065 Eurocode Notes 2

Eurocodes UWS – Joe Heffernan
065 Eurocode notes 12.doc.doc Page 1 of 17
Introduction
Eurocode 7 is the basis of geotechnical design in the UK and throughout the European
Union. From 2010 all designs are required to conform to the Eurocodes. Eurocodes
supersede the existing British Standards but it may take many years until British Standards
no longer apply and are no longer used.
These notes are intended to introduce you to this standard for geotechnical design.
Contents of Part 1 of Eurocode 7. The list below refers to BS EN 1997-1:2004
Subjects Sections
Overall approach 1. General
2. Basis of geotechnical design
Ground Investigation 3. Geotechnical data
Design aspects of 4. Supervision of construction, monitoring
construction activities and maintenance
Design of specific 5. Fill, Dewatering, ground improvement
elements and reinforcement
6. Spread foundations
7. Pile foundations
8. Anchorages
9. Retaining structures
10. Hydraulic failure
11. Overall stability
12. Embankments
Eurocode 7 is used in conjunction with EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design.

EN 1990 is the head document for the Eurocodes and it establishes the principles and
requirements for safety, serviceability and durability of structures. Furthermore it describes
the basis of design and verification and provides guidelines for related aspects of structural
reliability. You cannot really understand Eurocode 7 without making reference to
Eurocode 0 (EN 1990).
The full listing of the various Eurocodes is given below:
 EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of Structural Design

 EN 1991 Eurocode 1 Basis of design and actions on structures
 EN 1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures
 EN 1993 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures
 EN 1994 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
 EN 1995 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures
 EN 1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures
 EN 1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design
 EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
 EN 1999 Eurocode 9 Design of aluminium alloy structures
The “Basic requirements” for designs undertaken using Eurocodes are:
(1)P A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will, during its
intended life, with appropriate degrees of reliability and in an economical way
– sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution and use, and
– remain fit for the use for which it is required.
(2)P A structure shall be designed to have adequate :

– structural resistance,
– serviceability, and
– durability.
(3)P In the case of fire, the structural resistance shall be adequate for the required period
of time.
(4)P A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will not be damaged
by events such as :
– explosion,
– impact, and
– the consequences of human errors,
to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.
(5)P Potential damage shall be avoided or limited by appropriate choice of one or more of
the following :
– avoiding, eliminating or reducing the hazards to which the structure can be subjected;
– selecting a structural form which has low sensitivity to the hazards considered ;
– selecting a structural form and design that can survive adequately the accidental
removal of an individual member or a limited part of the structure, or the occurrence of
acceptable localised damage ;
– avoiding as far as possible structural systems that can collapse without warning ;
– tying the structural members together.
(6) The basic requirements should be met :

– by the choice of suitable materials,
– by appropriate design and detailing, and
– by specifying control procedures for design, production, execution, and use relevant to
the particular project.
(7) The provisions of “Basic requirements” should be interpreted on the basis that due
skill and care appropriate to the circumstances is exercised in the design, based on such
knowledge and good practice as is generally available at the time that the design of the
structure is carried out.
Note the letter “P” behind certain numbers indicates that this is a Principle.
Principles comprise :
– general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative, as well as ;
– requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted unless
specifically stated.
The basis of design under Eurocodes - LIMIT STATE DESIGN

(taken from Eurocode 7: A commentary)
Limit state design is a procedure in which attention is concentrated on avoidance of limit

states. Limit states are defined as ‘states beyond which the structure no longer
satisfies the design performance requirements’ (EC1, 3.1(1)P). These initials mean
that this is covered in EuroCode 1 (EC1) in section 3.1(1) The letter P stands for
Principles. Strictly, it is the exceedence of a limit state which is not acceptable, though
EC7 often refers to avoiding the occurrence of a limit state.
This definition of limit states is essentially practical and relates to the possibility of damage,
economic loss or unsafe situations. It is not directly concerned with states of stress in
materials or distinctions between elastic and plastic behaviour, though designers may
need to consider these in order to demonstrate that limit states will not be exceeded.
Limit state design is concerned with any state in which a structure does not satisfy the
design performance requirements. For example, cracking or distortion which has no more
consequence than giving a disappointing appearance constitutes a limit state, just as does
a catastrophic collapse. The severities of these two limit states are obviously very different.
It has been found convenient to categorise limit states as ultimate or serviceability limit
states. EC1 defines ultimate limit states as those associated with collapse or with other
similar forms of structural failure (3.2(1)P). Serviceability limit states correspond to
conditions beyond which specified service requirements for a structure or structural
element are no longer met (3.3(1)P). The serviceability requirements should generally be
determined in contracts and/or in the design (3.3(4)).
EC1, Section 3 adds more detail to this description of ultimate and serviceability limit
states. For geotechnical design, it is important to note that ultimate limit states include
failure by excessive deformation, or loss of stability of the structure or any part of it. Hence,
a state in which part of a structure becomes unsafe because of foundation settlement or
other ground movements should be regarded as an ultimate limit state, even if the ground
itself has not reached the limits of its strength, to form a plastic failure mechanism.
For example, large amounts of heave of plastic, over-consolidated London Clay have
occurred over long periods following the removal of trees. While there is no question of the
ground strength having reduced, to the degree that bearing capacity failure is approached,
the movements have been large enough to induce collapse in a building, following loss of
bearing in lintels over window and door openings.
Limit states are generally checked by considering design situations, in which adverse
conditions apply; design values, which are deliberately pessimistic, are used for both loads
and material strengths. Design values are used in calculations for both ultimate and
serviceability limit states, though the values will usually be different for the two states. The
Eurocodes specify how design values are to be derived. The design values required for
serviceability limit states are often equal to the characteristic values of parameters, but
there is no fundamental reason why this must always be so. EC7 states that Serviceability
Limit State design values will normally equal characteristic values for actions in 2.4.2(18)
and for materials
The design process of Eurocode 7 (EN 1997-1)

Establish preliminary Geotechnical Category of the structure
Preliminary ground investigation and check of geotechnical category
Design main ground investigation
No
Sufficient information?
Yes
Ground investigation report and check of geotechnical category
Design by calculations, prescriptive measures, load or model tests

or observational method
Geotechnical design report and reassessment of Geotechnical Category
Supervision of the execution of the work and reassessment of

Geotechnical Category
Geotechnical Design Category
Within the Eurocode there are 3 categories of design identified. They are known as
Category 1, 2 and 3.
Geotechnical Category 1 - This category only includes small and relatively simple
structures:
— for which it is possible to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied on
the basis of experience and qualitative geotechnical investigations;
— with negligible risk for property and life.
Geotechnical Category 1 procedures will only be sufficient in ground conditions which are
known from comparable experience to be sufficiently straight-forward that routine methods
may be used for foundation design and construction.
Geotechnical Category 1 procedures will be sufficient only if there is no excavation below

the water table or if comparable local experience indicates that a proposed excavation
below the water table will be straight-forward.
The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

Geotechnical Category 1:
— simple 1 and 2 storey houses and agricultural buildings with a maximum design column
load of 250 kN and 100 kN/m for walls and using conventional types of spread and piled
foundations;
— retaining walls and excavation supports where the difference in ground levels does not
exceed 2m;
— small excavations for drainage works, pipe-laying, etc.
Geotechnical Category 2 – This category includes conventional types of structures and

foundations with no abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading
conditions. Structures in Geotechnical Category 2 require quantitative geotechnical data
and analysis to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied, but routine
procedures for field and laboratory testing and for design and execution may be used.
The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

Geotechnical Category 2:
Conventional types of:
— spread foundations;
— raft foundations;
— piled foundations;
— walls and other structures retaining or supporting soil or water;
— excavations;
— bridge piers and abutments;
— embankments and earthworks;
— ground anchors and other tie-back systems;
— tunnels in hard, non-fractured rock and not subjected to special water tightness or other
requirements.
Geotechnical Category 3 - This category includes structures or parts of structures which

do not fall within the limits of Geotechnical Categories 1 and 2.
Geotechnical Category 3 includes very large or unusual structures, structures involving

abnormal risks, or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions and
structures in highly seismic areas.
Importance of geotechnical investigations
Eurocode 7 strongly emphasises the importance of geotechnical investigations. It requires

that the final design be accompanied by formal reports, both factual and interpretative, of
the investigation on which it is based. This information is contained in a Geotechnical
Design Report.
Preliminary Ground Investigations
The preliminary ground investigation will usually consist of desk studies, site
reconnaissance and consideration of construction experience in the vicinity of the site.
Design Investigations
Eurocode 7 states the following concerning Design Investigations:
(1)P Design investigations shall be carried out:

— to provide the information required for an adequate design of the temporary and
permanent works;
— to provide the information required to plan the method of construction;
— to identify any difficulties that may arise during construction.
(2)P The design investigation shall identify in a reliable way the disposition and properties
of all ground relevant to or affected by the proposed construction.
(3)P The parameters, which affect the ability of the structure to satisfy its performance
criteria shall be established before the start of the final design.
(4) In order to ensure that the design investigation covers all relevant ground formations,
particular attention should be paid to the following geological features:
— ground profile;
— natural or man-made cavities;
— degradation of rocks, soils, or fill materials;
— hydrogeological effects;
— faults, joints and other discontinuities;
— creeping soil and rock masses;
— expansible and collapsible soils and rocks;
— presence of waste or man-made materials.
(5)P The history of the site and its surroundings shall be taken into account.
(6)P The investigation shall be carried out at least through the formations, which are
assessed as being relevant to the project.
(7)P The existing ground-water levels shall be established during the investigation. Any
free water levels observed during the investigation shall be recorded
(8) The extreme water levels of any water source, which might influence the ground-water
pressures should be established.
(9)P The location and capacities of any dewatering or water abstraction wells in the vicinity
of the site shall be established.
Ground Investigation Report
The requirements of the Ground Investigation Report are set out in Section 3.4 of
Eurocode 7. The Principles that the report must adhere to are listed below. It should be
noted that Section 3.4 is more extensive than what is shown below.
3.4.1 Requirements
(1)P The results of a geotechnical investigation shall be compiled in a Ground
Investigation Report, which shall form a part of the Geotechnical Design Report described
in 2.8.
(2)P Reference shall be made to EN 1997-2 for information on the use of laboratory and
field tests for geotechnical parameters.
3.4.2 Presentation of geotechnical information

(1)P The presentation of geotechnical information shall include:
— a factual account of all field and laboratory work;
— documentation of the methods used to carry out the field investigations and the
laboratory testing.
The documentation shall be based on the test reports described in EN 1997-2.
3.4.3 Evaluation of geotechnical information

(1)P The evaluation of the geotechnical information shall include as appropriate:
— a review of the field and laboratory work. Any limitations in the data (e.g. defective,
irrelevant, insufficient or inaccurate) shall be pointed out and commented upon. The
sampling and sample transportation and storage procedures shall be considered when
interpreting the test results. Any particularly adverse test results shall be considered
carefully in order to determine if they are misleading or represent a real phenomenon
that must be accounted for in the design;
— a review of the derived values of geotechnical parameters;
— any proposals for necessary further field and laboratory work, with comments justifying
the need for this extra work. Such proposals shall be accompanied by a detailed
programme for the extra investigations to be carried out with specific reference to the
questions that have to be answered.
Geotechnical Design Report
The requirements of the Ground Investigation Report are set out in Section 2.8 of
Eurocode 7. The requirements of this report are shown below.
(1)P The assumptions, data, methods of calculation and results of the verification of safety
and serviceability shall be recorded in the Geotechnical Design Report.
(2) The level of detail of the Geotechnical Design Reports will vary greatly, depending on
the type of design. For simple designs, a single sheet may be sufficient.
(3) The Geotechnical Design Report should normally include the following items, with
cross reference to the Ground Investigation Report (see 3.4) and to other documents,
which contain more detail:
— a description of the site and surroundings;
— a description of the ground conditions;
— a description of the proposed construction, including actions;
— design values of soil and rock properties, including justification, as appropriate;
— statements on the codes and standards applied;
— statements on the suitability of the site with respect to the proposed construction and
the level of acceptable risks;
— geotechnical design calculations and drawings;
— foundation design recommendations;
— a note of items to be checked during construction or requiring maintenance or
monitoring.
(4)P The Geotechnical Design Report shall include a plan of supervision and monitoring,
as appropriate. Items, which require checking during construction or, which require
maintenance after construction shall be clearly identified. When the required checks have
been carried out during construction, they shall be recorded in an addendum to the Report.
(5) In relation to supervision and monitoring the Geotechnical Design Report should state:
— the purpose of each set of observations or measurements;
— the parts of the structure, which are to be monitored and the locations at which
observations are to be made;
— the frequency with which readings are to be taken;
— the ways in which the results are to be evaluated;
— the range of values within which the results are to be expected;
— the period of time for which monitoring is to continue after construction is complete;
— the parties responsible for making measurements and observations, for interpreting the
results obtained and for maintaining the instruments.
(6)P An extract from the Geotechnical Design Report, containing the supervision,
monitoring and maintenance requirements for the completed structure, shall be provided to
the owner/client.
Traditional design compared to Eurocode Design
In traditional geotechnical design engineers and geologists have tended to design for an
overall factor of safety. Typically we have determined “characteristic values” for the
geotechnical materials and then used these values either to see that the factor of safety is
adequate or to divided the allowable loads by an appropriate value. For example typically
for slope stability problems we have done the analysis (the output of which is a factor of
safety) and if this is equal to or greater than 1.2 then the slope is considered “safe”. For
shallow foundation design we have tended to use Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation
and then taken this result and divided by a factor of safety of 3 to get a safe bearing
capacity.
Eurocode 7 moves away from this in that under this design procedure we are looking to
demonstrate the “limit state” does not occur. This is accomplished by using partial factors
applied to “characteristic values” to find “design values”.
Determination of characteristic values for geotechnical materials
Characteristic values are introduced in Eurocode 1 Section 5 thus:
(1)P Properties of materials (including soil and rock) or products are represented by
characteristic values which correspond to the value of the property having a prescribed
probability of not being attained in a hypothetical unlimited test series. They generally
correspond for a particular property to a specified fractile of the assumed statistical
distribution of the property of the material in the structure.
(2) Unless otherwise stated in ENVs 1992 to 1999, the characteristic values should be
defined as the 5% fractile for strength parameters and as the mean value for stiffness
parameters.
(3)P Material property values shall normally be determined for standardized tests
performed under specified conditions. A conversion factor shall be applied where it is
necessary to convert the test results into values which can be assumed to represent the
behaviour of the material in the structure or the ground (see also ENVs 1992 to 1999).
In Eurocode 7, the characteristic values of geotechnical material parameters are based on

an assessment of the material actually in the ground and the way that material will affect
the performance of the ground and structure in relation to a particular limit state (EC7,
2.4.3(2,3,4)). Field and laboratory tests are to be used, but they are only one means of
assessing what is in the ground; characteristic values are not derived directly or solely
from the test results. Statistical manipulation of test results will generally have only a minor
role in this process, if any. The resulting value is inevitably subjective to some extent,
being influenced by the knowledge and experience of the designer. However, this is
considered preferable to an alternative, mechanical approach which has arithmetic
objectivity but jettisons established engineering knowledge.
In many situations, the known geology of a stratum, and existing experience of it give a
fairly good indication of its parameter values. Soil tests are used as a check. It is good
practice to base the selection of characteristic values on a combination of well established
experience and the test results (EC7, 2.4.3(2,4)). If unusually good test results are
obtained, engineers will normally spot this and treat them with greater caution, unless
further investigation is possible to establish that they are relevant. Unusually bad results
may lead to further investigation, or may otherwise be taken at face value unless the
evidence of other experience is overwhelming.
Construction activities may affect the properties of the ground, adversely or beneficially
(EC7, 2.4.3(4)). Common examples occur during boring or driving of piles, or excavating to
a level on which concrete will be cast. In many cases this will occur after any investigation
and testing are complete. Nevertheless, the characteristic value is to account for these
construction effects. Information from previous experiences and publications will contribute
to the selection of characteristic values in these circumstances.
Having reviewed these items, EC7 says that the characteristic value of a soil or rock
parameter shall be selected as a cautious estimate of the value affecting the occurrence of
the limit state (EC7, 2.4.3(5)). This is standard engineering practice.
Statistical analysis of data
If enough data is collected then it will be possible to use statistical analysis to suggest an
appropriate “characteristic” value. The procedure to be followed is:
1. Determine if the data fits any of the standard probability distributions.

2. If the data fits a standard distribution model then analyse the data based on this
distribution.
3. Assess the likely 5% fractile value.
The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
Many types of data (including geotechnical data) will fit the “normal” distribution. The
normal distribution can be defined on the basis of 2 parameters. These are the mean
(average) and the standard deviation. The standard deviation is a measure of how tight
the data is clustered around the mean. The mean is given the symbol μ (mu) and
standard deviation is given the symbol σ (sigma)
About 68% of values drawn from a normal distribution are within one standard deviation σ
> 0 away from the mean μ; about 95% of the values are within two standard deviations
and about 99.7% lie within three standard deviations.
The 5% fractile value will lie around 1.64 standard deviations below the mean.
Design Values
Design values are determined based on the characteristic values.
For Actions (forces) we increase the action by multiplying it by an appropriate partial

factor:
Design value for actions = Fd  Fk  

where:
Fd  design value
Fk  characteristic value
  appropriate partial factor ( gamma)
For the materials we decrease the materials property (example: strength) by dividing it by
an appropriate partial factor:
Xk
Design value for materials = X d 

where:
X d  design value
X k  characteristic value
  appropriate partial factor ( gamma)
Actions and materials are typically the only considerations when we are designing a
structure that is above the ground. For example the structure will be subject to Actions
(forces) from self weight, imposed loads, wind loads etc and these will be resisted by the
Materials. In ground engineering it is more complicated in that we may also have a 3 rd
consideration, namely “RESISTANCE” from the ground. Eurocode 7 provides partial
factors to deal with “Resistance” these factors vary depending on particular limit state
design case.
5 Limit states to be considered during design
1. loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground, considered as a rigid

body, in which the strengths of structural materials and the ground are
insignificant in providing resistance (EQU)
Static equilibrium EQU is mainly relevant in structural design. In geotechnical

design, EQU verification will be limited to rare cases, such as a rigid
foundation bearing on rock, and is, in principle, distinct from overall stability or
buoyancy problems. If any shearing resistance Td is included, it should be of
minor importance.
2. internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural
elements —including footings, piles and basement walls—in which the
strength of structural materials is significant in providing resistance (STR)
3. failure or excessive deformation of the ground, in which the strength of soil
or rock is significant in providing resistance (GEO)
4. loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground due to uplift by water
pressure (bouyancy) or other vertical actions (UPL)
5. hydraulic heave, internal erosion and piping in the ground caused by
hydraulic gradients (HYD).
In some cases it is obvious by inspection that the limit state will not be exceeded in one or
more of the design limit states. EuroCode 7 does not require you to do an analysis of
each these limit states. You need to state that it has been considered but it does not apply
to the particular situation.
Four methods to carry out design
Using calculations based on an analytical, semi-empirical or numerical

models. (Calculations)
Adopting prescriptive measures involving conventionally and generally
conservative, nationally determined rules or approaches in design and
specification, and in the control of materials, workmanship, protection and
maintenance procedures. (Prescriptive design based on precedent practice
as contained in National Codes like the British Standards ie Presumed
allowable bearing capacity)
Using experimental models and load tests carried out on a sample of the
actual construction or on full scale or smaller scale models. (Physical models
or load tests)
Using the Observational Method, in which the design is continuously reviewed
during construction. (Observational Method)
Design Approaches
Eurocode 7 sets out 3 design approaches. It is my understanding that each has to be

considered, in conjunction with the limit states that must be considered, to show that the
design is appropriate. When I say “appropriate” I mean that Limit States have not been
reached. It is recognised that the engineer or geologist may be able to identify Design
Approaches and Limit States that do not apply to a particular situation by inspection and in
these cases they need only state that the particular case need not be considered.
The Design Approaches are titled 1, 2 and 3.
The main points of “Design Approaches”
 Each of the three design approaches is applied, as appropriate to the design.

 Guidance as to which design approach to apply for specific situation can be found
in the National Annex. (each country writes a annex to the Eurocode to deal with
the specifics of that country)
 Each design approach is applied to each of the limit states that need to be
considered for the design.
 Each design approach specifies the partial factors that must be applied to Actions
“A”, Materials “M” and Resistances “R”. These partial factors are referenced by the
letter A, M or R and a number 1, 2 3 etc. ie A1, M2, R4
 Each partial factor (A1, M2, R4 etc) is then defined in the Eurocode
2.4.7.3.4.2 Design Approach 1
(1)P Except for the design of axially loaded piles and anchors, it shall be verified that a
limit state of rupture or excessive deformation will not occur with either of the following
combinations of sets of partial factors:
Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1

where “+” implies: “to be combined with”.
NOTE In Combinations 1 and 2, partial factors are applied to actions and to ground
strength parameters.
(2)P For the design of axially loaded piles and anchors, it shall be verified that a limit state
of rupture or excessive deformation will not occur with either of the following combinations
of sets of partial factors:

Combination 2: A2 “+” (M1 or M2) “+” R4
NOTE 1 In Combination 1, partial factors are applied to actions and to ground strength
parameters. In Combination 2, partial factors are applied to actions, to ground resistances
and sometimes to ground strength parameters.
NOTE 2 In Combination 2, set M1 is used for calculating resistances of piles or anchors

and set M2 for calculating unfavourable actions on piles owing e.g. to negative skin friction
or transverse loading.
(3) If it is obvious that one of the two combinations governs the design, calculations for the
other combination need not be carried out. However, different combinations may be critical
to different aspects of the same design.
(1)P It shall be verified that a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation will not occur
with the following combination of sets of partial factors:
Combination: A1 “+” M1 “+” R2
NOTE 1 In this approach, partial factors are applied to actions or to the effects of actions
and to ground resistances.
NOTE 2 If this approach is used for slope and overall stability analyses the resulting effect
of the actions on the failure surface is multiplied by γ E and the shear resistance along the
failure surface is divided by γ R;e.
(1)P It shall be verified that a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation will not occur
with the following combination of sets of partial factors:
Combination: (A1* or A2†) “+” M2 “+” R3

*on structural actions
†on geotechnical actions
NOTE 1 In this approach, partial factors are applied to actions or to the effects of actions
from the structure and to ground strength parameters.
NOTE 2 For slope and overall stability analyses, actions on the soil (e.g. structural actions,
traffic load) are treated as geotechnical actions by using the set of load factors A2.
Partial Factors
In the above discussion of Limit States you will have seen reference to A1, A2, M1, M2,
R1, R2 etc. These are making reference to partial factors that must be considered in the
design. These partials factors are contained in the Eurocode Annex and are specific to
each country.
A.3 Partial factors for structural (STR) and geotechnical (GEO) limit states
verification
Table A.3- Partial Factors on actions (F) and the effect of actions (E)
Action Symbol Set

A1 A2
Permanent Unfavourable G 1.35 1.0
Favourable 1.0 1.0
Variable Unfavourable G 1.5 1.3
Favourable 0 0
Table A.4- Partial Factors for soil parameters (M)
Soil Parameter Symbol Set

M1 M2
Angle of shearing resistance  1.0 1.25
(this factor is applied to tan ’)
Effective cohesion c’ 1.0 1.25
Undrained shear strength cu 1.0 1.4
Unconfined strength qu 1.0 1.4
Weight density  1.0 1.0
Table A.4- Partial Factors for soil parameters (M)
Resistance Symbol Set

R1 R2 R3
Bearing R;v 1.0 1.4 1.0
Sliding R;h 1.0 1.1 1.0
The Tables A3, A4 and A5 above have been taken directly from Eurocode 7. They are
included here to show you an example of the sort of information that you can find there.
References:
R. Driscoll and B. Simpson (2001) EN1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design,

Proceedings of the ICE, Civil Engineering , Volume144, November 2001, Pages 49–54,
Paper 12644
EN 1997−1:2004
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design — Part 1: General rules —
(together with United Kingdom National Application Document) Published by British
Standards Institute (BSI)
Brian Simpson and Richard Driscoll, (1998) Eurocode 7: a commentary, Published by

BRE, BR 344, ISBN 1 86081 226 0
Arup Geotechnics
BRE
The Greek Alphabet

Upper Lower Case Name Some uses
case
  Alpha (AL-fuh)  - angular acceleration (see )
  Beta (BAY-tuh)  - Specific heat
  Gamma (GAM-uh)  - unit weight
  Delta (DEL-tuh)  - Actual change in a finite
variation
  Epsilon (EP-sil-on)  - strain
  Zeta (ZAY-tuh)
  Eta (AY-tuh)  - coefficient of viscosity
  Theta (THAY-tuh)  - sometimes used to denote and
angle
  Iota (eye-OH-tuh)
  Kappa (KAP-uh)
  Lambda (LAM-duh)  - wavelength of a wave
  Mu (MYOO)  - abbreviation for 10-6
 - used in soil mechanics to
denote pore water pressure
  Nu (NOO)  - frequency of a wave
  Xi (KS-EYE)
  Omicron (OM-i-
KRON)
  Pi (PIE)  - the ratio between the
circumference and diameter of a
circle
  Rho (ROW)  - density
  Sigma (SIG-muh)  - used to denote “the sum of”
 - stress
  Tau (TAU)  - torque
 - shear stress
  Upsilon (OOP-si-
LON)
  and  Phi (FEE)  - in soil mechanics the angle of
Both can internal friction of a material
beused
  Chi (K-EYE)
  Psi (SIGH)
  Omega (oh-MAY-  - ohms
guh)  - angular velocity
References:
Some uses of the Greek letters taken from http://www.rit.edu/~dabdis/tech/usofgk.html

Pronunciation taken from: http://www.mathacademy.com/pr/prime/articles/greek/index.asp

065 Eurocode Notes 2

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Eurocodes UWS – Joe Heffernan

065 Eurocode notes 12.doc.doc Page 1 of 17

Contents of Part 1 of Eurocode 7. The list below refers to BS EN 1997-1:2004

Eurocode 7 is used in conjunction with EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design.

The full listing of the various Eurocodes is given below:

 EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of Structural Design

The “Basic requirements” for designs undertaken using Eurocodes are:

(2)P A structure shall be designed to have adequate :

(6) The basic requirements should be met :

The basis of design under Eurocodes - LIMIT STATE DESIGN

Limit state design is a procedure in which attention is concentrated on avoidance of limit

The design process of Eurocode 7 (EN 1997-1)

Preliminary ground investigation and check of geotechnical category

Design main ground investigation

Ground investigation report and check of geotechnical category

Design by calculations, prescriptive measures, load or model tests

Geotechnical design report and reassessment of Geotechnical Category

Supervision of the execution of the work and reassessment of

Geotechnical Design Category

Geotechnical Category 1 procedures will be sufficient only if there is no excavation below

The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

Geotechnical Category 2 – This category includes conventional types of structures and

The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

Geotechnical Category 3 - This category includes structures or parts of structures which

Geotechnical Category 3 includes very large or unusual structures, structures involving

Importance of geotechnical investigations

Eurocode 7 strongly emphasises the importance of geotechnical investigations. It requires

Preliminary Ground Investigations

Eurocode 7 states the following concerning Design Investigations:

(1)P Design investigations shall be carried out:

Ground Investigation Report

3.4.2 Presentation of geotechnical information

3.4.3 Evaluation of geotechnical information

Geotechnical Design Report

Traditional design compared to Eurocode Design

Determination of characteristic values for geotechnical materials

Characteristic values are introduced in Eurocode 1 Section 5 thus:

In Eurocode 7, the characteristic values of geotechnical material parameters are based on

Statistical analysis of data

1. Determine if the data fits any of the standard probability distributions.

The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution

Design values are determined based on the characteristic values.

For Actions (forces) we increase the action by multiplying it by an appropriate partial

Design value for actions = Fd  Fk  

5 Limit states to be considered during design

1. loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground, considered as a rigid

Static equilibrium EQU is mainly relevant in structural design. In geotechnical

Four methods to carry out design

Using calculations based on an analytical, semi-empirical or numerical

Eurocode 7 sets out 3 design approaches. It is my understanding that each has to be

The Design Approaches are titled 1, 2 and 3.

The main points of “Design Approaches”

 Each of the three design approaches is applied, as appropriate to the design.

2.4.7.3.4.2 Design Approach 1

Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1

Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1

NOTE 2 In Combination 2, set M1 is used for calculating resistances of piles or anchors

2.4.7.3.4.3 Design Approach 2

Combination: A1 “+” M1 “+” R2

2.4.7.3.4.4 Design Approach 3

Combination: (A1* or A2†) “+” M2 “+” R3

Action Symbol Set

Table A.4- Partial Factors for soil parameters (M)

Soil Parameter Symbol Set