the SAMA EOR
pilot-scale simulations. The labora-
tory data indicate that the residual oil
saturation to immiscible gas is approx-
imately 25%. The effect of IFT on re-
sidual oil saturation and oil relative
permeability was considered in the
gas-EOR-process simulations.
jection was started after the pre-EOR
waterflood. The injector was given a
maximum-bottomhole-pressure (BHP)
limit of 3,700 psia. An incremental oil re-
covery of approximately 13% over water-
flood was estimated after 581 days of
CO2 injection.
The CO2 injection was estimated to re-
duce oil saturation of the reservoir that is
in contact with the injected CO2. Because
of reservoir heterogeneity and poor mo-
bility control, the vertical sweep of the
CO2 flood appears to be inferior to that of
the chemical SP flood.
CO2 Water-Alternating-Gas (WAG)
-Injection Simulation. The CO2 WAG-
injection simulation was performed with
the pilot-scale simulation model. Pro-
ducers were given a minimum-BHP limit
of 1,800 psia. Injection was controlled
with 100% voidage replacement, with a
maximum-BHP constraint of 3,700 psia.
Additional constraints included a maxi-
mum gas-injection rate of 7.4×106 cf/D
and a maximum water-injection rate of
5,800 B/D.
The WAG-injection scheme injected
CO2 for 1.5 months followed with 1.5
months of water injection. After six cy-
cles of WAG injection, oil recovery of
37.3% was estimated from the pilot-scale
simulation model. Including the 9.7% of
oil recovery estimated from the pre-EOR
waterflood, the overall oil recovery was
estimated to be approximately 47%. The
total volume of CO2 injected was estimat-
ed to be 1.54×109 cf, which is less than
50% of the volume estimated for the con-
tinuous CO2 flood.
An improvement in oil recovery of
approximately 9% was estimated for
CO2 WAG injection compared with the
continuous CO2 flood. The reason was
(Continued on page 92)
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Simulation of Residual Oil Saturation
Through Tuning of Equilibrium Constants

C onventional miscible- or near-

miscible-gasflood simulation
often overestimates oil recovery, mostly
arbitrary number of components. Equa-
tions important to the use of IHRRS are
described in detail in the complete paper.
live oil inside at reservoir conditions for
2 weeks.
The experiment was performed at res-
because it does not capture a series Also, detailed discussions of the use of ervoir conditions of 310 bar and 145°C (in
of physical effects tending to limit the SDTEC method in black-oil and com- the following, reservoir or experimen-
interphase compositional exchanges. positional simulation are presented in tal conditions will refer to these pres-
The authors present a new engineering the complete paper. sure and temperature conditions). Crude
solution to this problem in the near- oil and its associated gas were collect-
miscible case. The principle is, while Application to the Matching ed from a separator and recombined to
using a black-oil or an equation-of-state of a Near-Miscible Tertiary reach the composition of the reservoir
description, to dynamically decrease Gas-Injection Experiment fluid. Injected gas used in the experi-
the K-value of heavy components and The Experiment. In the following, the ment was synthesized to match the com-
possibly increase the K-value of light SDTEC method is applied to history position of the gas injected in the field
components as the oil saturation reaches match a reservoir-condition tertiary gas- for which the minimum miscibility pres-
the desired residual limit. injection experiment performed on a res- sure with reservoir oil was estimated at
ervoir carbonate core from a West Africa 394 bar, by use of an in-house pressure/
Introduction field. The main purpose of the experi- volume/temperature simulator.
The novel approach covered in this paper ment was to investigate potential three- Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup,
relies on an in-house research reservoir phase relative permeability reduction on with the core-holding cell, the injection
simulator (IHRRS). The starting point of the gas phase during gas injection follow- system, the production system, and the
this work is the model activated through ing secondary waterflood; history match X-ray scanner. Produced fluids are col-
the VAPPARS keyword in Eclipse 100 is then needed to obtain a set of rela- lected in two high-pressure pumps, with
(black-oil code) that is extended to com- tive permeability and capillary pressure the one connected to the core-holder out-
positional simulation. The benefits of the curves along with coefficients for the let while the other is emptied. Pumps are
proposed method are demonstrated on a SDTEC model, to be used later in full-field emptied phase by phase to allow count-
reservoir-condition tertiary gas-injection simulations to predict the performance ing of the volumes at reservoir conditions
experiment, performed in laboratories, of a future gas-injection project better. and separating each phase when flashing
for which residual saturations are eas- The core used in the experiment volumes to laboratory conditions. This
ily and successfully history matched, underwent computed-tomography (CT) allows clear separation of flashed oil and
along with oil-phase and individual- scan imaging and miscible-tracer test- condensate and rigorous measurement
component production rate. ing and was considered homogeneous of oil formation volume factor, gas/oil
because its longitudinal dispersivity was ratio, vaporized oil, and dissolved gas.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium less than 0.2 cm. It was loaded in a core- When a production pump is emptied, ef-
in IHRRS and Saturation- holding cell, which was set horizontal- fluent goes through a densimeter before
Dependent Tuning of the ly on an X-ray displacement rig. Prima- being collected in a graduated burette.
Equilibrium Constant (SDTEC) ry drainage was performed on the core Volumes of liquids are then measured
IHRRS is a research reservoir simula- 100% saturated with water to establish in the burette and undergo full com-
tor designed to treat a general number initial water saturation; core wettability positional analysis (i.e., C1–C30+). Gases
of phases where each phase can hold an was then restored by aging the core with go through a gas meter and a gas chro-
matograph for light-components analy-
sis (i.e., C1–C7).
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
The X-ray scanner is composed of a
of paper SPE 171806, “Simulation of Residual Oil Saturation in Near-Miscible
dual-energy X-ray generator with a stable
Gasflooding Through Saturation-Dependent Tuning of the Equilibrium Constants,” by NaI detector set on a measurement rig
Leonardo Patacchini, Sébastien Duchenne, Marcel Bourgeois, Arthur Moncorgé, with two displacement axes to allow 1D
and Quentin Pallotta, Total, prepared for the 2014 Abu Dhabi International in-situ three-phase saturation measure-
Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, 10–13 November. The paper has ments along several cross sections. Final-
not been peer reviewed. ly, a series of three differential-pressure

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 55


Densimeter
Production pumps
Fig. 1—Coreflooding setup.
sensors with different working ranges
is set between the inlet and outlet of the
core holder to measure differential pres-
sure across the core with high resolution.
Injection rate was set to 2 cm3/h, cor-
responding to a front velocity of 0.3 m/d
and a capillary number of less than 10–6,
which describes flow behavior far from
the wells. The experiment consisted of a
continuous injection of brine followed by
a continuous injection of gas. Each injec-
tion phase followed the same protocol:
Start injection at 2 cm3/h and wait for
stabilization in production and pressure
drop (i.e., no further saturation changes);
raise rate to 4 cm3/h until steady state is
reached and then to 8 cm3/h to eliminate
capillary end effects; and, finally, mea-
sure permeability of injected phase with
Darcy’s law by decreasing the rate step
by step.
History Matching. History matching
of the experiment was performed with
IHRRS on a 2D model with fine verti-
cal gridding to resolve gravity segrega-
tion accurately and a horizontal block
spacing matching the longitudinal dis-
persivity; gas fingering has not been ob-
served during the simulations. An eight-
56
X-ray detector
X-ray generator
Core-holder
confining-pressure
pump
Downstream dead
volume flush pump
component description was used in the
simulation, using the Peng-Robinson
equation of state. The matching method-
ology is as follows:
1. Find a set of relative permeability
and capillary pressure curves to fit oil,
water, and gas production at reservoir
conditions.
2. Find residual oil to vaporization and
coefficients to fit in-situ oil saturation, oil
production at standard conditions, and
individual-component production rate.
3. Check whether reservoir-condition
production and differential pressure are
matched properly. If not, find a modified
set of relative permeability and capillary
pressure curves and go to Step 2.
This methodology is iterative but con-
verges very quickly. Two iterations were
sufficient to history match the experi-
ment successfully.
All tested methods can provide a good
match of the average in-situ oil satura-
tion; however, only the SDTEC model and
another investigated model (α-factors
model) are able to match the evolution
of the molar fractions of the different
produced cuts properly. The SDTEC ap-
proach gives results very similar to those
of the α-factors model, while needing to
Gas
Injection
pump
find a vector of eight coefficients only
(the α-factors model requires a table of
64 coefficients). The task can be per-
formed easily with an assisted-history-
matching tool.
Applicability of the SDTEC
Method to the Modeling
of Condensate Recovery
by Gas Cycling
When a gas/condensate reservoir is de-
pleted below the dewpoint, a valuable
liquid phase called retrograde conden-
sate forms; a standard recovery practice
consists of cycling dry gas so that, in ad-
dition to (partially or wholly) maintain-
ing pressure, liquid components may
be produced as vapor. The problem is
analogous to that of oil recovery by gas
injection, except that quasicomplete re-
covery is often observed in coreflood
experiments after sufficient pore vol-
umes (PVs) have been injected. When
the experiment duration is too short,
it can usually still be matched to simu-
lation by use of the thermodynamic-
equilibrium assumption, provided that
important physical parameters such as
hydrodynamic dispersion are taken into
account appropriately.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
 Because of macroscopic heterogene-
ities, however, it is not certain that com-
plete thermodynamic equilibrium should
be observed in gridblocks in field-scale
simulations. For instance, gravity segre-
gation of mobile condensate could cause
the accumulation of localized clusters,
which would later be bypassed by the
cycling gas. The modeling of such phe-
nomena is difficult and outside the scope
of the present paper; the authors’ pur-
pose in this work is to illustrate how
the SDTEC method, developed and im-
plemented in IHRRS and aimed at the
modeling of residual oil saturation to
gasflooding, can be used to enforce in-
complete revaporization of condensate.
The authors discuss this capacity using
the synthetic example of the third SPE
comparative-solution project in the com-
plete paper.
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to pres-
ent a new method to enforce nonzero
residual-oil saturation in near-miscible
gasflooding simulation on the basis
of the addition of a saturation depen-
dence to the equilibrium constants. The
method applies to both black-oil and
compositional formalism. Its essence
is to reduce the vaporizability of the
intermediate-to-heavy components as
the oil saturation decreases toward the
desired target, while leaving the equilib-
rium of light components unchanged (or
possibly slightly modified). The thresh-
old between light and intermediate-to-
heavy components is based on a num-
ber of considerations. It is particularly
important to ensure that the perturbed
flash has a single solution, and that phys-
ical mechanisms relevant to the consid-
ered problem are not altered.
Introducing nonequilibrium effects by
SDTEC has several advantages with re-
spect to other published methods. First,
the equilibrium modification is “local”
(i.e., the thermodynamic constraints in
each cell involve only properties of said
cell), contrary to nonequilibrium mod-
els with rate-limited interphase mass
transfer where spatial gradients are part
of the constraints. Second, contrary to
basic saturation-exclusion methods, it
ensures oil degassing during primary de-
pletion or final blowdown. Third, unlike
the α-factors method, it requires a limit-
ed number of coefficients and the match-
ing process can be automated easily; still,
it is flexible enough with one tunable pa-
rameter per component.
Of course, it is an engineering solu-
tion in the sense that it does not de-
rive from well-identified physical pro-
cesses or from a rigorous upscaling of
the kind. In the authors’ experience with
near-miscible gas-injection coreflooding,
it can be used easily for matching satura-
tions and individual-component produc-
tion vs. time.
The proposed SDTEC form also applies
to the simulation of limited retrograde-
condensate revaporization during gas cy-
cling. It does indeed enable equilibrium
dropout of condensate where the liquid
saturation increases, while becoming ac-
tive during the revaporization period.
Phenomena potentially causing incom-
plete revaporization of condensate are
typically above laboratory scale; hence,
it is difficult to anticipate the appropri-
ate parameters to use. The method could
nevertheless be useful for sensitivity
studies and for matching purposes, pro-
vided that appropriate monitoring of the
reservoir behavior is available. JPT

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JPT • JANUARY 2016 57

 Designing an Optimized
Surfactant Flood in the Bakken

50
T he Bakken is one of the most
prolific plays in North America,
but, even with the deployment

Recovery Factor (% original oil in place)

of horizontal wells and hydraulic 40
fracturing, anticipated recovery factors
under primary depletion are usually in
the range of 10 to 20%. Waterflooding 30
has been a commonly deployed
technology in conventional reservoirs
to enhance recovery beyond primary 20
depletion. However, the Bakken’s PE* at 100×CMC
ultratight, largely oil-wet nature limits PE* at 10×CMC
the potential of waterflooding. As an PE at CMC
10
alternative, an optimally spaced well-
Low-Salinity Water
to-well surfactant-flooding technology
is proposed.
0
0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Introduction Time (hrs)
Recent studies focusing on wettabili-
ty alteration by use of surfactant in the Fig. 1—Recovery vs. time for spontaneous-imbibition tests comparing
performance of PE as a function of concentration.
Bakken have shown strong potential.
Spontaneous-imbibition tests in Bak- taining key performance indicators that Corrosion inhibitor and biocide are in-
ken cores show recovery factors that are discussed in the complete paper. cluded in the PE* formulation to mitigate
can exceed 30% and sometimes achieve any risk of wellbore corrosion or micro-
up to 60%. However, in an ultralow- Experimental Methodology bial activity, both of which could pres-
permeability system, the rate of surfac- Chemical-System Development and ent a threat, particularly over long injec-
tant imbibition is perhaps more impor- Qualification. This paper discusses a tion durations. Choline chloride as a clay
tant than the ultimate recovery factor. novel nonionic-surfactant production stabilizer is also included in the full fluid
Initial studies show potential, but to enhancer (PE) which is blended into a system. Clay stabilizer is included in the
achieve an economical surfactant recov- full chemical system (PE*). The nonionic formulation as a precautionary measure.
ery process, ultrahigh imbibition rates chemical formulation of PE makes it Scale inhibitor is also included in the
must be achieved. In addition to the tech- highly compatible with the additives in PE* formulation.
nical challenges associated with stability, the full fluid system such as corrosion in-
compatibility, and injectivity, economical hibitor, scale inhibitor, and biocide. Chemical-System Performance. To
deployment of surfactant in a marginally Compatibility with the native fluids is evaluate recovery potential and imbi-
profitable play such as the Bakken is an- also examined. Emulsion studies show bition rates, a series of spontaneous-
other major challenge. To minimize the that PE acts as a de-emulsifier, resulting imbibition tests was carried out using
surfactant required for a successful pro- in faster separation between Bakken oil the PE and PE* formulations at varying
cess, a surfactant would ideally have an and Bakken brine than can be achieved in concentrations to evaluate their perfor-
ultralow critical micelle concentration its absence. PE is also highly suitable for mance potential. All tests were carried
(CMC) and low adsorption while main- operation in extreme conditions. out on preserved core plugs from the
Middle Bakken.
It is clear that PE performs substantial-
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights ly better than an alternative surfactant,
of paper SPE 175937, “Designing an Optimized Surfactant Flood in the Bakken,” by which was selected to be representative
Matthew Dawson, Statoil; Duy Nguyen, Nalco Champion; and Huina Li, Statoil, of typical surfactants used in previous
prepared for the 2015 SPE/CSUR Unconventional Resources Conference, Calgary, spontaneous-imbibition studies in the
20–22 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Bakken. It is also evident that surfactant

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

58 JPT • JANUARY 2016

has potential to accelerate water imbibi-
tion into Bakken core over brine alone.
In developing a surfactant-flood
model, it is critical to understand at what
concentration the surfactant system be-
gins to impact the wettability and thus
the relative permeability and capillary
pressure behavior. It is equally critical
to understand the concentration above
which there is no longer any additional
benefit. Insight into the latter parameter
can be obtained by determining the CMC.
It is expected that the CMC will be
even lower at reservoir temperatures
near 115°C. The ultralow CMCs for PE
indicate that PE may be effective even
at low concentrations. This hypothesis
is tested by investigating spontaneous
imbibition of PE at varying concentra-
tions. Fig. 1 shows recovery vs. time for
a range of concentrations at 115°C. The
base-case concentration starts near the
CMC. As expected, similar recovery per-
formance is displayed even at ultralow
concentrations near the CMC. However,
the rate of recovery is slower at concen-
trations near the CMC. To establish the
threshold concentration above which the
surfactant remains fully effective, the im-
pact of adsorption must be taken into ac-
count. Static adsorption tests are carried
out on a number of rock types using both
cleaned and native-state samples in the
presence of oil and brine. The adsorption
data at known surfactant concentrations
are then used in a history-match study
of the low-concentration spontaneous-
imbibition tests. Representative curves
for surfactant adsorption vs. surfactant
concentration are then developed along
with surfactant-concentration thresh-
olds for wettability alteration.
Reservoir Characterization
Horizontal wells are used to develop the
Middle Bakken (reservoir properties are
detailed in the complete paper). They
are approximately 10,000 ft in length
and often use multistage plug-and-
perforation techniques, typically with 20
to 40 fracture stages. Hydraulic stim-
ulations in the target area have tradi-
tionally been hybrid jobs, but the in-
vestigation presented in this paper will
examine flooding potential between
wells that have been completed with
large slickwater jobs. Slickwater jobs dis-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
cussed in this paper use approximately
150,000 bbl of water.
Natural-Fracture Characterization.
An integrated program consisting of
logging, coring, pressure testing, and
fluid tracing is used to gain insight into
fault and fracture distribution in the
target area of the Bakken for use in a
surfactant-flooding reservoir model.
Methodology of this program is detailed
in the complete paper.
In total, approximately 100 natural
fractures are identified in the horizon-
tal core; however, a large percentage (ap-
proximately 40%) are found to termi-
nate within the 29/16-in.-diameter core
itself, indicating that most, if not all, of
these fractures are likely small in scale.
Another key observation is that a vast
majority of the natural fractures identi-
fied have the same orientation. This in-
dicates that even if they are areally ex-
tensive, they likely do not result in an
extensively connected fracture network
and, thus, would not contribute substan-
tially to production. Overall, although
many natural fractures are identified, it
is believed on the basis of the core analy-
sis that they are mostly small in scale and
not extensively connected.
The lack of an extensively intercon-
nected natural-fracture network is further
supported by results of an extensive pres-
sure- and fluid-communication program.
Hydraulic Fracture Characterization.
Pressure- and fluid-communication
tests are also used to determine
hydraulic-fracture properties. This ap-
proach is applied to evaluate the geome-
try of hydraulic fractures emanating from
a Middle Bakken well completed with
slickwater. The average fracture half-
length in the analyzed area is determined
to be 1,300 ft, with an approximate frac-
ture height of 300 ft. It is important to
note that the total fracture half-length
is not completely filled with proppant
and that the conductivity of the fracture
varies with distance from the wellbore
and drops below optimal conductivity
approximately 1,000  ft from the well.
Nevertheless, from an injection stand-
point, this fracture half-length would
yield significant hydraulic-fracture over-
lap between Middle Bakken wells, but it
would not allow for fractures to reach all
the way to the adjacent wellbore.
Results and Discussion
Recovery Effect. By upscaling the
laboratory-based, history-matched mod-
els and incorporating the field-scale frac-
ture characterization, full-scale well-to-
well models are developed to examine
the potential of surfactant flooding in
the Middle Bakken. The model includes
two wells, with half-symmetry along the
axes of the wells. Each well is hydrauli-
cally fractured and produced under pri-
mary production for approximately 12.5
years. The primary-production models
generate realistic production curves, gas/
oil ratios, and water cuts for the target
area. After 12.5 years, one of the wells
is converted from a producer to an in-
jector while the other well remains on
production to simulate a pattern, line-
drive, well-to-well flood. The production
uplift is then modeled over 12.5 years
of injection.
The most important sensitivity param-
eters for this recovery process are (1)
fracture half-length and (2) overlap and
adsorption. It is evident that the poten-
tial of a well-to-well flooding process is
highly sensitive to fracture half-length
(fracture overlap). Very limited over-
lap would not yield significant recovery
uplifts within an economic time frame;
however, even moderate hydraulic-
fracture overlaps can yield significant
recovery uplifts for surfactant flooding
in the Middle Bakken. The second-most-
critical sensitivity parameter for surfac-
tant flooding the Middle Bakken is sur-
factant adsorption. If adsorption is too
high, much of the surfactant will be lost
near the injection-well fractures, and the
ability to alter the wettability favorably
will be limited. If, however, surfactant is
able to propagate into the reservoir ef-
fectively and alter the wettability, as has
been observed on the laboratory scale,
the effect on recovery can be quite favor-
able. In the case of fracture half-lengths
of 1,400 ft and adsorption on the lower
end of the range observed in the labora-
tory, the model predicts incremental oil
recovery from the two wells to be more
than 1.25 million bbl in 12.5 years, repre-
senting a 130% increase in recovery.
(Continued on page 92)
59
 Method for Adaptive Optimization
of EOR Performance Under Uncertainty

E nhanced-oil-recovery (EOR)
performance may be assessed
quantitatively through a variety of
metrics. Because formation and fluid
properties are often poorly characterized,
however, performance predictions
of EOR processes are uncertain. The
authors present a method to reduce
such uncertainty in EOR performance
adaptively while identifying an optimal
operational strategy for a given tolerance
to risk. The proposed approach allows
one to reduce uncertainty progressively
in the predicted performance of an
iteratively optimized EOR strategy by
systematic reduction of uncertainty in
identified properties of the reservoir.
Introduction
Classic approaches to optimization
under uncertainty use a mean-variance
approach. However, they do not pro-
vide necessary insight into the underly-
ing nature of the uncertainties inherent
in the optimized model. More impor-
tantly, they do not provide any specific
quantitative guidance on reducing such
uncertainty, which is necessary from an
operational point of view. This issue is
addressed in this study directly by com-
bining global sensitivity analysis (GSA)
with optimization under uncertainty, in
an adaptive work flow, for systematic
uncertainty reduction of the optimized
model prediction. Application of GSA to
address various problems arising in the
industry has been discussed in a num-
ber of studies. However, these studies fo-
cused mainly on quantifying uncertainty
for specific physical quantities and using
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
of paper SPE 173295, “Method for Adaptive Optimization of EOR Performance Under
Uncertainty,” by N. Chugunov, T.S. Ramakrishnan, A. Lukyanov, and W.J. Bailey,
Schlumberger, and D. Wilkinson, Efficient Solutions, prepared for the 2015 SPE
Reservoir Simulation Symposium, Houston, 23–25 February. The paper has not been
peer reviewed.
that analysis to gain insight into the sub-
sequent measurement-program design
and interpretation.
Optimization Under
Uncertainty and GSA
Optimization Algorithms. The optimi-
zation scheme of choice for this study was
the radial basis function (RBF), a rapid
and robust proxy scheme based on a trust
region but validated against the underly-
ing simulation model. This scheme has
been proved to be well-suited for optimi-
zation problems involving very expensive
objective functions because it can fur-
nish good gains rapidly once trained with
N+1 model realizations (where N is the
number of control parameters).
The common features in the afore-
mentioned optimization schemes are
their suitability for expensive simulation-
based objective functions and their prov-
en track record of robustness, a critical
element in any optimization-scheme se-
lection. Genetic- or evolutionary-based
solvers may be advertised as “global,”
but one needs to question how such a
claim may be validated when the objec-
tive function is very expensive to com-
pute. RBF and artificial-neural-network
schemes may not promise “global” min-
ima, but they do promise good solution
improvement, which is perfectly accept-
able considering the nature of the under-
lying objective function. Furthermore, if
one initiates a second optimization run
by use of the best results from the previ-
ous optimization run as starting values,
further upside potential may be obtained
without excessively long run times be-
cause convergence is often much faster
than for the initial run. The process of
optimizing under uncertainty will lead to
a set of parameters that provide the opti-
mum of the objective function (F).
Mean-Variance Approach and Effi-
cient Frontier. The objective function
for optimization under uncertainty may
take any desired units. After execution
of an optimization run (with one or more
risk-aversion factors), one may be able to
construct an “efficient frontier.”
A set of solutions to the optimization
problem can be plotted in coordinates,
where optimal points corresponding to
predefined values of λ will form an ef-
ficient frontier (Fig. 1). The slope of the
objective-function values on the frontier
is representative of the penalty accept-
ed by the decision maker for accepting a
certain degree of risk. By running the op-
timization separately for different user-
defined values of λ (each requiring a sepa-
rate optimization run), one may plot the
standard deviation σ on the x-axis and the
mean µ on the y-axis to construct the con-
vex hull of optima—the efficient frontier.
If one assumes normality in outcomes,
then one can assign a confidence to a spe-
cific optimum located on the frontier.
The efficient frontier should be down-
ward sloping from right to left (Fig. 1).
The top right point represents the op-
timum value obtained from a run with
λ=0.0. This would represent a risk-
neutral policy. For λ=0.0, one effectively
optimizes only for the mean, F=µ. The
decision maker is, therefore, willing to
accept that the mean value of the asset
will have a 50% probability of being re-
alized, with everything else being equal.
As the value of risk aversion is in-
creased (i.e., λ>0), a lower µ is inevi-
table. Note, however, that in practice, a
smooth convex efficient frontier is not
always achievable. This may be because
of the nature of the underlying model or

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

60 JPT • JANUARY 2016

 C B
tier
Fron
ient
D Effic
E terministic and probabilistic solutions
F suggest injecting polymer from the very
G start of the project. Polymer effective-
Suboptimal Points
Mean, µ
H
Point λ Percentile
A 0.0 50.00%
B 0.5 69.14%
C 1.0 84.13%
D 1.5 93.32%
E 2.0 97.72%
F 2.5 99.34%
G 3.0 99.86%
H 4.0 99.99%
Standard Deviation, σ
Fig. 1—Example of an efficient frontier constructed from multiple optimization
runs of F=µ−λσ for eight different values of λ. Thus, the frontier of optima (the
convex hull) is constructed from the eight separate optimization runs. These
points are labeled A through H, representing the optimum value of each run
for the value of λ specified. For each point (requiring N simulations) there
exists a unique set of control parameters λ so the results have operational
meaning. The confidence values for each value of λ are shown in the insert
table (assuming a normal distribution of outcomes). Any point located under
the efficient frontier is suboptimal; only the points on the efficient frontier
itself (as labeled) should be considered for operational purposes. Different
colors and marker shapes of the points correspond to different values of λ. The
empty region above the efficient frontier is unfeasible given the state of the
current model inputs and uncertainties. If one (partially) resolved some or all
of these uncertainties, then the efficient frontier will likely shift to the left.
because the algorithm found a local op- ability distribution functions for each un-
timum. In the latter case, good practice certain parameter βi.
is to initiate another, second optimiza- 2. Perform optimization under uncer-
tion run, initializing this new run with tainty [max F(α), where F=µ(α)−λσ(α)],
the best values obtained from the previ- to determine the relevant points on the
ous run as starting points. This will, it is efficient frontier for various values of λ.
hoped, enable the optimizer to “jump” 3. For a given point on the efficient
out of the local minimum and find a bet- frontier (defined by the prescribed value
ter (presumably global) optimum. of λ and corresponding values of control
From an operational perspective, the parameters αλ), calculate GSA sensitivity
goal is to reduce this risk while retain- indices with the function Y(β)=y(αλ,β)
ing (as much as possible) the level of 4. Rank uncertain parameters β ac-
expected performance (represented by cording to their value of S1.
µ). To reduce the uncertainty, one needs 5. Obtain additional, targeted, mea-
to understand where it is coming from. surements to reduce uncertainty of those
Therefore, a quantitative link between parameters, β, with high values of the
uncertainties in input parameters (β) and first-order sensitivity index (S1) and re-
uncertainty in the output is desirable. define their probability-distribution
This is accomplished by use of GSA on the functions accordingly.
basis of variance decomposition. A dis- 6. Optional: keep fixed parameters β
cussion of GSA and its execution is pro- with low values of total effects (ST) (less
vided in the complete paper. than 0.05) in order to reduce the dimen-
sionality of the optimization problem.
Optimization Work Flow 7. Repeat Steps 2 through 6 until an ac-
A summary of the proposed generalized ceptable level of risk/reward is achieved
work flow is shown in Fig. 2 of the com- or until the decision is made that the
plete paper. The main steps include desired level of performance cannot be
1. Define control variables (α) and un- achieved with the acceptable level of risk.
certain parameters (β). If feasible, define An illustrative example of the work
ranges for control variables. Define prob- flow is provided in the complete paper.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Discussion
A
While optimal polymer-injection profiles
will vary for different reservoirs, both de-
ness can, however, be diminished signifi-
cantly because of reduced injectivity at
increasing polymer concentrations. Re-
sults of GSA further support this argu-
ment, indicating that uncertainty in the
shear-thinning model is the most signifi-
cant contributor to overall uncertainty in
oil recovery in this model. It is important
to reiterate that each point on the effi-
cient frontier is a statistical representa-
tion of a set of model realizations for a
given solution vector of control parame-
ters α. It is instructive to examine this set
of model realizations in more detail. One
way to do this is by generating probability
maps, where each grid cell of the reservoir
is represented by a probability of a given
physical property to exceed a predefined
threshold value. Probability maps can pro-
vide important insights into the perfor-
mance of the reservoir and can allow one
to focus on a particular physical process
and its effects on overall performance of
the reservoir in terms of sweep efficiency.
In general, after reducing the range of
the uncertain parameters identified by
GSA, a shift of the efficient frontier to the
left is expected. However, the opposite
effect is also possible when the local vari-
ance of values in the physical quantity of
interest in the updated (reduced) range
of the uncertain parameter is higher than
that observed in the initial range. Even
for this exceptional case, the authors
argue that the approach described pro-
vides an iterative and accurate estimate
of the risk/reward profile for a given EOR
scenario and allows one to avoid costly
mistakes that would result in an under-
performing reservoir.
It is important to reiterate two main out-
comes of GSA. First-order effects quantita-
tively identify the input parameters con-
tributing the most to the uncertainty of
the performance metric. Often overlooked,
but arguably equally important, are the
total effects, where parameters with ST
values below a predefined threshold may
be excluded from subsequent analysis,
thereby reducing effective dimensionality
of the problem and decreasing the compu-
tational cost of the analysis. JPT
61
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Mature Fields and Well Revitalization

Jesse Lee, SPE, Chemistry Technology Manager, Schlumberger

In last year’s Technology Focus concern- In light of the challenging through precisely addressing isolation,
ing mature fields, I highlighted safety, diversion, and placement, for example.
well integrity, and digital technology as environment our industry The last point is about achieving
the three enablers for achieving sustain- is facing, I would suggest investment returns and, at the same
able returns. In light of the challeng- time, exceeding corporate environmen-
ing environment our industry is facing,
that JPT readers become tal responsibility. It seems unlikely that
I would suggest that JPT readers become familiar with refracturing we can have our cake and eat it, too. How-
familiar with refracturing techniques, techniques, technology/ ever, I have witnessed enough examples
technology/methodology that improves (mostly outside of our industry) to realize
efficiency, and opportunities that achieve methodology that that this certainly can be achieved. The
positive financial impact and exceed improves efficiency, and journey will not be easy. Some examples
environmental responsibility. take more than 15 years of persistence
First of all, the surge in unconvention-
opportunities that achieve and investment to become established. I
al completions over the last decade has positive financial impact sincerely encourage JPT readers to incor-
created ample candidates for hydraulic and exceed environmental porate this aspect into their professional
refracturing. With the proper implemen- responsibility and continue to challenge
tation of new and improved techniques, responsibility. themselves and their teams.
followed by diligent economic analysis, In this editorial, I talked about refrac-
refracturing has been demonstrated to turing, efficiency, and environmental
be a viable alternative to the more expen- ogy that precisely and effectively locates responsibility. Therefore, I have selected
sive endeavor of drilling and completing the remaining oil in mature reservoirs. In several papers on these topics to share
new wells. There are numerous informa- addition to identifying potential oppor- with you. We all know 2016 will be a
tive and enlightening SPE publications on tunities, it also serves to derisk project challenging year for our industry; how-
this topic. investment and allows key decisions to ever, I am sure this is the driving force
Speaking of technology and method- be made in a timely manner. that we need to take our industry to the
ology that improves efficiency, these are The other example is a stimulation next level. JPT
the technologies that will be embraced technique that is designed to deliver
and adopted quickly by the industry, pinpoint accuracy. These are technolo-
especially in this challenging environ- gy enablers that, when combined, could Recommended additional reading
ment. One of the examples is a methodol- significantly improve well performance at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
IPTC 17718 Successful Restimulation of
Western Siberian Oil Fields With Channel
Jesse Lee, SPE, is chemistry technology manager at Fracturing Technique by Alexey Yudin,
Schlumberger. He holds a PhD degree in chemistry from Yale Schlumberger, et al.
University and conducted post-doctoral research at the
SPE 173340 Refracturing in Eagle Ford
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lee joined Schlumberger and Bakken To Increase Reserves and
in 1997 in Tulsa as a development engineer, focused on the Generate Incremental NPV—Field Study
development of polymer-based fracturing fluids. During 2000– by YagnaDeepika Oruganti, Baker Hughes,
10, he managed new-product development at Schlumberger et al.
product centers in Sugar Land, Texas, and Clamart, France. At
SPE 173601 Reduced Emissions and
Schlumberger, Lee is responsible for developing technical collaborations and Increased Production Through Gas
managing relationships with external chemical companies. He is a member of the JPT Compressors: Pilot Case in Colombia by
Editorial Committee. J.C.M. Escobar-Remolina, Ecopetrol, et al.

62 JPT • JANUARY 2016

Refracturing: A Second Chance
To Get It Right Through Diagnostics

T he surge in unconventional
completions has created a
substantial accumulation of previously
hydraulically fractured wells that are
candidates for hydraulic refracturing.
Completion diagnostics are a valuable
tool in determining the most cost-
effective stimulation and completion
parameters, part of the refracturing
optimization process. Refracturing
allows the operator to capitalize on
this continuous improvement in
stimulation design. It also provides
an excellent opportunity to add
incremental production.
Introduction
The primary purpose of refracturing is
to increase production from an exist-
ing wellbore through stimulation of new
rock and the re-establishing of conduc-
tive pathways between the reservoir and
wellbore. This paper analyzes diagnos-
tic results for a variety of wells in re-
stimulated formations around the coun-
try (data for all 69 wells restimulated in
11 formations are provided in the com-
plete paper). This analysis process il-
lustrates that all formations are unique
and need to be evaluated independently.
What works well in one area often does
not apply in other areas because of reser-
voir differences along with pressure and
temperature variances.
Diagnostics
Proppant Tracers. The primary diag-
nostic technique discussed in this paper
is proppant tracing, using three dis-
tinct low-level gamma-emitting trac-
ers: iridium-192, scandium-46, and
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
of paper SPE 174979, “Refracturing—Diagnostics Provide a Second Chance To Get It
Right,” by R.S. Leonard, SPE, C.P. Moore, SPE, R.A. Woodroof, SPE, and C.W. Senters,
SPE, Core Laboratories, prepared for the 2015 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Houston, 28–30 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
antimony-124. The tracers are pumped
primarily throughout the proppant-
laden portion of the stimulation. A spec-
tral gamma ray logging tool is run to
identify near-wellbore proppant place-
ment of each individual tracer. The prop-
pant tracers are ceramic beads, typically
40/70 mesh. The specific isotopes fall
in a sweet-spot of half-lives that make
them ideal for this application. Through
the years, production-log data have
shown an excellent correlation with
near-wellbore proppant placement, and
this same strong correlation exists with
traced refracturing.
In initial fracturing operations,
proppant-tracing technology can be very
useful in addressing the questions of un-
stimulated perforation clusters, prop-
pant coverage across the lateral, and
cluster and stage spacing. It can also
be used to highlight possible fracture-
geometry changes by looking at the near-
wellbore signature (transverse or lon-
gitudinal) of the three distinct tracers.
For multiwell projects, proppant tracers
can be an excellent tool to measure offset
proppant communication directly.
Offset-Communication Analysis. Re-
cent studies have shown that early inter-
well communication does not necessarily
correspond to long-term communication.
Surface-pressure and water-production
changes are two observed indicators of
offset communication. Though a pres-
sure response in an offset well is an in-
dication of fracture pressure communi-
cation, it does not definitively indicate
a well-connected fracture system. Simi-
larly, increases in water production can
represent recovery of the well’s newly
displaced fracturing fluid instead of fluid
from an offset. To determine effective
drainage areas and optimized well spac-
ings adequately in both initial and refrac-
ture completions, it is critical to evalu-
ate the magnitude, duration, and type of
communication observed.
Fluid-tracer technology has been used
extensively in new completions to pro-
file fracturing-fluid and hydrocarbon re-
coveries, and it is often used to quanti-
fy interwell communication. Its use as a
refracturing diagnostic tool is relatively
new and primarily focuses on determin-
ing the created refracturing geometry
and the effective drainage area. When run
in conjunction with proppant tracers, it
allows a time-lapse image of any offset
“fracture hits.”
Hydrocarbon tracers in conjunc-
tion with proppant and fluid tracers
can play a critical role in addressing
these offset-communication questions.
They offer the opportunity to obtain
a direct measurement of the commu-
nication and of the type of overall hy-
drocarbon drainage area that is being
developed (e.g., how much of the re-
serves are being shared).
The Refracturing Process
Candidate Selection. Developing a
master list of available wellbores and
then grading or ranking candidates by
key criteria can improve overall proj-
ect economics significantly. One of the
best criteria to use initially is any large
unstimulated area identified by original
completion diagnostics.
It is important to have a strategy in
place to test and confirm (diagnostically)
conceptual ideas early in the refractur-
ing program. This will allow operators
to accelerate the optimization process
and ultimately gain sufficient knowl-
edge to “get it right the second time.”
One past mistake was restimulating an

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 63

 insufficient number of wells with little
to no evaluation data and then aban-
doning the program before it had been
tested adequately.
Another common error is to manage
expectations for a refracturing program
improperly. If the operator does an effec-
tive job of selecting the best candidates,
then one should expect some reasonable
percentage of the original-completion
initial productivity and estimated ulti-
mate recovery (EUR). Typically, poor
wells cannot be transformed into good
wells by the restimulation process.
Perforation/Completion Design. The
primary goal of restimulation is to con-
tact new rock. Most operators are add-
ing new perforations in an attempt to
have the refracturing initiate at differ-
ent points along the wellbore. Prop-
pant tracers are used to determine
what percentages of the new perfora-
tions are being stimulated relative to the
existing perforations.
Developing an effective perforation
strategy is critical to maximizing overall
proppant coverage. The majority of the
operators performing refracturing are
placing perforations along the entire lat-
eral. Unfortunately, this data suggest that
approximately 2,300 ft is the longest in-
terval that can be restimulated consis-
tantly; the challenge is avoiding the pref-
erential treatment of the heel. Several
operators are now considering the use
of high-energy propellant-assisted per-
forating in the toe interval to increase
the likelihood of more-effective prop-
pant coverage. Another technique that
has been used is initially perforating the
toe half of the lateral.
Diversion. Operators are using a multi-
tude of diversion techniques to avoid re-
stimulating the same rock as the original
completion. Some operators have elect-
ed to use mechanical techniques to semi-
permanently isolate the existing perfora-
tions with cement, casing patches, coiled
tubing, or liners. This provides maxi-
mum flexibility for the number of stages
and stage spacing; however, it involves
some additional costs, mechanical risks,
and possible fracture-rate limitations. It
also potentially abandons any existing
production unless remedial work is per-
formed to remove the isolation.
64
Other operators are using nonmechan-
ical temporary isolation techniques such
as biodegradable ball sealers or poly-
mers. These methods typically are not
definitive isolation techniques, but offer
a cost-effective approach to alter the
stimulation path. The majority of these
products are designed to degrade with
temperature and pressure. The goal of
this diversion technique is to force the
fracture to go to a new, unstimulated re-
gion. However, the analysis of the data
indicates that new rock is seldom being
contacted after diversions. Anecdotal ev-
idence from a small data set of wells indi-
cates that proppant slugs are as effective
as or more effective than degradable iso-
lation products in generating a surface-
pressure increase.
The final method of diversion that is
currently being tested within the indus-
try is based on various treatment-design
changes such as sand slugs, stacking of
multiple complete fracturing jobs, and
actual job shutdowns. These methods are
likely the most cost-effective and offer
minimal risk.
The true challenge is determining how
an operator evaluates diversion effec-
tiveness. The simplest diagnostic mea-
surement of diversion effectiveness is
monitoring surface-pressure changes;
however, the pressure system in the well-
bore is complex enough to mask such
changes. The reality is that not all diver-
sion is effective.
Natural diversion is a cost-effective op-
tion that warrants some consideration.
The concept is to achieve the path of least
resistance through a clean perforating
tunnel or mini-fracture vs. an existing
perforation that could have scale build-
up, stress changes, and proppant placed
during a previous stimulation. This data
set supports the theory that new perfo-
rations can effectively break down dur-
ing the treatment even when there are
open, partially depleted perforations al-
ready in place.
Data Analytics
Diagnostic, completion, stimulation, and
production data for the 69 refractures,
sorted by completion type, are presented
and discussed in the complete paper. For
the purpose of this study, multiple diag-
nostic metrics were captured from wells
that used proppant tracers.
Performance Metrics. To compare re-
fracturing success from well to well ac-
curately, basic decline-curve analy-
sis was performed on each well. In all
cases, the original maximum monthly
rate and EUR were documented and com-
pared with the refracturing maximum
monthly rate and EUR. The key to this
analysis was consistency using the same
economic limits. The primary goal of
these EUR calculations was to have a
relative comparison of the quality of the
refractured completions.
Clusters Stimulated. Determining clus-
ters stimulated is a straightforward pro-
cess of examining detected gamma rays
across a perforated interval. It is normal
for given perforation depths to vary from
where they are detected, sometimes by
as much as 40 ft. In some cases, tracer
responses split two clusters; barring ex-
tensive growth, credit for stimulation is
given to only one cluster. When looking at
images from refracturing, it is important
to take into account the magnitude of the
response, which encompasses footage
along the length of the lateral and counts
detected. Observation of clusters treated
at the heel can give an idea of the near-
wellbore response that indicates being
clearly stimulated.
One recommendation for refracture
design is the inclusion of new clusters
from the midpoint to the toe, the purpose
being to force fracturing fluid toward the
end of the lateral. A tradeoff is made be-
tween covering gaps in the heel half vs.
stimulating deeper footage. Stimulation
is difficult to achieve beyond 2,300 ft
from the heel.
Near-Wellbore Footage Treated. Calcu-
lated near-wellbore footage treated is the
number of feet along the wellbore show-
ing a tracer response.
Clearly Stimulated Length From Heel
Cluster. A metric derived from the diag-
nostics is the length clearly stimulated
from the heel cluster. The purpose of this
metric is to determine the continuous
footage treated—essentially, how much
of the lateral was stimulated effectively.
This differs from the near-wellbore foot-
age treated in that more of the job was
(Continued on page 92)
JPT • JANUARY 2016
An Integrated Methodology To Locate Oil
Opportunities in Mature Reservoirs

A matured field is currently

producing with greater than
85% water cut (WC) and has significant
shore-face deposits. Sands are loosely
consolidated, fine- to very-fine-grained,
and interbedded with layers of silts and
reservoirs in 1980; no samples were
taken from Deep reservoirs. The reser-
voirs mostly contain light oil. Crude-
levels of uncertainty with respect to clays. Porosity ranges from 14 to 26%, oil gravity varies from approximately
oil/water contact (OWC), flank with a fieldwide mean of 20%. The per- 20 °API in the Shallow reservoirs to ap-
structure, depth of spill points, meabilities are on the order of 50 to proximately 40 °API in the Main reser-
production allocation, and residual 3,000 md. Net sand thicknesses are less voirs. The deeper reservoirs contain oil
oil saturation. A robust work flow than 30 ft, with most individual sands at of 40 to 43 °API.
was developed to identify infill approximately 10 ft. The reservoirs are
opportunities by integrating material- subdivided into three categories: Challenges
balance study, cased-hole-log 1. Shallow reservoirs at depths of Despite being under production for al-
information, water diagnostic plots, 4,000 to 5,300 ft are characterized by most 40 years, only the Main reservoirs
decline-curve analysis, and other large gas caps and mostly thin oil rims have a completed static model. However,
information. The comprehensive and are currently considered unfaulted. this was based on the old 2D-seismic inter-
locate-the-remaining-oil (LTRO) 2. Main reservoirs at depths of 5,300 pretation. Hence, as part of the geological
methodologies applied have been to 6,000 ft with no gas caps are also cur- review, the new 3D-seismic interpreta-
successful and have helped to estimate rently considered unfaulted. tion was incorporated into the study and
the potential reserves as well. 3. Deep reservoirs at depths of 6,000 three static models were built for each of
to 9,500 ft can carry high pressures the West Lutong subreservoirs (Shallow,
Introduction and are dissected by a northwest- Main, and Deep). A full-field simulation
The field is 20 km offshore Sarawak, headed growth fault with possible asso- study was planned to evaluate infill and
Malaysia, in water depths of 100  ft. ciated additional faulting. enhanced-oil-recovery opportunities.
The field structure consists of a Production from the field started in One of the major concerns is the struc-
30,000×9,000-ft elongated anticline 1968, peaking in the early 1980s. Cur- tural interpretation; the structure spill
running northeast/southwest and com- rent oil production is approximate- point in the model is above the interpret-
prises a series of stacked reservoirs at ly 5,000  STB/D, with an average WC ed initial OWC. This leads to oil satura-
a depth of 4,000 to 9,500 ft. The field of 80%. The field has moderate to tion spilling over in some of the reser-
is considered structurally simple, with very strong aquifer support. The Shal- voirs in the static model, thus limiting the
a normal growth fault affecting only the low and Main reservoirs mostly expe- confidence in fluid saturation.
deep reservoirs and no other faults vis- rienced strong aquifer support. Cur- Another significant issue encountered
ible on 2D seismic or in the wells. rent reservoir pressures generally have in the modeling exercise was facies def-
The field reservoirs were deposit- declined by less than 10% below the inition. This problem became more se-
ed during the Late Miocene in a lower initial pressures. vere in the Shallow reservoirs because
coastal plain to the coastal environ- Subsurface pressure/volume/temper- the sands were more interlaminated and
ment. The depositional environment of ature (PVT) samples were collected from shaly in nature. Unavailability of core
this field is dominated by a sequence of Main reservoirs in 1968 and Shallow from shallow reservoirs has limited the
understanding of reservoir characteriza-
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights tion. This has led to various realizations
of paper IPTC 18004, “An Integrated Methodology To Locate the Remaining-Oil of facies modeling to tackle reservoir-
Opportunities in Mature Reservoirs in Offshore Sarawak, Malaysia,” by M.J. Zulhaimi, connectivity issues.
Finally, a significant challenge in this
W.M.S. Wan Ibrahim, S. Sanyal, K.A. Zamri, M.N. Mohamad, and K.N.M. Zaini,
mature field is the high recovery fac-
EORC; R.D. Tewari, Petronas; and A.K. Pradhan, ADCO, prepared for the 2014
tor in key reservoirs. This was initial-
International Petroleum Technology Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 10–12 December. The ly inferred to be caused by a potential
paper has not been peer reviewed. production-allocation issue and under-
estimation of stock-tank oil initially in
Copyright 2014 International Petroleum Technology Conference. Reproduced by place. The production-allocation study
permission. was performed, and no major concern

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 65


Reservoir-Level
Performance
Review
Plot Drainage
Radius
(Allocated by
Layer) on Maps
Fig. 1—LTRO-1 work flow.
was observed. The lower volume in the
model was found to be attributed to a
skewed porosity distribution owing to
nonavailability of porosity logs in some
of the key wells. An exponential function
from the porosity vs. gamma ray correla-
tion was used for generating pseudopo-
rosity logs. Porosity modeling was im-
proved by including the pseudoporosity
logs, which resulted in better control in
porosity distribution.
Rationale of LTRO Approach
A fit-for-purpose static model was ad-
opted, followed by an integrated classical
methodology to locate the remaining oil
and to estimate potential reserves.
A new static model that encompass-
es the three major groups of reser-
voirs (Shallow, Main, and Deep), cover-
ing more than 6,000 ft of rock column,
has been built with the revised struc-
ture, contacts, and petrophysical prop-
erties. This “Mega Model” is kept sim-
ple and coarse, with an average cell
height of approximately 10 ft, while the
petrophysical properties were popu-
lated through normal kriging. Hence,
no facies modeling was involved in this
work flow.
66
Well-Level
Well-Perforation
Performance
and Log Analysis
Review
Stick Plots
Material
To Estimate
Balance
Current
Analysis
Contacts
An integrated methodology suitable
for the identification of remaining- or
bypassed-oil opportunities in waterdrive
reservoirs was developed and applied
in the work flow. The study was car-
ried out for each of the reservoir units.
Reservoir-performance review was first
carried out with material-balance and
average-fluid-contact-movement calcu-
lations to understand the drive mech-
anism and estimate the potential cur-
rent contacts. Together with animation
of production data on maps, a good view
of the production aquifer-influx progres-
sion with time was obtained, enabling
initial identification of potential remain-
ing oil. Well-performance data were used
to evaluate the most likely current fluid
contacts and location of remaining-oil
opportunities. The inferred fluid con-
tacts were calibrated with fluid contents
observed in recent openhole logs and
cased-hole logs.
LTRO Methodologies
and Work Flow
The main methodologies of this work can
be subdivided into two major categories:
1. Locating the potential drainage loca-
tions (LTRO-1)
Recent Well
Logs and
Cased-Hole-Log
Analysis
Water
Diagnostic
Plots
2. Estimating the potential reserves
(LTRO-2)
In LTRO-1, the study focuses on
understanding and performing the
reservoir-level performance review and
well-by-well performance reviews; in-
tegrating well-perforation and -log
analysis; and leveraging available re-
cent openhole logs and cased-hole
logs, water diagnostic plots, material-
balance analysis, well-performance-
stick plots, and bubble-map analysis
(Fig. 1).
LTRO-2 includes efforts to estimate
possible initial rates from analog wells
and productivity-index studies, decline-
curve analysis, ultimate-recovery statis-
tical analysis, density-map volumetric
analysis, and target ranking and priori-
tization (the work flow is illustrated in
Fig. 7 of the complete paper).
There are a number of key assump-
tions made in the study. The first is
that of production allocation. The
commingled-production and estimated-
ultimate-recovery (EUR) data were allo-
cated to subreservoirs. The subreservoir
well is then used to estimate the poten-
tial ultimate drainage radius. This leads
to another key assumption: EUR drain-
JPT • JANUARY 2016
age radius. The drainage radius is then
used as the basis for drawing the well
EUR bubble maps to identify potential
undrained remaining oil.
The next assumption is the deter-
mination of possible current gas/oil
contacts (PCGOC) and possible cur-
rent oil/water contacts (PCOWC). The
study assumes the movements of con-
tacts to be linear and uniform and ne-
glects the capillary and gravitation-
al forces. The PCGOC and PCOWC are
determined by integrating information
from recent well logs, material-balance
contact-movement studies, and well-
Registration Now Open!
production performance.
An example of the work flow is pro-
vided in the complete paper to illustrate
the application of the methodologies.

Results and Key Findings

The remaining-oil opportunities iden-
tified are located around the crest un-
derlain by an advancing aquifer (Main
and Deep reservoirs) or are located be-
tween a remaining gas cap and an ad-
vancing aquifer (Shallow reservoirs).
Oil production from the future drainage
points is expected to be accompanied
IADC/SPE
by high producing WC and, in some
cases, by high producing gas/oil ratio
DRILLING
(GOR). The bulk of potential oil recovery
would most likely be produced at a WC CONFERENCE
level of 50–95%. Early or immediate
water breakthrough would be expect- AND EXHIBITION
ed, and the potential oil reserves would
be recovered at increasingly higher WC. Fort Worth, Texas, USA
Those drainage points with remaining 1–3 March 2016
gas cap (Shallow reservoirs) would also
produce at high GOR.
Fort Worth Convention Center
Uncertainties in potential oil-recovery www.spe.org/events/dc/2016
volumes are associated with the current
fluid-contact uncertainties. The identi- Visit www.spe.org/events/dc/2016
fication of remaining-oil opportunities to learn more and sign up to receive
is based on inferences derived from re- conference updates and news.
viewing the remaining-oil opportunities
by use of an integrated conventional ap-
proach. The locations and fluid contacts
are therefore approximate. It is recom-
mended to mitigate this risk by confirm-
ing the higher-oil-saturation intervals
through logging, to optimize comple-
tion intervals. JPT

JPT • JANUARY 2016 67

 Conditioning Mature Vertical Wells
To Stimulate and Test Shale Productivity

O ne of the most promising targets

for resource-rock stimulation
in South America is the Vaca Muerta
1990s. The latter zone had approximate-
ly 30 wells, which had exhausted their
economic output from productive areas.
ment placement with proppant plugs for
diversion (HPAP-PPD). A candidate well
was then selected to evaluate the imple-
(VM) shale in western Argentina. It mentation of this new approach (Well D).
is common practice for operators to Phase 1—Study. Initially, of the 30 wells This well did not have a good set of open-
begin exploration projects with vertical in the area, only 22 were able to be op- hole logs, so the approach was to apply the
wells; however, in the Neuquina basin, erated, and only 11 of those had good- technique used in Well C (which already
most already-existing vertical wells quality cement covering the VM forma- had a well calibration). The well geome-
are not viable candidates to assess the tion. One significant point is that these try was similar to previous instances and
VM because they were not designed wells were not designed to meet the had perforation openings in the Quintuco
as shale-type completions. This paper pressure-rating requirements of a shale- (above the VM formation). Additionally,
discusses the preparation of a well type completion; they presented a vari- preconditioning of the location and well-
originally drilled in 1974 to allow for the ety of geometries and older technology. head was required; details of this process
new objective of hydraulic fracturing the A pilot plan was initiated for the evalu- are provided in the complete paper.
VM shale, to test the productivity of its ation of three wells—Wells A, B, and C.
different intervals. Candidates were selected on the basis of Phase 2—Swell-Packer Design. To
the reservoir and well conditions and the condition the well, the use of a pack-
Introduction logistics to be operated. er with a large internal diameter was
This field consists of three main for- required to allow the passage of the
mations—Los Molles, Tordillo, and Phase 1—Pilot Plan. A summary of each bottomhole assembly (BHA) on coiled
Lajas—and oil is produced in the north- of the wells was established in which the tubing (CT). Existing technology (swell-
ern part, known as Agua del Cajón. In main objectives and results were stated, packer) was used to adapt the new
the Agua del Cajón area, the VM for- as well as the developed learning curve. nontraditional application.
mation consists of mudstones and, very For the execution of the work in each of
sparingly, wackestones. the wells, it was necessary to condition Conditioning of Well and Preplanning.
The maximum temperature and them. Details of the pilot plan for each In the conditioning stage, the purpose
productivity-index (PI) values indicate well, and of the good results experienced was to prepare the final geometry for the
that the thickness of the center and for each, are provided in the complete pinpoint completion. Details of logging
northern area is in an oil window, while paper. Because of the positive results and other types of testing for this step are
southward is an early oil window or an from the pilot project, it was decided to provided in the complete paper.
immature formation. The Agua del Cajón attempt to improve the development of
has two distinct areas for its history the VM formation by making older verti- Operation of Well D
and development—a central zone gas, cal wells economically viable. Pinpoint Technique. The HPAP-PPD
currently in full production (El Salitral process in a vertical well is illustrated in
field) and a north zone (Agua del Cajón), Phase 2—Feasibility of New Comple- Fig. 1. The jetting-tool assembly is first
the drilling and exploitation of which tion Plan. To achieve the goals of the positioned at the lowermost intended
were very active in the 1970s and 1980. new completion plan, it was decided to fracture position (Fig. 1a). An abrasive
Development was completed with a use a pinpoint completion type called the slurry is then pumped into the CT and
secondary-recovery operation in the hydrajet-perforating, annular-path treat- jetted out of the tool at high pressures to
form perforations (Fig. 1b). At this time,
fracturing-pad fluid is pumped through
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
the annulus, increasing pressure rapid-
of paper SPE 172724, “Conditioning Pre-Existing Old Vertical Wells To Stimulate and
ly to cause a fracture to be generated
Test Vaca Muerta Shale Productivity Through the Application of Pinpoint Completion (Fig.  1c). The proppant slurry is then
Techniques,” by Pablo Forni, Capex, and Juan C. Bonapace, Federico Kovalenko, pumped into the fracture, and when the
Mariano N. Garcia, and Federico Sorenson, Halliburton, prepared for the 2015 fracture is extended satisfactorily, an in-
Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference, Manama, Bahrain, 8–11 March. The duced screenout is attempted to form a
paper has not been peer reviewed. solid pack in the fracture (Fig. 1d), and a

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

68 JPT • JANUARY 2016

 (a) Position tool (b) Perforate
Fig. 1—Steps of the HPAP-PPD technique.
“plug” of high-concentration proppant
in a viscous gel is left within the wellbore.
The CT is then lowered to the next perfo-
rating position while reverse cleaning (or
vacuuming) the sand plug (Fig. 1e), and
the process repeats (Figs. 1f and 1g).
Well Operation. Initially, in the lower
section of the well, there were problems
with the abrasive-jet perforations (had to
be repeated or new ones added) and with
the stimulation treatments (screenout).
This led to a series of changes in the frac-
turing treatment, to allow adjustments
to well and formation conditions. These
modifications allowed the development
of the lower part of the well during the
rest of the operations without problems.
Initial Operation—CT. By use of CT,
the BHA was run into the well. Once
reaching the bottom, the depth of the
mechanical plug (2605 m) was checked.
Then, the well fluid was changed to oil
to activate the swell packer. The CT sys-
tem’s depth was adjusted because of the
plug-depth measurement. Then, the BHA
was positioned at the depth for the first
abrasive perforation.
Zone 1. Abrasive Perforation. With CT
at depth, an annular backpressure of
2,000 psi was applied. Pumping began
from the CT at a rate of 2.6 bbl/min
and a pressure of 8,574 psi (abrasive
perforation), pumping 1,600 gal of lin-
ear gel with a total of 16 sacks of sand
(1.0 lbm/gal). Then, approximately
300 gal of 15% hydrochloric acid (HCl)
was pumped. When the HCl reached the
BHA, the annulus was closed and flow
was decreased to 1.0 bbl/min. Break-
down was observed at 5,482 psi (clear
connectivity to the well formation).
Stimulation. Pumping began through
the annulus to create hydraulic frac-
tures, starting with a preacid pad at
JPT • JANUARY 2016
(c) Fracture (d) Pull tool (e) Clean and
reposition
5.0  bbl/min, achieving the same forma-
tion pressure response as observed previ-
ously. The fracture rate was increased to
21.2 bbl/min with a wellhead pressure of
6,530 psi. The treatment was pumped ac-
cording to the program but ended sud-
denly because of increasing pressure and
screenout. The CT pressure (pseudodead
string) showed a negative trend during
pumping of the pad and the first concen-
trations, then a flat pressure response
was observed while pumping 1 lbm/gal of
30/60-mesh proppant. An abrupt pres-
sure increase was observed when 2.5 lbm/
gal of 20/40-mesh proppant hit the per-
foration and caused a screenout. After the
screenout, reverse circulating the prop-
pant was conducted (requiring 2 hours),
and two successful pressure tests on the
sand plug were performed to help ensure
the isolation of the first fracturing stage.
Zone 2. Abrasive Perforation. With the
CT at depth and repeating the same se-
quence as described for Zone 1, a break-
down was observed at 6,120-psi pres-
sure. During pumping of the stimulation
treatment (preacid pad), high pressure
was observed, which made it impossible
to achieve the designed flow rate. It was
decided to create a new perforation at
2547 m, but batch pumping of HCl was re-
moved from the process. Once a displace-
ment volume of 900 gal was in the annular
space created by the abrasive perforation,
the annulus was closed and breakdown
pressure (5,881 psi) was observed.
Stimulation. First-stage alterations
were introduced in the pumping sched-
ule. Pumping began at an annular flow
rate of 24.3 bbl/min and 7,350-psi well-
head pressure. A sweep of clean fluid was
pumped between the two sizes of prop-
pant, and the treatment ended suddenly
(screenout). The CT pressure (pseudo-
dead string) showed a slightly negative
trend during the pad and the first con-
(f) Second fracture (g) Third fracture
centrations, so a change was made to
use 1.5 lbm/gal of 30/60-mesh proppant,
which resulted in a positive increase.
After the sweep, the trend was stable
until reaching 2.6 lbm/gal of 20/40-mesh
proppant at the formation, resulting in
a screenout. After the screenout, prop-
pant was reverse circulated (requiring 2
hours) and a pressure test (positive) was
performed on the sand plug to help en-
sure isolation of this second stage.
Results for Zones 3 and 4 are provided
in the complete paper, as are final results
for the 12 stimulation treatments.
Conclusions
◗ The use of a cased-hole-logging
methodology (pulsed neutron plus
neural network) in old wells with
little openhole-log information
allowed synthetic curves to be
generated that could be used
to perform a more consistent
interpretation of the VM formation.
◗ The isolation element (swell packer)
used was an existing technology
adapted for a new application.
◗ The completion technique
[hydrajet-assisted fracturing (HJAF)
process] required a total of 7 days
(1 day for assembly, 1 day for final
cleanup, and 5 days to complete 12
fracturing stages).
◗ The VM formation can be stimulated
using pinpoint techniques by
adapting fracturing treatments to
this technology.
◗ Previous perforation/sand-plug
completions (Wells A, B, and C)
used an initial flow rate of 1.8
to 2.3 bbl/min per hole; Well
D, completed using the HJAF
technique, used a rate of 4 to
12 bbl/min per hole, which is a
higher value and imparts greater
energy to initiate and propagate
the hydraulic fracture. JPT
69
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Well Integrity
Otto Luiz Alcantara Santos, SPE, Master Technical Adviser, Petrobras

The tragic blowout of Macondo has
triggered many technical and manage-
rial developments in the field of well
integrity since its occurrence in April
2010. Acting as a catalyzer since
then, this event has demanded from
all industry players a huge amount
of effort to mitigate the risk of well-
integrity problems.
Originally, these efforts were aimed at
deepwater drilling in the Gulf of Mexico,
but, with time, they were disseminated
throughout the oil industry, where well
integrity is a must. Undoubtedly, signifi-
cant progress has been made in enhanc-
ing safety during all phases of the well
life cycle, mainly in the areas of well-
control equipment and reliability, subsea
well control and containment, documen-
tation, training and competency assur-
ance, and well-integrity management
systems and processes.
Here, I address important headway
made in two areas in which I have been
deeply involved during my profession-
al career, mainly after Macondo: well-
integrity documentation and well-control
training and competency assurance.
Undoubtedly, significant
progress has been made
in enhancing safety during
all phases of the well life
cycle, mainly in the areas
of well-control equipment
and reliability, subsea well
control and containment,
documentation, training
and competency assurance,
and well-integrity
management systems
and processes.
One of the first actions in response to
the blowout was the formation of four
joint-industry taskforces. Two of them
provided recommendations on operating
procedures and equipment that result-
ed in the revision of some American
Petroleum Institute standards and the
development of new ones. Some other
standardization organizations also have
been making contributions, elaborat-
ing and revising well-integrity-related
standards (such as NORSOK D-010 and
ISO 16530-2). Many operator companies
(including mine) and drilling contrac-
tors have been reviewing and updating
their well-integrity procedures and prac-
tices, especially those related to deep-
water operations.
Concerning well-control training and
competency assurance, following the
recommendation of Report 476 of the
International Association of Oil and Gas
Producers, the certifying bodies execut-
ed changes in the contents of the courses
to stress important subjects such as bar-
rier management, risk management, well
influx detection, and immediate response
and to adapt the training to well opera-
tion, rig category, and responsibility of
the people involved with all types of oper-
ations. Thus, the crew members are now
trained and assessed better according to
their roles on the rigs. More class hours
are now dedicated to simulator exercises.
Arguably, this move is making the well-
control-certification systems more reli-
able and more standardized among all
training institutions. JPT

Otto Luiz Alcantara Santos, SPE, is the coordinator of the well-

control training and certification program of Petrobras, instructor
Recommended additional reading
of deepwater and advanced well-construction technologies at
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
Petrobras University, and a master technical adviser of Petrobras.
He holds a BS degree in civil engineering and an MS degree in SPE 175523 Searching for Well-Integrity
petroleum engineering from the Colorado School of Mines and a Issues—Automated Generation of Annulus-
PhD degree in petroleum engineering from Louisiana State Pressure Trends by Remco Donders,
University. Santos was also a faculty member at the University of Total E&P UK, et al.
Tulsa in 1994. He has written several technical papers in well-construction technology, OTC 25256 Enhancing Well Control
especially on well integrity and directional and horizontal drilling, and he coauthored Through Managed-Pressure Drilling
the book Directional Drilling. Santos is editor of the SPE book Drilling and Production by Oscar Gabaldon, Blade Energy Partners,
Operations in HPHT Wells. He was an SPE Distinguished Lecturer for 2009–10. Santos et al.
is the current program chairperson of SPE Bahia/Sergipe Section and has served or is SPE/IADC 173822 Field Trial of Well-
currently serving on several SPE committees. He is also a member of the JPT Editorial Control Solutions With a Dual-Gradient
Committee. In 2010, Santos received the Exemplary Service Award from the International Drilling System by John H. Cohen,
Association of Drilling Contractors. Enhanced Drilling, et al.

70 JPT • JANUARY 2016

Method of Surface Interception To Access
Annulus With Abnormal Gas Pressure

O ne of the operator’s newly

acquired ventures is in the North
field offshore Qatar. Abnormal rise in
up every time, indicating a continuous in-
trusion of gas. Further pressure bleedoff
was not attempted because of concerns
was ruled out. The 18⅝-in.-casing strings
have nonpremium-thread connections
and are not gas tight. Hence, the likely
Annuli C and D pressures during the last that it may open up the communication path of gas ingress into Annulus D was
phase of drilling highlighted the need to channels and aggravate the situation. believed to be through leaks across the
investigate the condition of producing Several attempts were then made to 18⅝-in.-casing thread connections.
wells on other platforms. The chances lubricate and fill Annulus C with treated
of inner annuli becoming charged with brine, but these attempts did not help Interim Arrangement
shallow-gas pressure and possible to subdue the gas pressure. A propos- for Annulus D
communication to Annulus D was al was then made to operate the wells Overpressure Protection
thought to be a well-integrity concern. with modified maximum-allowable- A temporary arrangement was planned
Establishing safe access to the sealed annulus-surface-pressure and maximum- and implemented to produce the wells
and potentially gas-charged Annulus D allowable-wellhead-operating-pressure with sustained pressures in Annuli C
thus posed a challenge. techniques for Annulus C, considering it and D. Annulus C of the wells was in-
fully charged with gas. stalled with a dedicated monitoring and
Introduction With time, it was established that the bleed-off facility, whereas Annulus D did
The North field is offshore north- same wells also developed gas pressure not have those provisions. To monitor
east of Qatar and is the world’s largest in Annulus D. Annulus D pressure and to bleed off if
nonassociated-gas field. The wells are necessary, Annulus D of these wells was
typically 7-in. monobore completed with a Investigation Into the Source interconnected to Annulus C with ½-in.
26-in. conductor and three casing strings. of Gas in Annuli C and D control line and isolation valves.
Wells are completed with a liner-top iso- To understand the possible source of A single block-and-bleed valve was in-
lation packer, tied back to the surface with the gas, gas samples were collected from stalled in the ½-in. port on the 2-in. flange
7-in. corrosion-resistant-alloy tubing. Annulus C and compositional analysis of Annulus D. This valve was equipped
The annuli between the well cas- was conducted. with a pressure gauge and tubed up to
ings are labeled A (7×10¾ in.), B A comparison of gas-sample analyses the monoflange double-block-and-bleed
(10¾×13⅜  in.), C (13⅜×18⅝ in.), and suggested that abnormal pressure in An- valve on the pressure transmitter (PT)
D (18⅝×26 in.). Provisions were made nulus C was because of gas from the for- of Annulus C. This arrangement provid-
for monitoring and bleeding off pres- mation at a shallow depth. The migration ed local pressure reading when bleed-
sures in Annuli A, B, and C. path of the gas was believed to be through ing off Annulus D into the Annulus C
channels in cement in Annulus C. flare connection.
Background A pressure increase in Annulus D could A risk assessment was performed be-
During the drilling and well-completion occur because of 18⅝-in.-casing thread fore implementing the temporary ar-
phase, some of the wells developed un- leaks or from the 26-in. conductor shoe. rangement. A risk of overpressurizing
usual pressures in Annulus C. Attempts The conductor shoe was far from the Annulus D with Annulus C gas was iden-
were made to bleed off gas through the charged part of the formation; hence, gas tified. To avoid communication of high
drilling facility. However, pressures built migration through the conductor shoe Annulus C pressure to Annulus D dur-
ing the depressurization process, a step-
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights by-step procedure was developed. This
of paper IPTC 18122, “A Safe and Efficient Method of Surface Interception To Access procedure ensured isolation of Annu-
lus C before lining up Annulus D to the
Outermost Sealed Annulus Charged With Abnormal Gas Pressure Relieves Well-
flare header.
Integrity Concerns,” by Prashun Kumar Das and Wael Moneer El-Mandrawy,
Qatargas, prepared for the 2014 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Interception
Kuala Lumpur, 10–12 December. The paper has not been peer reviewed. of Sealed Annulus D
Primary well design did not include any
Copyright 2014 International Petroleum Technology Conference. Reproduced by provision to monitor and control Annu-
permission. lus D pressure. Annulus D of most of the

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 71

 Pressure-gauge (PG) connection
Current configuration: 6-in. flange with isolation valve is hooked up
to a PG located at tree level.
New configuration: New PT is installed; to be hooked up
downstream of needle valve.
Fig. 1—Temporary and permanent hookup configurations for the Annulus D overpressure-protection system.
wells was plugged. Attempts were not
made to remove these plugs because of
the possibility of trapped gas pressure. A
procedure was developed to remove the
plugs safely while maintaining control of
any trapped annulus pressure. This pro-
cedure also included installation of ad-
ditional outlet equipment to monitor and
control annulus pressure.
Drilling of 2-in. Solid Plugs. A method
was developed to drill the 2-in. plugs safe-
ly by use of a manual hot-tap unit and to
bleed down the trapped pressure. A risk
assessment was conducted while prepar-
ing the procedure. Though attempts to
bleed off Annulus D pressures in other
wells were successful, there was an uncer-
tainty concerning whether the trapped
Annulus D pressures in these wells could
be bled off completely. If bleeding off
pressure was unsuccessful, there was a
possibility that the purpose-built hot-tap
saddle, packoff, and ball valve would have
to remain as part of the wellhead assem-
bly. This would allow an access point to
pump into the annulus if required. The
second risk identified was potential dam-
age to the inner casing (18⅝ in.) while
drilling the 2-in. plug. A mitigation action
was in place to avoid such an occurrence.
Workshop Trials. The packoff of the
hot-tap unit was designed to seal on the
outer face of the threadolet. A stack-
up test was conducted in the shop be-
fore mobilizing the equipment. To avoid
potential damage to the inner casing
(18⅝ in.) while drilling the 2-in. plug, the
exact drilling depth was defined.
72
Vent connection
Current configuration: 2-in. flange with valve is hooked up
to vent line.
New configuration: New PRV with valves lined up; to be hooked
up downstream of needle valve.
On-Site Installation. A 30-in. saddle
clamp was rigged up on the conductor
along with the hot-tap unit. A pressure
test was conducted successfully. The 2-in.
solid plug was drilled out with a ¾-in.
drill in a controlled manner. The trapped
pressure was bled off safely. The hot-
tap unit and the saddle clamp were then
rigged down. The 2-in. solid plug was re-
moved from the flange easily. A 2×½-in.
reducer and needle valve and a pressure
gauge were installed.
Removal of ½-in. Hex Plugs From the
6-in. Flange of the Starter Head. An-
other procedure was developed to re-
move the ½-in. hex plugs safely from
the 6-in. flange of the starter head and to
bleed down the trapped pressure safely
with a manual hot-tap unit. A risk assess-
ment was performed while preparing the
procedure. In the event of unsuccess-
ful removal of the plug or unsuccessful
blowdown of trapped pressure, the pro-
cedure incorporated a contingency plan
to leave the purpose-built hot-tap pack-
off and low-torque valve in place as a
part of the wellhead assembly.
Workshop Trials. The packoff of the
hot-tap unit was designed to seal on the
outer face of the 6-in. flange. As with the
plug-drilling job, a stack-up test was con-
ducted in the shop before mobilizing the
equipment. A pressure test was conduct-
ed up to 2,500 psi in the workshop.
On-Site Installation. Using a stan-
dard hot-bolting technique, the exist-
ing ¾-in. studs were replaced one by
one with ¾×9-in.-long studs. A packoff
adapter was then installed on the flange,
ensuring proper access to the ¼-in. test
port. A pressure test was performed. The
hot-tap assembly was then installed on
the packoff adaptor, and pressure was
tested to 1,500 psi. After the test, pres-
sure of 1,000 psi was maintained. A
sudden drop in the pressure would in-
dicate a successful plug-removal opera-
tion. The ½-in. plugs were removed,
and the trapped pressures were bled off
successfully. The hot-tap assembly and
the packoff adaptor were rigged down.
A pressure-bleedoff and -monitoring
manifold consisting of a needle valve,
two bleed-off caps, and a pressure gauge
was installed.
Permanent Arrangement
for Annulus D
Overpressure Protection
A permanent overpressure-protection
system is designed with the operating
philosophy that the Annulus D pres-
sure can be monitored and depressur-
ized remotely through manual inter-
vention. Annulus D is now connected
to the flare system through a dedicated
line. The bleed-off line from the 2-in.-
flange side on Annulus D incorporates
a manual bleed valve for manual con-
trol and a pressure-relief valve (PRV) for
overpressure protection. A PT is hooked
up to the existing needle valve on the
6-in.-flange side. The changes in the an-
nulus hookup configuration conducted
on-site are shown in Fig. 1. With the pres-
ent setup, Annulus D pressure is moni-
tored remotely. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
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 Smart Kick Detection—First Step
on the Well-Control-Automation Journey

O n the basis of safety performance

results achieved through
automation downstream, an operator
Given the challenge of finding a way
to automate the initial well-control re-
sponse to a kick, it soon became apparent
floating rig using the kick-detection
equipment supplied with the rig.
The base case+best sensors fault tree
set out to achieve the same advances in that setting a goal to provide the driller provided the opportunity to envision the
its upstream business. Automating the with a reliable kick-detection system that potential incremental performance im-
initial well-control response to an influx uses the three different methods, as cur- provement that could be achieved by re-
was the initial focus area, with the goal rently taught for each of the listed activi- placing existing sensors with the highest-
of assisting personnel in identifying ties, would be a good starting point. accuracy kick-detection sensors available.
and stopping any influx without delay. To better understand what a “smart The base case+best sensors+smart
This led to collaboration between an kick-detection system” might look like alarms fault tree provided the opportu-
operator, a rig contractor, and a rig- for a deepwater floating rig, the essen- nity to envision the potential incremental
equipment supplier. This paper describes tial kick-detection and well-shut-in re- performance improvement that could be
the development, deployment, and sponse steps were identified for each of achieved by adding kick-detection soft-
field testing of the first upgraded kick- the three relevant well-construction ac- ware capable of alerting the driller to
detection system from this collaboration. tivities listed. a kick as early as possible with both a
By combining these steps with appro- unique audible alarm and an easy-to-
Introduction priate reliability data, it was possible to understand, operationally relevant pop-
Kick detection is a critical activity during conduct a sensitivity analysis on a num- up kick-alarm window.
well construction that typically involves ber of the key variables to help define The base case+best sensors+smart
the driller monitoring various inputs to the opportunities for designing reliabil- alarms+automated shut-in fault tree pro-
determine if there is any indication of an ity into any new kick-detection system. vided the opportunity to envision the po-
influx of formation fluids into the well. tential incremental performance improve-
From a kick-detection perspective, the Kick-Detection ment that could be achieved by completely
majority of well-construction operations Fault-Tree Analysis automating the well-shut-in process.
can be categorized into one of the follow- To understand the value of possible im- The biggest improvement in kick-
ing three activities that require the driller provements to current kick-detection detection and shut-in performance
to use different kick-detection methods: systems in common use on deepwater (16.9%) was predicted to be from includ-
◗ Drilling or circulating floating rigs, the kick-detection and well- ing the best sensors. Adding smart alarms
◗ Making connections shut-in fault-tree analysis included evalu- resulted in a smaller-than-predicted, but
◗ Tripping in or out ation of the following sensitivities: still significant, additional performance
The primary kick indicators for drill- ◗ Base case improvement of 9.1%. Perhaps the most
ing or circulating are increase in mud- ◗ Base case+best sensors surprising result was that the predict-
return-flow rate (vs. mud flow in) and pit ◗ Base case+best sensors+smart ed incremental performance improve-
gain. While making connections, contin- alarms ment from adding automated shut-in was
ued return flow with pumps off and pit ◗ Base case+best sensors+smart only 1.3%. However, this may be attrib-
gain are the primary indicators. While alarms+automated shut-in utable to the driller’s high degree of kick-
tripping in or out, continued return flow The base-case fault tree was built to detection and well-shut-in competency
and trip-tank gain (vs. expected change) represent the typical performance of a assumed in the base case.
are the primary indicators. driller deployed on a modern deepwater As a result of the fault-tree sensitivity
analysis, a project was initiated to upgrade
the kick-detection system on a deepwater
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
floating rig, with two focus areas:
of paper SPE/IADC 173052, “Smart Kick Detection—First Step on the Well-Control-
◗ Using industry-recognized effective
Automation Journey,” by J.D. Brakel, SPE, and B.A. Tarr, SPE, Shell; W. Cox, kick-detection sensors and
Noble Drilling Services; and F. Jørgensen, SPE, and H.V. Straume, National Oilwell duplicating all sensors
Varco, prepared for the 2015 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition, London, ◗ Developing new kick-detection
17–19 March. The paper was peer reviewed and published in the September 2015 issue software that included operationally
of SPE Drilling & Completion. specific alarms

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

74 JPT • JANUARY 2016

Functional Specification while drilling, and return flow with zero
for Smart Kick Detection strokes/min (SPM) during connections]
Objectives. On the basis of the sensitivi- are used to trigger a distinctive audible SI METRIC
ty analysis, it was clear that the proposed kick alarm and the associated pop-up CONVERSION FACTORS
kick-detection-system upgrade for the kick-monitoring display. The kick-alarm The list below includes SI‰metric
conversion factors for common
targeted deepwater floating rig had to in- sound for these three alarms is a dedicat-
engineering units.
clude the following features: ed second-stage alarm tone that is distin-
◗ Best practical sensor technology guishable from all other alarms. acre × 4.046 873 E+03 =m2
with duplicate measurements for
acre × 4.046 873 E−01 =ha
all key parameters using different Kick-Detection-System Upgrade
acre-ft × 1.233 489 E+03 =m3
sensor types where possible Installation and Commissioning of
ampere-hr × 3.6* E+03 =C
◗ Robust rig-operations event Additional Sensors. Because commis-
detection to identify which kick- sioning was to be conducted in a small Å × 1.0* E−01 =nm
detection technique was applicable time window between wells, the new re- °API 141.5/(131.5+°API) =g/cm3
◗ Specific kick-detection algorithms mote input/output cabinet and all the atm × 1.013 250* E+05 =Pa
for the different rig-operation additional sensor cables were installed bar × 1.0* E+05 =Pa
events when different kick-detection before commissioning, leaving only the bbl × 1.589 873 E−01 =m3
techniques are required new pit-level sensors to be installed dur- Btu × 1.055 056 E+00 =kJ
◗ Audible kick alarm distinctively ing commissioning. Ci × 3.7* E+10 =Bq
different from other drilling-system Before installation of the additional pit- cp × 1.0* E−03 =Pa • s
alerts and alarms level sensors, detailed sensor-installation cycles/sec ×1.0* E+00 =Hz
◗ Easily understood kick-alarm pop- and -commissioning instructions were is-
dyne × 1.0* E−02 =mN
up window display for each type of sued along with sensor user manuals con-
eV × 1.602 19 E−19 =J
kick-detection technique taining detailed information on mounting
ft × 3.048* E−01 =m
restrictions with regard to pipes, walls,
Additional Sensors. A rig survey was agitators, and mud guns. ft2 × 9.290 304* E−02 =m2
conducted to verify which sensors were ft3 × 2.831 685 E−02 =m3
already installed and to find suitable lo- Installation and Commissioning of °F (°F−32)/1.8 =°C
cations for the required sensors to pro- Software. Following acceptance test- °F (°F+459.67)/1.8 =K
vide full redundancy of key measure- ing, the new kick-detection system was gal (U.S. liq) × 3.785 412 E−03 =m3
ments. The survey looked at additional installed and commissioned on the rig hp × 7.460 43 E−01 =kW
pit-volume sensors, standpipe-pressure when it was between wells and in con- hp-hr × 2.684 520 E+00 =MJ
sensors, return-flow sensors, and stroke junction with a training module. The in. × 2.54* E+00 =cm
sensors for all pumps. training module consisted of a classroom in.2 × 6.451 6* E+00 =cm2
walkthrough and a live demonstration.
in.3 × 1.638 706 E+01 =cm3
New Software. The pop-up kick- The software -installation and
kip × 4.448 222 E+03 =N
monitoring-display concept had already -commissioning sequence was as follows:
knot × 5.144 444 E−01 =m/s
been developed by the rig-equipment ◗ Back up all the existing software and
supplier on the basis of functional design computers. ksi × 6.894 757 E+03 =kPa
requirements for the type of information ◗ Install new software on all kW-hr × 3.6* E+06 =J
that would help the drilling team recog- remote workstations in the lbf × 4.448 222 E+00 =N
nize a potential kick, and the concept was accommodations. lbm × 4.535 924 E−01 =kg
ready to be integrated into this project. ◗ Install new server to host new mL × 1.0* E+00 =cm3
The pop-up displays were designed not software. mho × 1.0* E+00 =S
only to reinforce the audible kick alarms ◗ Install a new network router to mile × 1.609 344* E+00 =km
but also to provide enough alarm valida- accommodate the additional oz (U.S. fl) × 2.957 353 E+01 =cm3
tion data to guide the driller to make the components in the system. psi × 6.894 757 E+00 =kPa
decision whether to shut-in the well. ◗ Install new software on the drilling-
psi2 × 4.753 8 E+01 =kPa2
The objective of this pop-up display controls servers and programmable-
sq mile × 2.589 988 E+00 =km2
(for drilling and making connections) logic controller.
stokes × 1.0* E−04 =m2/s
was to reduce the amount of information ◗ Perform final commissioning of the
that must be monitored actively while system. ton × 9.071 847 E−01 =Mg
grouping the information in a manner ton (metric) × 1.0* E+00 =Mg
that allows the crew to take actions ap- Implementation Results tonf × 8.896 444 E+03 =N
propriate for the kick being experienced. Influx-Detection Performance. The tonne × 1.0* E+00 =Mg
For drilling and making connections, best way to speak about the newly in-
three key kick indicators [active pit- stalled kick-detection-system perfor- *Conversion factor is exact.

volume gain/loss, return-flow increase mance to date is to describe its response

JPT • JANUARY 2016 75


Motivate
Inspire
Educate
Nominate
Do you have colleagues who
are authorities in their fields and
experienced public speakers? If
you do, consider nominating one
or more of them for the Society of
Petroleum Engineers Distinguished
Lecturer Program.
Learn more about the program at
www.spe.org/go/NomDL.
Nominations are accepted until 15 March.
The SPE Distinguished Lecturer Program is funded by the SPE
Foundation, Offshore Europe, AIME, and companies that allow
their professionals to serve as lecturers.
76
during an actual small influx event that
occurred a few days after the system was
installed and commissioned.
In that instance, the driller experi-
enced a well influx while making a con-
nection. The driller began to decrease
the mud-pump strokes to zero in prep-
aration for another connection. A flow
check was then conducted by the drill
crew. The average pumps-off time for re-
turn flow to decrease to zero had been
noted as 90 seconds from previous con-
nections. The driller waited the normal
90 seconds and then asked a member
of the drill crew to perform a visual flow
check. The crew member reported con-
tinuous flow, and the driller reacted by
shutting in the well. A few minutes later,
the driller completed the well-shut-in
operation successfully.
The first positive indication of an in-
flux occurred just seconds before the
pumps were shut down and was based
on the small detected increase in return
flow that triggered the new, kick-
specific audible alarm and the corre-
sponding new pop-up window. How-
ever, because the driller was ready to
make a connection, the driller simply
acknowledged the return-flow-increase-
while-drilling alarm and proceeded with
the planned flow check that was part
of the routine connection procedure he
was using.
Before the driller completed the well-
shut-in operation, increasing return flow
triggered the return-flow-with-zero-SPM
positive influx indicator, resulting in the
second kick-specific audible alarm and
corresponding pop-up-window event.
The observed small return-flow rate after
pump shutdown was not easy to detect
from the paddle-style return-flow mea-
surement selected for this plot. It was
later identified from the positive slope
seen in the total pit-volume response after
the initial pump-shut-down transient. No
alarm was triggered by the abnormal pit-
volume response, or fingerprinting, after
pump shutdown because this type of pos-
itive influx indicator was not included in
this first-generation smart kick-detection
system. However, a second-generation
smart kick-detection system is now under
development that could include an ab-
normal-fingerprinting-type positive in-
flux alarm that will be active when the
mud pumps are shut down. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Analytical Model Estimates Flow Rate
and Total Discharge in Gas-Well Blowouts

D espite multitier safeguards,

blowouts occur. When such
accidents happen, rate estimation is
an important and daunting task. This
study presents an analytical model
coupling the flow in a reservoir/
wellbore system of a gas well. The
model considers flow in the tubing,
annulus, and riser and the attendant
heat transfer. To gauge safety concerns,
plume dispersion is modeled under
various wind-speed scenarios when
ignition sources are not present. In
the event of ignition, the energy of
the explosion is estimated with an
empirical method.
Introduction
The main purpose of this investigation is
to assess the coupled nature of transient
fluid flow in the reservoir and the com-
bined fluid and heat flows in the well-
bore. To that end, a coupled reservoir/
wellbore analytical model was developed,
which was then validated with field ex-
amples. In addition, this study attempts
to address issues related to dispersion
of the blowout plume and the explosion
hazard that the gas poses.
Model Development
When a blowout happens, the forma-
tion fluid comes into the surroundings
through the wellbore without any con-
trol and, in the meantime, the reservoir
pressure declines because of depletion of
the reservoir. To understand the blowout
mechanism, the authors split the blowout
model into three parts—reservoir, well-
bore, and their interaction.
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
of paper SPE 170274, “Flow-Rate and Total-Discharge Estimations in Gas-Well
Blowouts,” by R. Liu, A.R. Hasan, SPE, and S. Mannan, Texas A&M University, and
C.S. Kabir, SPE, Hess, prepared for the 2014 SPE Deepwater Drilling and Completions
Conference, Galveston, Texas, USA, 10–11 September. The paper has not been
peer reviewed.
Reservoir Model. In the reservoir
model, the material balance in the res-
ervoir is considered to calculate the
average reservoir pressure so that the
average reservoir properties can be
addressed properly.
Wellbore Model. During the blowout,
a large amount of formation fluid flows
from the reservoir to the bottom of the
hole. Because of the high pressure deep
in the wellbore, the velocities are rela-
tively low. The upward movement of
fluid will reduce the pressure, and the
velocity of formation fluid will increase
until it reaches sonic velocity because
of the thermodynamics limitation. The
existence of sonic velocity rarely oc-
curs with a single-phase oilwell blow-
out because the large hydrostatic pres-
sure gradient does not allow such high
velocity. It generally does not happen
with offshore wells, either, because the
pressure difference between the well-
head and the bottom of the hole is not
significant enough. However, with on-
shore gas wells and oil/gas wells, the
sonic velocity becomes a critical fac-
tor that needs to be considered. It is
important to calculate sonic velocities
of different phases under various well-
head conditions.
In a blowout situation, various sce-
narios may play out given the unknown
nature of formation conductivity, reser-
voir pressure, and fluid properties. For
overpressured reservoirs, the diameter
of the flow conduit will largely dictate
the wellbore-pressure gradient. In small-
volumetric reservoirs, the wellhead pres-
sure may decrease gradually to a point
at which the flow becomes marginal. In
all situations, wellhead pressure controls
the blowout behavior.
Reservoir/Wellbore Coupling. The
phenomenon of a blowout is similar
to high-rate production, except that
the rate for the blowout keeps chang-
ing over time. As a result, it is possible
to apply flow equations of a drawdown
test to the blowout model by neglecting
the superposition in time. The authors
considered both the early-time tran-
sient and the late-time pseudosteady-
state flow for a gas well in a bounded cir-
cular reservoir.
Applications of Model
The blowout rate declines with time as
reservoir depletion occurs. To simpli-
fy the problem, the authors divided the
blowout duration into small segments.
They assumed that the blowout rate gen-
erally remains constant in each time
segment. They first determine wheth-
er the sonic velocity could exist at each
timestep. If the reservoir pressure is high
enough to withstand the existence of
sonic velocity, the velocity becomes a
constraint at the wellhead. They used
the sonic velocity of the fluid under stan-
dard conditions as an initial input. The
new sonic velocity serves as a new input
for the model. The iterative calculation
procedure was continued until the solu-
tion convergence was attained within a
specified tolerance at a given timestep.
In addition, reservoir pressure can be
obtained from the results at previous
timesteps. This computation process
continues until the wellhead pressure
nears the ambient condition, indicat-
ing that the blowout is governed by the
constant wellhead pressure. If the sonic
velocity cannot exist, the wellhead pres-
sure becomes the constraint at the well-
head and controls the blowout behavior.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 77


140
90
Distance Crosswind (ft)
40
–10
–60
–110
–160
–160 –110
9.8 ft/sec
Fig. 1—Late explosion or the worst-case scenario caused by a blowout.
Modeling Dispersion
of Blowout Plume
During an onshore blowout, one of the
following scenarios may play out:
◗ Without an ignition source,
the gas will disperse to the
surroundings on the basis of wind
speed. Therefore, the toxicity and
dispersion of the plume, and the
consequent hazard, need to be
understood.
◗ In the presence of an ignition
source, the gas/air mixture may
ignite and result in jet fire and
explosion. To evaluate the fire and
explosion hazards, the authors
used the heat-flux intensity
associated with a jet fire and
the overpressure caused by an
explosion.
The methodology presented in this
study provides an opportunity to cap-
ture the evolution of blowout events
under different operational conditions.
The quantitative assessment of the risk
related to a blowout can also help op-
erational personnel make the right deci-
sions at the right time.
In the absence of ignition, a plume
will form because of the dispersion of
the toxic/flammable gas. The shape of
the plume depends on the wind speed
and buoyancy effect.
The evolution of the plume under dif-
ferent wind speeds was analyzed with
a commercial software package. The
78
–60 –10 40 90 140
Distance Downwind (ft)
16.4 ft/sec 26.2 ft/sec
results illustrate the boundary of the
plume. The top of the plume is higher
for the low-wind-speed situation than
it is for other situations because of the
buoyancy effect. At higher wind speeds,
the buoyancy effect is reduced and the
plume begins to touch the ground. As a
result, the health and safety of person-
nel and residents in the area will be in
jeopardy. In addition, the mixing effect
of released gas and air is enhanced with
the increase of wind speed. Therefore,
the plume affects a larger area in gentle
wind speeds compared with situations
with stronger winds.
When there is an ignition source near
the wellbore, the gas/air mixture might
be ignited, leading to explosion and fire.
The explosion of gas leads to a reac-
tion front moving away from the igni-
tion source, accompanied by a shock
wave. Even when the reaction mate-
rial is exhausted, the movement of the
shock wave does not stop. The pres-
sure resulting from the shock wave over
normal atmospheric pressure is called
overpressure, and this is an important
characterization of the consequence of
the explosion.
When the effect of explosion is evalu-
ated conservatively, the worst-case sce-
nario is always considered. It indicates
that the ignition source is present im-
mediately after the initiation of blowout,
when the plume of the released gas has
the largest volume, leading to the largest
area affected by explosion. Fig. 1 pres-
ents the worst-case scenario of an ex-
plosion when the ignition source is 5 ft
from the well. The ovals indicate an over-
pressure of 0.3 psi (for a specified wind
speed), which is considered a safety lim-
itation for buildings and personnel. Any
buildings and personnel inside the oval
will be in danger if explosion occurred
soon after the blowout. As Fig. 1 shows,
a distance of 150 ft from the blowout
source is covered by overpressure high-
er than 0.3 psi when the wind speed
is 9.8  ft/sec. With an increase of wind
speed, the unsafe area becomes smaller.
Jet fire is a flame with turbulent diffu-
sion because of the combustion of con-
tinuously released hydrocarbon gas in
a particular direction. Many jet fires are
followed by explosions. The jet fires may
occur immediately after a blowout in the
presence of an ignition source. In that
case, the radiation generated by the jet
fire must be taken into account.
Discussion
The blowout model presented here is
applicable for onshore gas wells, and it
also shows the potential application for
offshore gas and oil wells. For offshore
wells, because of the hydrostatic pres-
sure at a given water depth, the flow is
unlikely to be choked. Therefore, the
blowout behavior will be governed by
the constant wellhead pressure.
One difficulty with the proposed ap-
proach is that it is assumed that the
blowout rate reaches maximum value
immediately after the blowout. In fact,
the blowout rate would increase from
the normal production rate to the max-
imum value and then decline. Such an
increase in the rate at the beginning of
the blowout would take several minutes.
This short time period can be neglected
when the blowout lasts for days. Howev-
er, for blowouts lasting a short period of
time, such as several hours, the period
in which the blowout rate increases will
become significant for the prediction of
production loss.
This study provides a useful approach
to modeling blowouts under the assump-
tion of a single tubing diameter in the
absence of other wellhead restrictions.
However, the model is capable of captur-
ing phenomena that are more compli-
cated during real blowout events. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
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 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Decommissioning and Abandonment

Win Thornton, SPE, Vice President of Decommissioning, Global Projects Organization, BP

Decommissioning is a focus item for level of transparency now by operator can enable the supply
the newly formed Oil & Gas Authori- sharing asset-specific information chain through early sharing of asset
ty (OGA) in the UK. The OGA Corpo- (i.e., facility drawings or well details and flexibility in contracting
rate Plan (www.gov.uk/government/ schematics), condition, and COP. and delivery.
consultations/oga-corporate-plan-draft ◗ Start early in planning (5–7 years
-for-consultation) provides an interest- before COP) to identify and Industry—Be Realistic
ing view of decommissioning as seen actualize possible cost savings. This ◗ Decommissioning must be
through a North Sea lens. With the cur- is a strategic enabler for the supply focused on delivering the right
rent low-oil-price environment, the cost chain; they need information and scope, no more. Cost reductions
of decommissioning is seen as a key driv- early access to the project. can be achieved equally through
er for the ongoing economic viability of ◗ Keep things simple. Be flexible. performance or by selecting the
the basin. Decommissioning is not a first-oil right scope. Decommissioning
What does “good” look like for decom- schedule-driven project. Operators should never be seen as a
missioning in the North Sea? Like the need to approach decommissioning replacement for capital-project
Gulf of Mexico? Probably not exactly; as a demolition project vs. a activity. Industry must continually
however, many lessons learned by the capital or brownfield project. Step strive for low-cost delivery year
operator community, supply chain, and back and let a knowledgeable, after year.
industry can be considered and adopted empowered supply chain deliver. ◗ Contracting must consider
for the basin. Here are a few thoughts on appropriate ownership of risks,
what “good” might look like. Supply Chain—Be Strategic both during the project and in
◗ The supply chain should provide perpetuity.
Operators—Be Transparent integrated solutions relative to ◗ Industry should share performance
◗ Operators should share their today’s portfolio of projects. The and scope data, warts and all.
view of timing and key drivers for supply chain should have “skin Without a creditable baseline,
timing change for the run up to in the game” with remuneration industry has nothing by which to set
cessation of production (COP). The coupled to performance. realistic market expectations or to
Oil & Gas UK Decommissioning ◗ The supply chain sees the broader performance-manage continuous
Insight report is a good generic market view, whereas the operator improvement. JPT
starter (oilandgasuk.co.uk/ view can be somewhat myopic.
decommissioninginsight.cfm). Use this view to bundle and
Operators can shift to the next campaign work programs. The Recommended additional reading
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 173693 Coiled Tubing Completes
Win Thornton, SPE, is is vice president of decommissioning, global Unique High-Pressure Well Abandonments
projects organization, at BP. He has more than 35 years of in Remote Alaskan Field by Brendon Webb,
experience in offshore construction and decommissioning projects Schlumberger, et al.
working as an operator for BP, Chevron, and Oxy; as a contractor SPE 173694 P&A on a Deepwater
from Brown & Root and WorleyParsons; and as a consultant for Compliant-Tower Asset Using Hydraulic
Winmar and TST. Thornton holds a BS degree from the Georgia Workover (HOW): Addressing the
Institute of Technology and an MS degree from the University of Challenges for Successful Execution
Houston. His recent work includes offshore decommissioning and by Ralph R. Sinno, Halliburton, et al.
reuse projects in the Gulf of Mexico, west Africa, California, Alaska, southeast Asia, and SPE 175426 Preparation for Cost-
South America. Thornton has championed the environmentally sound and cost- Effective Decommissioning and
effective disposal of obsolete platforms through placement in state-sanctioned “Rigs Abandonment of Subsea Pipelines
to Reefs” programs. He is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee. by Julie Burke, Intecsea, et al.

80 JPT • JANUARY 2016

Plasma-Based Tool Facilitates
Plugging and Abandonment

P lugging and abandonment

(P&A) is the largest category
of decommissioning expenditures,
representing 40–44% of the total
investment. If the well operator
performs P&A inadequately, results
may include water flows, gas or oil
seeps from the seabed, or underground
crossflow between formations, with
a huge effect on the environment
and marine life. This paper presents
current advances in the development (a) (b) (c)
of a plasma-based milling tool and its
use in casing-section milling for P&A. Fig. 1—(a) Plasma-based tool entering multistring-casing sample; (b) upper
view of the sample after the experiment; (c) sample after diagonal section was
removed to reveal steel/cement removal.
Introduction
Only 7% of existing North Sea instal-
lations have been decommissioned, rig is preferred, which is more expen- ◗ The potential for swarf to damage
which creates an enormous opportu- sive. Present casing-milling technology blowout preventers (BOPs): Milling
nity for companies engaged in such a consists of using the common casing- generates swarf, which then must
business. Naturally, operators world- section mill. This mill is a hydraulically be removed before cementing.
wide are seeking effective solutions actuated tool used for milling a section However, swarf removal can
that would cut the massive expenses in casing or tubing. The main part of the damage BOPs. To avoid well-
of decommissioning. mill consists of milling knives dressed integrity issues, the BOPs must
Each P&A job depends on well con- with tungsten carbide. Once the cas- be dismantled, inspected, and
struction, well location, production his- ing mill is run into the hole to the de- repaired at considerable expense.
tory, casing condition, and many other sired depth, the circulation of drilling Specific problems are related also to
factors. From time to time, there is an mud starts. milling of exotic alloys and their influ-
option to use a rigless solution for P&A. According to some oilfield-service ence on the milling knives and tool wear.
In this case, the well is plugged with- providers, the two main challenges of All the aforementioned challenges are
out pulling tubular or milling casing. conventional casing-section milling for redoubled by the infrastructure used for
Cement plugs are set directly to the P&A are P&A. Operators would prefer performing
production string, and, after success- ◗ The time and expense of P&A with a light well-intervention vessel
ful pressure tests of the plugs, wellhead milling casing: For example, (LWIV). The use of an LWIV results in a
and casing strings are cut with a special Norwegian regulations call for significant reduction of daily rental costs
device a few feet under the seabed and cementing two 50-m sections (a third of the cost of a conventional-rig
removed to surface. P&A in a wet-tree of casing above and below each rental and half the cost of a heavy well-
scenario is more expensive. Because all hydrocarbon-bearing zone. Each intervention vessel).
operations occur under water, remotely section may take more than 10 days The plasma-based technology pre-
operated vehicles are needed. For this to mill and may generate 4 tons sented here addresses all of these
type of P&A, the deployment of a heavy of swarf. challenges. In general, electrical plas-
ma can be used for drilling or well-
intervention operations.
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
of paper SPE 175431, “Use of Plasma-Based Tool for Plugging and Abandonment,” by Methods and Procedures
Matus Gajdos, SPE, Tomas Kristofic, Slavomir Jankovic, Gabriel Horvath, and The plasma-based technology for P&A is
Igor Kocis, GA Drilling, prepared for the 2015 SPE Offshore Europe Conference and in the prototype stage, under develop-
Exhibition, Aberdeen, 8–11 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. ment within a joint-industry project.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JANUARY 2016 81

 Currently, development advances in
the research-and-development center of
the technology provider, with the testing
infrastructure consisting of a customized
rig, diesel generators, technology con-
tainers, and a control center. The tech-
nology container covers water- and air-
cooling systems for the milling process
and electrical power sources able to sup-
ply a plasma torch.
Testing was performed on either
simple- or multistring-casing samples in
a liquid environment. Multistring-casing
samples are of a tube/cement/tube/
cement-monotube structure. Fig.  1a
shows the plasma-based tool entering a
multistring-casing sample. Fig. 1b shows
an upper view of the sample after the ex-
periment. Fig. 1c shows a sample after
a diagonal section was taken to reveal
steel/cement removal. It is obvious that
the inner casing and cement layer have
been removed completely on the chosen
section. The experiment team proved
that a 3.5-in. tool is capable of milling a
wide range of casing sizes, including 4.5,
5.5, and 7 in.
Moreover, to prove the feasibility of the
technology, scaled testing was performed
in pressures up to 1,450 psi. On the basis
of the aforementioned casing-section-
milling challenges, rate-of-penetration
(ROP) parameters, the influence of vari-
ous types of steel, and the effect of cuttings
from plasma milling have been analyzed.
Results and Observations
ROP. A series of experiments conducted
at different boundary conditions showed
that the effectiveness of cutting steel can
be characterized by one special param-
eter. This parameter, ε, describes the en-
ergy needed for the total removal of a
mass of a steel under certain physical
conditions. Parameter ε has a statisti-
cal character because it summarizes the
liberated energy coming from the exo-
thermic iron-oxidation processes and the
real electric energy put to the plasma
generator. Therefore, it is evident that
ε is always lower than the level of con-
sumed electric energy. It was also found
that ε is dependent on the degree and
type of steel oxidation and the hydro-
dynamic circumstances. In order to de-
termine the value of ROP, testing with a
plasma generator was performed on two
82
types of steels. Materials analyzed were
carbon steel S355 and alloy steel having
20% Cr and 12% Ni.
In real casing conditions in a water
environment at low pressures, the value
of  ε was found to be in the range of
3–4  MJ/kg. When considering a power
output of 250 kW, plasma-torch effi-
ciency of 70%, and net energy require-
ment per unit mass of removed steel of
3 MJ/kg, the value of the steel-removal
rate is 210 kg/h. This value means an
ROP of 2.0–4.5 m/h for 9⅝-in.-casing-
section milling, depending on the
wall thickness. This ROP is compara-
ble with that of current section-milling
techniques; however, the difference is
in the fact that the plasma-based tool
is able to mill various casing dimen-
sions (as well as multistring casings)
with one tool. This means a reduction
of tripping and a significant increase in
net productivity.
Various Steel Types. For S355 steel, a
scanning-electron-microscopy (SEM)
analysis that showed the microstructure
of formed cuttings clearly revealed the
dominant presence of iron (II) oxide.
Structural analysis proved a heterogene-
ity between the formed oxidized and dif-
fusive metallic layers in the cuttings. This
resulted in differences in the thermal-
expansion coefficients of metal/oxide
systems at the border of metallic and
oxide layers. Therefore, hydrodynamic
destruction of such weakened multilay-
ers could be realized relatively easily.
In the case of alloy steel, the men-
tioned differences in thermal-expansion
properties of metal/oxide multilayers are
significantly higher because of a higher
grade of chemical heterogeneity of the
microstructure.
On the basis of the results of the exper-
iments, the plasma-based tool is capable
of milling carbon steel and alloy steel
without significant obstacles.
Cuttings Size. By use of a sieve analy-
sis, the size distribution of cuttings from
the milling process was evaluated after
drying. Smaller particles are formed
from small fragments of oxidized par-
ticles with irregular shapes. A fraction
of the larger particles contains great-
er amounts of globular particles with
smooth surfaces. The ratio of cement
particles is approximately the same for
each size group. SEM/energy dispersive
X-ray analysis has been conducted on
each size group and concluded that the
oxidation processes penetrated into the
steel volume.
The chemical composition inside the
structure of oxidized cuttings revealed
the presence of calcium in the struc-
ture, caused by thermal diffusion into
the melted and oxidized metal. This is
evidence of strong volumetric oxidation
and high-temperature oxygen diffusion
into the metal.
Chemical analysis of the oxide sur-
face of particles that are approximately
1 mm shows higher oxygen content and
a higher content of impurities from the
cement structure.
The dominance of oxidized cuttings
is proof of the presence of exothermic
reactions that highly improve the over-
all energy balance of plasma milling and
supply additional energy to the milling
processes, increasing the ROP.
The experimental results confirmed
that the produced cuttings from plasma-
based milling are not of a size that
would make them dangerous for
well-control equipment.
Conclusions
The potential effect of plasma-based-
milling technology is to simplify the pro-
cess of P&A and, therefore, significant-
ly reduce the operation time. The main
technology advantages include
◗ Rigless operation allows for cost
saving with LWIVs because the
system is designed for use with
coiled tubing.
◗ Rapid structural degradation of
steel with plasma enables a high
milling ROP. When compared with
the conventional approach, this
feature saves time because no
tripping is needed.
◗ The mechanism produces tiny
steel particles instead of swarf.
This is beneficial for proper BOP
operation, as well as for other
components where swarf usually
causes failures.
◗ The noncontact approach brings
improved reliability by minimizing
wear and tear of the tool. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
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 Miniaturized Coiled-Tubing System Reduces
Costs During Pipeline Decommissioning
T his paper presents the challenges
and obstacles faced in the use
of a new technology for the plugging
and deoiling of sections of unpiggable
flowlines before decommissioning.
The solution used an ultralightweight,
miniaturized coiled-tubing system
that was deployable from the platform
lower decks with minimal laydown area
required. The system had the ability to
traverse multiple bends, deoil the line,
and deliver an expandable cement to
plug the pipeline in a single operation.
Introduction
First production in the Murchison field
began in 1980, and the field has now
reached the end of its life. As part of the
decommissioning project, one of the sub-
sea wells was seen to be still connected
to the Murchison platform by two flow-
lines contained within a subsea bundle
(PL123), with these flowlines having 4-in.
outer diameters. These lines were in-
stalled to provide early production for
the first year until all the infrastructure
was put in place. The control lines and
pressure-monitoring system had been
disconnected at the platform sometime
in the past (Fig. 1).
The bundle was inspected on the plat-
form, and a hot tap was performed to iden-
tify any pressure in the lines and to identi-
fy the line contents. It was found that one
of the two flowlines contained crude at
a pressure of 122 bar. The pressure was
reduced to zero, and the bleed line was
closed with a gauge installed to monitor
the pressure. It was noted that the pres-
sure increased slowly over time. To con-
tinue with the decommissioning of the
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
of paper SPE 175487, “Cost-Reducing Pipeline-Decommissioning Technology,” by
Hugh MacKenzie and Callum Jones, Paradigm Flow Services, prepared for the 2015
SPE Offshore Europe Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen, 8–11 September. The
paper has not been peer reviewed.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
84
platform before the plugging and aban-
donment of the subsea well (211/19-2),
PL123 had to be flushed of contents and
a barrier had to be installed between the
subsea well and the Murchison platform.
The operator examined options for
cleaning up and plugging the flowlines
to allow decommissioning to commence.
Every option examined would have re-
quired dive-support-vessel intervention.
It was suggested that a novel miniatur-
ized coiled-tubing system would be suit-
able for this application. This would be
deployed through all the bends to the end
of the flowlines at 855 m. An expandable-
cement product was identified as being
suitable for sealing the flowline after it
was cleaned.
The resulting multicompany team pro-
vided the hot tap into the flowline, a
miniaturized coiled-tubing system to tra-
verse the flowlines, and an expandable-
cement product to provide the pressure
barrier within the flowline to allow de-
commissioning to continue.
Upon later completion of the
subsea-well abandonment, the flow-
lines would then be removed in accor-
dance with the operator’s approved
decommissioning program.
Theory
When working within a tortuous
pipeline-and-riser system, the flexibility
and weight of the coiled tubing is an im-
portant factor to consider. This is espe-
cially relevant when the line is to be de-
commissioned because it cannot always
be guaranteed that the integrity of the
pipeline is suitable for the use of conven-
tional coiled tubing.
During deployment of coiled tubing,
capstan friction becomes the dominat-
ing factor in the ability of the coiled tub-
ing to traverse multiple bends within the
pipeline successfully and safely without
causing damage and to reach the cor-
rect depth without helical lockup. Cap-
stan friction, by its definition, relates the
hold force to the load force if a flexible
tubing is wound around a cylinder or, in
this case, around a bend within a pipe-
line or riser.
In the worst-case scenario, the result
of this force can be catastrophic. In some
cases, in the removal of coiled tubing
from a pipeline, capstan friction has re-
sulted in damage to the integrity of a pipe-
line to such a point that the tubing eroded
through the pipe wall. The effect of this
could include the release of hydrocarbons
into the environment and the potential to
incur major fines to restore the environ-
ment to its previous state. It is worth not-
ing that this has also been experienced
during the running of coiled tubing in well
operations. In a lesser scenario, capstan
friction ultimately might prevent running
to depth, therefore preventing the suc-
cessful completion of the project.
Application
The system had been deployed previ-
ously to remove a 470-m sand block-
age within a riser-and-pipeline system
from a floating production, storage, and
offloading (FPSO) vessel in west Africa.
FPSO vessels characteristically have little
space available in terms of laydown area.
During the scope of this work, the equip-
ment was laid down in a small section of
available deck space and the coiled tub-
ing was run through a flexible lubricator
to the riser entry point, which was 60 m
away through the topside process facili-
ties. Working in this tight space gave a
solid foundation for working on a plat-
form, where typically more space is avail-
able for operations.
JPT • JANUARY 2016

PL 115 16-in. Oil Export
Murchison to Dunlin A
PL 123 Disused Bundle
Early Production
211/19-2
PL 165 6-in. Gas Import/Export
Umbilical
Fig. 1—Murchison platform.
The Murchison project provided a sim-
ilar challenge, with the tie-in point on the
cellar (lower) deck of the platform, ne-
cessitating that all equipment other than
the reel be moved by hand from the lay-
down area to the rig-up location.
The equipment was designed with very
high portability in mind, allowing for
deployment in these scenarios. Typi-
cal coiled-tubing injectors, for example,
weigh up to 6000 kg, with miniatur-
ized coil injectors weighing 1500 kg. The
modular injectors used for this technol-
ogy weigh approximately 200 kg each.
Furthermore, the system is designed to
be deployed on a horizontal plane, allow-
ing for easy rig up without lifting support.
However, the lightweight nature of the
system is possible only because of the
innovative composite pipe used to per-
form the operation. At 0.25 lbm/ft in
water, it is approximately five times more
buoyant than steel coiled tubing (steel
coiled tubing has buoyancy of 1.4 lbm/ft),
and, with a minimum bend radius of
36  in., it does not yield like steel pipe
as it passes each bend. The combina-
tion of low residual bending stiffness
and high buoyancy allowed the pipe to
be pushed to 863 m, passing through
more than 360° of bends within the first
150 m and with a snubbing force of ap-
proximately 200 kg. Modeling for steel
coiled tubing of equivalent size would in-
dicate that a snubbing force of 3000 kg
JPT • JANUARY 2016
Murchison Platform
PL 124 Disused
Bundle Water Injection
PL 125 Disused Bundle
Early Production
would be required, primarily because of
the weight creating more capstan fric-
tion. This ultralight-footprint approach
is made possible by new materials and
allows significant downsizing of equip-
ment, therefore reducing costs, stresses
on pipework, and necessary platform re-
sources (e.g., space, beds, and diesel).
The equipment was lowered to the
cellar-deck laydown area and then manu-
ally rolled to rig-up location. The coiled-
composite-pipe reel followed and was
permanently sited in the laydown area.
The tubing passed from there through
a gooseneck to allow the correct orien-
tation to the injectors and blowout pre-
venter. After the pipe passed through
the pressure-control system, a 5,000-psi
flexible lubricator was used to con-
nect to the hot-tap tie-in point a further
25 m away (past 90° of bends to pass the
superstructure).
After the tie-in point, a 90° elbow sent
the riser subsea, where it passed through
another 45°, followed by another 90° be-
fore running across the seabed to 862 m.
A specially built jetting head, complete
with knuckle joint and dual backpressure
valves, was used to clean up the pipeline
before a 0.74-in. cement nozzle was de-
ployed for the pumping of the cement. The
expandable cement was subject to a rigor-
ous testing procedure before its use. In
the test, cubes of the cement were placed
in a compression testing unit and subject-
211/19-3 211/19-6
Redundant Removed
211/194 Redundant
ed to crushing. The procedure was con-
ducted for undiluted cement, which was
designed for use in this project, and for
a second sample that was diluted by 25%
with water. The compressive-strength
readings for both samples were in excess
of what was required by the operator and
showed only a 15% reduction in compres-
sive strength for the diluted sample.
Result
The lines were jetted throughout their
entire length, allowing a rapid cleanup to
less than 40 mg/L. The time from start
of rig up to P1 flowline reaching required
cleanliness and being cemented was 52
hours, while P2 was cleaned and cement-
ed 24 hours later. Within P1, approxi-
mately 796 m of cement was set, while
730 m of cement was set within P2. Both
lines were pressure tested to ensure that
a robust cement seal was in place before
the equipment was rigged down.
Conclusion
In less than 1 week, two pipelines were
cleaned to a standard of less than
40 mg/L of oil in waste and were sealed
with an expanding cement. This support-
ed the expectation by the operator that
a miniaturized coiled-tubing system for
platform-based decommissioning would
be more cost effective than conventional
methods for decommissioning the flow-
lines discussed within this paper. JPT
85
 Behind-Pipe-Log-Evaluation Study:
Deepwater Subsea Abandonments

T echniques for well-abandonment

log evaluations have been
studied in the Gulf of Mexico since
ing strings, the results can be mislead-
ing. Sonic logs such as the CBL do not
yield quantitative results in concentric
barite settling creates a unique envi-
ronment, because it bonds casing but
has an unknown compressive strength
2012. Legacy practices typically strings of casing because of the inability as defined by traditional logging tech-
used acoustic methods consisting to predict the influence of the outer cas- niques. This has proved difficult for
of cement-bond-log (CBL) and ing on the log response. Misleading data ultrasonic tools to quantify because
ultrasonic-scanner devices. The and experiences in well abandonments ultrasonic tools measure acoustic-
new methods described in this have left the industry actively seeking impedance values of material on the
paper consist of adding nuclear alternatives to the conventional method outside of the casing wall to evaluate
sensors to supplement the acoustic of identifying the material in the annu- the material’s compressive strength.
measurements and introduce novel lus, to increase the efficacy of the aban- With very limited availability of appro-
processing methods. The overall donment process. priate acoustic-impedance data, the in-
solutions package consists of behind- terpretation of the presence of mud sag
pipe-evaluation techniques (BPETs). Abandonment Log-Evaluation becomes challenging.
When properly modeled and analyzed, Methodologies With this in mind, this paper investi-
these data have the potential to Historically, it has been common prac- gates the deployment of a suite of log-
reduce the cost of removing casing tice to use ultrasonic imaging technol- ging tools and unique interpretation
strings significantly. ogies in combination with traditional algorithms to quantify the materials be-
sonic-waveform data to characterize the hind the casing better. The tool string
Introduction annular space of wells that are can- consists of an acoustic tool to deter-
Much of the nonproductive time associ- didates for casing-retrieval operations. mine cement bond and an ultrasonic
ated with well abandonments is attribut- However, this approach is inadequate tool. The latter is used to identify cas-
ed to difficulty circulating the stagnant for evaluating a phenomenon that is ing properties such as internal diameter
material left behind in the casing-to- often observed in older wells that con- and thickness, as well as to character-
casing annuli during well construction. tain concentric casing strings that were ize the acoustic impedance of materials
Many improvements have been made in not cemented to the top of the string. In within immediate pipe contact behind
the design of these fluids; however, drill- those cases, the original drilling fluid the casing. These tools are combined
ing muds using barite as the weighting between the casing strings experienc- with conventional openhole density and
agent still suffer phase degradation over es degradation. As the drilling fluid neutron tools, containing a cesium-137
time, leaving a column of material with degrades, solids in the fluid begin to and an americium/beryllium chemical
a density that increases with depth, ex- settle out and migrate toward the bot- source, respectively. This combination
cept when solids bridging occurs. In ex- tom of the well or toward areas of high has been deployed in multiple casing
treme cases, the precipitated barite ad- deviation or dogleg severity. The set- configurations to provide annular char-
heres to the outside of the casing wall, tling of these solids is commonly re- acterization using through-casing den-
impeding the removal of the severed ferred to as barite sag, mud sag, or sity measurements and through-casing
casing section. barite settling. hydrogen-index trends.
When traditional sonic and ultra- In addition to increasing friction- Supplementing this unique tool
sonic logs are run over concentric cas- al force on the internal casing string, string to aid in evaluation is an ad-
vanced form of processing and peak
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains analysis for cement evaluation (PACE),
which is applied to the resulting data
highlights of paper SPE 174777, “Behind-Pipe-Log-Evaluation Study: Deepwater
to interpret the acoustic-tool respons-
Subsea Abandonments in the Gulf of Mexico,” by Glenn Donovan, SPE, Peter
es in this environment better. In short,
Fadesere, SPE, George Ware, and Lou Daigle, SPE, Shell Offshore, and Suparman, this process uses statistical variation
SPE, Gary Frisch, SPE, Phil Fox, Mike Englar, Gordon Moake, SPE, and and actual waveform activity to deter-
Weijun Guo, SPE, Halliburton, prepared for the 2015 SPE Annual Technical mine if the material behind the cas-
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, 28–30 September. The paper has not been ing is either fluid or solid to vary-
peer reviewed. ing degrees.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

86 JPT • JANUARY 2016

Interpretation of
Combined Results
The use of the crossplots of density-
detector count-rate ratios, including
z-axis neutron hydrogen-index trends,
allows the interpretation of character-
istics of the material behind pipe. Origi-
nally, interval zoning was used to allow
quick data interpretation. However,
the information these crossplots sup-
plied was not presented in a continuous
depth-based log display. A software pro-
gram that converts the crossplot data
into automated phase clustering is being
tested currently.
PACE Bonding Index
A new method of analyzing the cement-
bond-logging waveform creates four
concentric, cylindrical regions between
the casing and the formation. This
annular space could consist of the
phases previously mentioned, but
it could also contain multiple casing
strings, depending upon the well
construction. The separation is based
on an analysis of the waveform peaks
rather than being strictly time based.
The average amplitudes of the peaks
of each region are normalized to the
maximum amplitude of the free pipe
detected in Region 1. This allows
easy determination of the bond or
classification of materials between the
casing and the formation. The method
is also applied to radial segmented
CBL responses.
Cut-and-Pull
Tension Predictions
A log-response-based cut-and-pull
tension-prediction (CPTP) model has
been developed. The results are based
on an analytical model that predicts how
much tension is required to pull the cas-
ing string, driven by the measurements
described in this paper. Predictions are
reported in terms of the total force re-
quired to pull a specific length of casing,
and they are presented as a function of
the depth at which the pipe is to be cut.
After cutting the pipe at the desired ex-
traction depth, the well is circulated,
which can change the distribution of the
annular materials that existed when the
well was logged.
JPT • JANUARY 2016
To get a feel for the effects of solids
on the modeling results, tension pre-
dictions are given for two downhole en-
vironments. One set of results is based
on the as-logged conditions. This set
of conditions could contain volumes of
mud, settled mud solids, cement, gas,
or hydrates in the annulus. The com-
bined acoustic and nuclear responses
are interpreted to give fractional vol-
umes of each component as a function
of depth. Coefficients for each com-
ponent are applied using their respec-
tive contributions to frictional drag.
A second set of results details forces
involved in casing extraction on the
basis of a fluid-filled annulus, which
represents a case where the annulus
has been cleaned efficiently by circula-
tion operations.
Data Processing and
Interpretation Work Flow
Through the evolution of interpreta-
tion methods, the work flow has been
refined to deliver the highest-quality
interpretation. The current method of
primary interpretation is based on the
run-in-hole acquisition. After quali-
ty control of the free-pipe section, the
well is logged from the mudline to the
bottom of the required log interval.
Upon reaching total depth, a series of
products is delivered for verification of
data quality, and data are transferred
for further post-processing. While the
well is logged up, service-company
log analysts and technical advisers re-
view sensor responses and determine
if the data are of adequate quality for a
useful evaluation.
The next level of interpretation in-
volves several activities performed in
parallel by the data-processing and log-
analyst teams. These usually are com-
pleted, reviewed, and delivered to the
client team within 4 hours from the time
the logging tools are at total depth. The
groupings of individual disciplines con-
sist of
◗ Acoustic processing, providing
relative-amplitude shells
◗ Ultrasonic analysis
determining the solid/liquid
distribution on the casing
exterior surface
◗ Density-neutron evaluation
associated with annulus contents
(solid, liquid, gas)
◗ Prediction of the tension-
requirement profile (CPTP) to
extract casing in both as-logged
and liquid-annulus states
Experimental Foundation
for Future Work
An experimental program for BPETs was
undertaken with two objectives in mind.
The BPET was developed by use of field
data acquired with an earlier version
of the spectral density-log tool. To use
the technique with a newer tool design,
it was necessary to construct a map-
ping between the two. The normal tool-
characterization process develops this
mapping between the two, in the sense
that each tool is characterized to read
the same density when presented with
the same openhole environment. How-
ever, the BPET uses ratios of count rates
measured in a cased-hole environment,
and the normal mapping does not apply.
Consequently, it was necessary to gener-
ate a mapping of ratios between the two
tools so that BPET processing could be
used without modification.
Conclusions
Throughout the life of a well, degrada-
tion of the mud system in the annulus
can lead to migration of mud solids,
which settle at areas of high deviation or
increased dogleg severity. For abandon-
ment scenarios, accurately identifying
these materials and predicting the fric-
tional effects they contribute to string
weight during removal become para-
mount. An unsuccessful extraction can
lead to increasingly costly rig downtime.
Resolving ambiguous or misrepresen-
tative log responses spurred by tradi-
tional evaluation methods will increase
the efficiency and precision of a com-
plex abandonment process. It was found
that density and neutron logs reduce
this ambiguity. Methods described with-
in this paper, when implemented prop-
erly, should significantly reduce the
time and expense associated with well-
abandonment operations, while creat-
ing a safer environment for the person-
nel involved. JPT
87
 PEOPLE
ROBERT DRUMMOND, SPE, has been ap-
pointed as a class III director to the board of
directors of Key Energy Services. He was ap-
pointed president and chief operating offi-
cer of the company in June. Before that,
Drummond worked for Schlumberger for 31
years, where he began his career. He has
held several senior management positions in business develop-
ment and operations and was president of North America at the
time of his departure to Key Energy. He serves as a member of
the executive committee of the National Ocean Industries Asso-
ciation and the advisory board of Petroleum Equipment and
Services Association. Drummond holds a BS in petroleum engi-
neering from the University of Alabama.
GORDON JOHNSON, SPE, has been ap-
pointed to the board of directors of West
Texas Resources. He is the president of Bay-
side Corp. Johnson has experience working
for majors and independent oil companies
in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Montana,
North Dakota, and Louisiana and has been
In Memoriam
ŞTEFAN TRAIAN MOCUŢA, SPE, died
on 28 October 2015 at age 83. An SPE
member since 1994, he was awarded
the SPE Regional Service Award for
South, Central, and East Europe in
2004 for his contributions to the
establishment and development of
the SPE Romanian Section. Mocuţa was a member of the
SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery European Steering
Committee and was actively involved in the SPE
Romanian Section’s technical activities. He spent more
than 40 years of his professional career in the field of
petroleum reservoir geology at the Institutului de
Cercetări şi Proiectări Tehnologice (ICPT), Câmpina,
Romania, where he advanced to the position of senior
fellow, and also held several managerial positions,
including general manager. He completed more than
200 studies on petroleum reservoirs in Romania, Egypt,
Jordan, Ecuador, Libya, and Hungary. Between 1994 and
1996, Mocuţa served as a senator in the Romanian
Senate, focusing on political and social issues. In 1996, he
returned to ICPT as adviser. He also taught at the
Petroleum Gas University of Ploieşti. For his contributions
to the petroleum industry, he was awarded the Diploma
of Excellence in Research by ICPT Câmpina. Mocuţa
graduated with a degree in geology from the Petroleum,
Gas, and Geology Institute in Bucharest and received a
PhD in geology from the same institute.
88
president of Venture Oil and Gas, and chairman of Omni Oil and
Gas. His experience includes generating geological prospects
and drilling funds, acquiring oil and gas leases and producing
properties, mergers, and supervising drilling and completion of
wells. Johnson attended the University of Texas at Austin major-
ing in geology and petroleum land management. He is a mem-
ber of Texas Independent Producers and Royalty Owners, Inde-
pendent Petroleum Association of America, and Louisiana Oil
and Gas Association.
FRANCIS NEILL, SPE, has been appointed
chief executive officer (CEO) at Ziebel. Be-
fore this, he was the CEO of EV. He has sev-
eral years of experience in the well interven-
tion and subsea sectors. He has been CEO of
Gravitec Downhole Instruments, managing
director of Brinker, marketing and technol-
ogy director/casedhole director for Expro, deputy managing di-
rector/subsea control systems general manager for Kvaerner
Oilfield Products, and compensation and benefits manager for
Schlumberger. Neill holds a BSc degree in civil engineering from
the University of Bristol.
MICHAEL STOVER, SPE, retired from
Marathon Oil Corp. as vice president of op-
erations services after 30 years of service
with the company. He joined Marathon as a
roustabout, and in 1991, transferred to the
company’s international group, where he
was responsible for reservoir and economic
studies for the Marathon-operated fields in Ireland, Tunisia,
and Norway. Later, as part of the company’s corporate strategic
planning group, Stover was responsible for business planning
and corporate portfolio modeling, which supported the reorga-
nization of USX Corp. that led to the establishment of Marathon
as a standalone company. In 2009, he became the director of
central evaluation and financial planning, responsible for pro-
viding financial and portfolio analysis. He assumed his current
position in 2013. Stover holds a BS in petroleum and natural gas
engineering from Pennsylvania State University.
Member Deaths
James C. Anderson, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Paul M. Carraway, San Antonio, Texas, USA
Richard Dean Dunham, Midland, Texas, USA
Raymond W. Harmer, Snoqualmie, Washington
Saul D. Laurel, Houston, Texas, USA
Robert S. Miller, San Diego, California, USA
John B. Morrison, Palm Desert, California, USA
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JPT • JANUARY 2016 91

 SPE EVENTS
WORKSHOPS
26–27 January ◗ Calgary—SPE
Refracturing–What’s Working and Why?
2–4 February ◗ Amsterdam—SPE
Integrated Water Management
15–16 February ◗ Abu Dhabi—SPE Flow
Assurance and Production Chemistry:
How to Minimise Downtime, Enhance
Production and Improve Operations
from Wells and Facilities
16–17 February ◗ Mangaf—SPE Applied
Tracer Technology to Maximise
Hydrocarbon Recovery
21–24 February ◗ Kota Kinabalu—
SPE Operating Mature And Very
Mature Fields—Operating, Upgrading
Find complete listings of upcoming SPE workshops, conferences, symposiums, and forums at www.spe.org/events.
EOR Performance . . .
(Continued from page 54)
the improvement in mobility during
WAG injection.
Summary of EOR Pilot Simulations.
Five processes were simulated with the
pilot-scale simulation model: water-
flood, polymer flood, continuous CO2
flood, CO2 WAG injection, and chemical
SP flood. The results indicate that the
chemical SP flood performs the best in
terms of the estimated oil-recovery fac-
tor. The CO2 WAG process performs bet-
ter than the continuous CO2 flood, and
the waterflood was estimated to per-
form poorly, with an oil-recovery fac-
tor of approximately 25%. The poly-
mer flood was estimated to yield an
additional oil recovery of approxi-
mately 17% over waterflood. The re-
sults suggest that heterogeneity in the
SAMA reservoir is one of the key fac-
tors affecting oil recovery. To realize
high oil recovery from the SAMA reser-
voir, displacement processes including
injection-fluid mobility control are rec-
ommended. The EOR pilot-scale simula-
tion results suggest that both CO2 WAG
and chemical SP processes could im-
prove oil recovery from the SAMA reser-
voir significantly. JPT
92
& Extending The Production Life of
Offshore Assets
21–24 February ◗ Kuala Lumpur—SPE
Maximising Asset Value Through Data
Science & Analytics
23–24 February ◗ Muscat—SPE
Unconventional Reservoir Fracturing
23–25 February ◗ Abu Dhabi—SPE Sour Oil
and Gas Fields: The Challenging Transition
from Appraisal through Development to
Operations
CONFERENCES
26–28 January ◗ Abu Dhabi—SPE/
IADC Middle East Drilling Technology
Conference and Exhibition
EOR Performance . . .
(Continued from page 59)
Economic Evaluation. While models
show technical potential for surfactant
flooding to increase ultimate recovery
in the Bakken, the economic viability of
surfactant flooding must also be consid-
ered. An economic-sensitivity study that
examines three economic scenarios is
presented. The optimistic scenario as-
sumes relatively high oil prices and low
operational and capital costs, while the
pessimistic scenario assumes the op-
posite. In the optimistic case, a credit
is given for the reduced water-disposal
costs that would otherwise be incurred.
All three models assume the same
water-injection and oil-recovery pro-
files used in the medium-adsorption case
with the base-case fracture half-lengths
of 1,400  ft. Both the base-case scenario
and the optimistic economic scenario
show very favorable economics from
both a return-on-investment and a rate-
of-return perspective. In the pessimistic
scenario, with sustained low oil prices,
high chemical costs, high operational and
capital costs, and no credit for reduced
water-disposal costs, the economics are
not favorable. The likelihood of operating
a surfactant flood in the Bakken in that
environment, however, is very low. JPT
9–11 February ◗ The Woodlands—SPE
Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
Conference
24–26 February ◗ Lafayette—SPE
International Conference and Exhibition
on Formation Damage Control
FORUMS
18–21 January ◗ Dubai—SPE Next
Generation of Smart Reservoir
Management: The Eminent Role of
Big Data Analytics
CALL FOR PAPERS
SPE Latin America and Caribbean Heavy
and Extra Heavy Oil Conference ◗ Lima
Deadline: 4 February
Mature Fields . . .
(Continued from page 64)
likely placed across this clearly stimu-
lated length reaching farther afield than
just near the wellbore.
Farthest Reach. In the log images, large
intervals that lack tracer deeper than the
clearly stimulated length can be followed
by clearly stimulated clusters. Farthest
reach is an attempt to incorporate these
deep treated clusters that are not part of
the clearly stimulated length. Thirteen
of 41 wells that had multiple proppant
tracers pumped exhibit a farthest reach
100 ft or more beyond their clearly stim-
ulated length.
Basin case histories for the Barnett
Shale, Haynesville, and Eagle Ford forma-
tions are provided in the complete paper.
Summary
The overall refracturing success rate in
these 43 horizontal wells was 65%, and
only six wells showed minimal incre-
mental reserves from the refracturing.
Within the analyzed basins, significant
variability in both performance met-
rics and diagnostic attributes is seen.
All of the formations had proppant trac-
ers showing preferential treatment of
the heel. JPT
JPT • JANUARY 2016
 CELEBRATING
25 YEARS
REGISTRATION
NOW OPEN
SPE International Conference and Exhibition on

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Environment and Social
Responsibility
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