Question 1008: [Electromagnetism > Hall probe]

A solenoid is connected in series with a battery and a switch. A Hall probe is placed close to one end of the solenoid,
as illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

The current in the solenoid is switched on. The Hall probe is adjusted in position to give the maximum reading. The
current is then switched off.

(a) The current in the solenoid is now switched on again. Several seconds later, it is switched off. The Hall probe is
not moved.

On the axes of Fig. 7.2, sketch a graph to show the variation with time t of the Hall voltage VH.

(b) The Hall probe is now replaced by a small coil. The plane of the coil is parallel to the end of the solenoid.

(i) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

(ii) On the axes of Fig. 7.3, sketch a graph to show the variation with time t of the e.m.f. E induced in the coil when
the current in the solenoid is switched on and then switched off.

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 41 & 43 Q7

Solution 1008:

(a) For the graph, the Hall voltage VH increases from zero when the current is switched on. VHthen has a non-zero
constant value. VH then returns to zero when the current is switched off.

{The Hall voltage depends on the magnetic field and the magnetic field depends on the current flowing in the
solenoid. When the switch is off, no current flows, thus no magnetic field is present and VH is zero. When the switch
is on, current flows and VH is not zero. VH is constant because the current is not changing (it is d.c., not a.c.).}
(b)

(i) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the (induced) e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of
(magnetic) flux (linkage).

(ii) The graph consists of a pulse as the current is being switched on. There is zero e.m.f when there is current in the
coil. Then, there is a pulse in the opposite direction when switching off.

{Recall Faraday’s law above. An e.m.f. is only induced when there is a ‘change’ in magnetic flux. This only occurs
when the current is being switched on or off. When the current has a constant value of current (this may be zero or
non-zero – as long as it is constant), no e.m.f. is induced.

The pulses are opposite because when the current is switched on, the change is from ‘off’ to ‘on’, and when the
current is switched off, the change is from ‘on’ to ‘off’. This changes are opposite to each other.}

Question 1009: [Measurements > Uncertainties]

(a) State the most appropriate instrument, or instruments, for the measurement of the following.
(i) the diameter of a wire of diameter about 1 mm

(ii) the resistance of a filament lamp

(iii) the peak value of an alternating voltage

(b) The mass of a cube of aluminium is found to be 580 g with an uncertainty in the measurement of 10 g. Each side
of the cube has a length of (6.0 ± 0.1) cm.

Calculate the density of aluminium with its uncertainty. Express your answer to an appropriate number of significant
figures.

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2009 Paper 21 Q1

Solution 1009:

(a)

(i) Micrometer (screw gauge) / travelling microscope

(ii) EITHER ohm-meter OR voltmeter and ammeter OR multimeter / avo on ohm setting

(iii) EITHER (calibrated) c.r.o. OR a.c. voltmeter and ×√2

(b)

Density ρ = mass m / volume V = 580 / 63 = 2.685gcm-3

% uncertainty in the mass, Δm = (10 / 580) × 100 = 1.7%

% uncertainty in the volume, ΔV = 3 × (0.1 / 6) × 100 = 5.0%

{Density ρ = m / V.

Percentage uncertainties: Δρ/ρ × 100% = [Δm/m + ΔV/V] × 100%

% uncertainty in density = 1.7 + 5.0 = 6.7%

% uncertainty in density = Δρ/ρ × 100% = 6.7% = 6.7 / 100

Density ρ = 2.685gcm-3

So, Δρ = 6.7% × ρ = (6.7 / 100) × 2.685 = 0.18}

Uncertainty in density Δρ = 0.18gcm-3

{Uncertainty is given to only 1s.f.}

So, density = 2.7 ± 0.2gcm-3

Question 1010: [Dynamics > Collisions]

Two balls X and Y are moving towards each other with speeds of 5 m s–1 and 15 m s–1respectively.

They make a perfectly elastic head-on collision and ball Y moves to the right with a speed of 7 m s–1.

What is the speed and direction of ball X after the collision?

A 3 m s–1 to the left

B 13 m s–1 to the left

C 3 m s–1 to the right

D 13 m s–1 to the right

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2015 Paper 13 Q12

Solution 1010:

Answer: B.

Let the positive direction be towards the right.

For a perfectly elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

For a perfectly elastic collision,

Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of separation

‘Approach’ means getting closer to each other.

Relative speed of approach = 5 + 15 = 20 ms-1

‘Separation’ means getting away from each other.

Assume that the velocity of X is +v (assume that it continues to move to the right after the collision. If that’s not the
case, the value of v would be negative, indicating that X moves to the left after the collision). Y also moves to the
right with a speed of (+)7ms-1. From this assumption, for the 2 balls to be separating, Y must be faster than X, else
they would be approaching. Since both are moving in the same direction, we need to take the difference between
the 2 speeds to obtain the speed of separation.

Relative speed of separation = 7 – v

7 – v = 20

Speed v = 7 – 20 = – 13 ms-1

Thus, X moves at 13 m s–1 to the left.

Question 1011: [Waves > Stationary waves]

An organ pipe of length l is open at both ends. Notes are produced by the pipe when stationary waves are set up.
The speed of sound in the air column is v.

What is the lowest (fundamental) frequency of the note produced by the pipe?

A 2v / l Bv/l C v / 2l D v / 4l

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2014 Paper 13 Q29

Solution 1011:

Answer: C.

Since the pipe is open at both ends, antinodes (points of maximum displacement) will be present at each end. For a
note of lowest frequency, the stationary wave will consist of the 2 antinodes (mentioned above) and a single node in
the middle of the pipe (at length = l / 2).

Consider a wavelength λ. This can be obtained by measuring the length between 3 consecutives antinodes (or
nodes).

The distance between the 1st and the 3rd antinodes gives the wavelength.

The distance between the 1st and 2nd antinodes give half the wavelength.

Thus, in the organ pipe, l = λ / 2 for the fundamental frequency

Speed v = f λ

Fundamental frequency f0 = v / λ = v / 2l [since l = λ / 2]

Potential energy and kinetic energy

Gravitational potential energy

Any object that is raised against the force of gravity stores gravitational potential energy. For example,
if you lift a book up onto a shelf, you have to do work against the force of gravity. The book has gained
gravitational potential energy.

Elastic potential energy

 Elastic objects such as elastic bands and squash balls can change their shape. They can be stretched or
squashed, but energy is needed to change their shape. This energy is stored in the stretched or squashed
object as elastic potential energy.

Kinetic energy

Every moving object has kinetic energy (sometimes called movement energy). The more mass an object
has, and the faster it is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. You should be able to discuss the
transformation of kinetic energy to other forms of energy.

Example 1 - The bouncing ball

Several energy transfers happen when a squash ball is dropped onto a table and bounces up again.

When the ball is stationary above the table, its gravitational potential energy (GPE) is at a maximum. It has
no kinetic energy (KE), or elastic potential energy (EPE).

As the ball falls, its GPE is transferred to KE and the ball accelerates towards the table.

When the ball hits the table, the KE is transferred to EPE as the ball squashes. As the ball regains its shape,
the EPE is transferred to KE and it bounces upwards.

When the ball reaches the top of its travel, all the KE has been transferred to GPE again. Note that the ball
will be lower than it was when it was first dropped, because some energy is also transferred as heat and
sound to the surroundings.

 High up  Falling  On table

 GPE - maximum  GPE - decreasing  GPE - minimum
 KE - none  KE - increasing  KE - none
 EPE - none  EPE - none  EPE - maximum

Example 2 - The pendulum

Question 1060: [Dynamics > Resultant force]

A ball is falling at terminal speed in still air. The forces acting on the ball are upthrust, viscous drag and
weight.
What is the order of increasing magnitude of these three forces?
A upthrust → viscous drag → weight
B viscous drag → upthrust → weight
C viscous drag → weight → upthrust
D weight → upthrust → viscous drag

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2008 Paper 1 Q12 & November 2014 Paper 11 & 12 Q11

Solution 1060:
Answer: A.
Sketching a force diagram would have greatly helped in answering this question. The weight is downward,
while the viscous drag and the upthrust would be upwards, opposing the weight.

At terminal speed, the resultant force on the ball is zero. As weight is the only downward force, it must be
the largest of the three.

The upthrust is a result of the force due to the difference in pressure at the top and bottom of the ball.
Pressure P = hρg and Force = Pressure / Area
Air is not very dense (ρ is small) and the difference in height, h, from the top of the ball to its bottom is also
very small. Thus, the upthrust force is small.

Many students would think that the Archimedean upthrust on a body in air is quite large. This is a mistake.
The reverse is the case. The upthrust will only be approximately a thousandth or less than the weight of a
solid.

Viscous drag (air resistance), on the other hand, will be almost as large as the weight when a body is at
terminal velocity.

Question 1061: [Kinematics > Air resistance]

A golf ball is hit with the same force and direction on the Earth and on the Moon.
Which diagram best represents the shapes of the paths taken by the golf ball?
Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2012 Paper 11 Q10

Solution 1061:
Answer: C.
On both the Earth and the Moon, the force of gravity would pull the ball towards the surface. [D is
incorrect] However this force is greater on Earth, so the ball is pulled back to the surface in a shorter range.

Consider the path of the ball on Earth. Gravity pulls the ball to the surface while the air resistance opposes
the motion. Thus, the path of the ball is not symmetric.

As for the path on Moon, we need to take into account the lack of air resistance (since it is in vacuum).
Hence, the path of the golf ball is symmetric on Moon.

Question 1062: [Matter > Pressure of gas]

A mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by a piston is heated gently. At the same time, the piston is moved so
that the pressure remains constant.
As a result of this, what will not occur?
A The average velocity of the molecules will increase.
B The mean separation of the molecules will increase.
C The molecules will travel greater distances between collisions.
D The number of collisions per second of the molecules on the piston will increase.
Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2012 Paper 12 Q20

Solution 1062:
Answer: D.
The average velocity of the molecules will increase since the (kinetic) energy of the molecules is increased
from the heating (heat energy).

As the gas is heated, the molecules would tend to hot with the walls of the cylinder and piston, causing the
pressure to increase. For the pressure to remain constant, the volume available for the gas should be
increased.
Since volume is increased, both B (the mean separation of the molecules will increase) and C (the molecules
will travel greater distances between collisions) occurs.

The gas molecules has now a larger volume to move about, so the probability of collisions with the piston
will decrease.

Question 1063: [Waves > Phase difference]

Two light waves of the same frequency are represented by the diagram.

What could be the phase difference between the two waves?

A 150° B 220° C 260° D 330°

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2015 Paper 12 Q24

Solution 1063:
Answer: C.
The 2 light waves are said to have the same frequency. The waves have a sinusoidal form.
Let the wave with the larger amplitude be wave A and the one with smaller amplitude be wave B.

Since both waves have a sinusoidal form, we can assume that any of the 2 waves will start at displacement =
0 (we take this point as the reference point), and then move up – just like the wave A at (0, 0).
{In fact, any point (at any displacement) could be taken as the reference point, but in this question, it is
easier to consider that point.}

On the graph, the x-axis gives the phase angle.

At a phase of 0°, wave B has not yet reaching the starting (reference) point while wave A is already at that
point. It is only at a phase of 100° that wave B reached the reference point (or we could say that wave B
reaches this point AGAIN at 100°).
The solution of 100° is not available in the 4 choices, so we can say that wave B had actually already
reached this point before – we need to find at which phase this was, according to the x-axis in the diagram.

The phase angle is actually between 0° and 359°. A phase difference of 360° is the same as a phase
difference of 0° and a phase difference of 1° is the same as a phase difference of 361°, ….

The wavelength of a wave corresponds to a phase difference of 360°. Since the 2 light waves have the same
frequency, it means that they are the same wavelength.

So, if wave B reached the reference point again at a phase of 100°, according to the x-axis, going back by a
wavelength (by a phase difference of 360°), we can say that previously, wave B had reached the reference
point at the phase of
Phase = 100 – 360 = – 260°

As for wave A, it reaches the reference point at a phase of 0° (according to the x-axis).

Thus, phase difference between wave A and B = 0 – (–260) = 260°

Phase Difference (ϕϕ) between two particles or two waves tells us how much a particle (or
wave) is in front or behind another particle (or wave).

 Value ranges from 0 to 2π2π radians

Referring to the diagram above,

 P1 and P2 are in phase. They are in exactly the same state of disturbance at any point in
time.(have same displacement and velocity)
1. Phase difference : 0 radians (or multiples of 2π2π)
2. Distance between 2 particles (path difference) is an integer multiple of the
wavelength.
 P1 and P3 are ππ radian out of phase. They are 1212 a cycle apart from each other at any
point in time.
1. They have velocities in the opposite direction
2. Phase difference: ππ radians (or ππ, 3π3π, 5π5π, …)
3. Path difference: odd multiple of half a wavelength (i.e. 12λ12λ, 32λ32λ , …)

Referring to the graph above,

ϕ=2πxλϕ=2πxλ OR ϕ=2πtTϕ=2πtT
Phase difference, ΔϕΔϕ between 2 particles is just the difference in phase between them.
ΔϕΔϕ between A and B: Δϕ=2πΔtTΔϕ=2πΔtT or Δϕ=2πΔxλΔϕ=2πΔxλ

Wave equation:

 If wave start from equilibrium, use sin

 If wave start from extreme displacement, use cos
 If wave starts below equilibrium, put negative sign in front
Examples:

y=yosin(x2πλ)y=yosin(x2πλ)
y=–yocos(t2πT)

Question 1024: [Kinematics > Non-uniform acceleration]

A trolley of mass 930 g is held on a horizontal surface by means of two springs, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

The variation with time t of the speed v of the trolley for the first 0.60 s of its motion is shown in Fig. 4.2.

(a) Use Fig. 4.2 to determine

(i) the initial acceleration of the trolley,

(ii) the distance moved during the first 0.60 s of its motion.

(b) (i) Use your answer to (a)(i) to determine the resultant force acting on the trolley at time t = 0.

(ii) Describe qualitatively the variation with time of the resultant force acting on the trolley during the first 0.60 s of
its motion.

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2005 Paper 2 Q4

Solution 1024:

(a)

(i)

{The gradient of a speed-time graph gives the acceleration.

Gradient = Δy / Δx = Δspeed / Δtime = acceleration

To find the acceleration at a point, the gradient of the tangent at that point is calculated. (The tangent at a point is a
straight line that touches only that point on the curve.)}

Use of a tangent at time t = 0

(Gradient =) Acceleration = 42 ± 4 cms-2

(ii)

Use of area of the loop (gives the distance travelled)

Distance = 0.031 ± 0.001 m

(b)

(i) F = ma = 0.93 × 0.42 = 0.39N

(ii) The resultant force reduces to zero in the first 0.3s. It then increases again in the next 0.3s in the opposite
direction.

Question 1025: [Matter > Elastic and Plastic Behaviour]

A sample of material in the form of a cylindrical rod has length L and uniform area of cross-section A. The rod
undergoes an increasing tensile stress until it breaks.
Fig. 4.1 shows the variation with stress of the strain in the rod.

(a) State whether the material of the rod is ductile, brittle or polymeric.

(b) Determine the Young modulus of the material of the rod.

(c) A second cylindrical rod of the same material has a spherical bubble in it, as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.

The rod has an area of cross-section of 3.2 × 10–6 m2 and is stretched by forces of magnitude 1.9 × 103 N.

By reference to Fig. 4.1, calculate the maximum area of cross-section of the bubble such that the rod does not break.

(d) A straight rod of the same material is bent as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Suggest why a thin rod can bend more than a thick rod without breaking.
Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2007 Paper 2 Q4

Solution 1025:

(a) Brittle

(b) Young modulus = stress / strain = (9.5×108) / 0.013 = 7.3×1010 Pa

(c)

Stress = Force / Area

{Since the cross-sectional area is inversely proportional to the stress, the maximum stress possible (the value of
stress at the breaking point from the graph) would correspond to the minimum cross-sectional area of the rod.

(minimum) area [of rod] = force / (stress at breaking point)}

(minimum) area of rod = (1.9×103) / (9.5×108) = 2.0×10-6 m2

{The area calculated above is the minimum possible cross-sectional area of the rod so that it does not break.

From the question: The rod has an area of cross-section of 3.2 × 10–6 m2.

So aside from the minimum area of rod calculated, the remaining area of the actual rod can be occupied by the
bubble. We thus take the difference between these 2 areas.}

(maximum) area of cross-section of bubble = (3.2 – 2.0) ×10-6 = 1.2×10-6 m2

(d) When bent, the ‘top’ and ‘bottom’ edges of the rod have different extensions. With a thick rod, this difference is
greater (than with a thin rod). So, the thick rod breaks with less bending.

{Consider the extension of the ‘outer’ edge and the compression of the ‘inner’ edge as the rod bends. The thick rod
would break more easily because the extension and the compression would be greater.}
Question 1026: [Kinematics > Linear motion]
(a) Define speed and velocity and use these definitions to explain why one of these quantities is a scalar and the
other is a vector.

(b) A ball is released from rest and falls vertically. The ball hits the ground and rebounds vertically, as shown in Fig.
2.1.

The variation with time t of the velocity v of the ball is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Air resistance is negligible.

(i) Without calculation, use Fig. 2.2 to describe the variation with time t of the velocity of the ball from t = 0 to t = 2.1
s.

(ii) Calculate the acceleration of the ball after it rebounds from the ground. Show your working.

(iii) Calculate, for the ball, from t = 0 to t = 2.1 s,

1. the distance moved,

2. the displacement from the initial position.

(iv) On Fig. 2.3, sketch the variation with t of the speed of the ball.
Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2015 Paper 21 Q2

Solution 1026:

(a)

Speed = distance / time and Velocity = displacement / time

Speed is a scalar as distance has no direction and velocity is a vector as displacement has direction

(b)

(i) There is a constant acceleration or linear/uniform increase in velocity until 1.1 s. The ball rebounds or bounces or
changes direction and decelerates to zero velocity at the same acceleration as the initial value

(ii)

Acceleration a = (v – u) / t OR use of gradient implied

Acceleration a = (8.8 + 8.8) / 1.8 OR appropriate values from line OR = (8.6 + 8.6) / 1.8

Acceleration a = 9.8 (9.78) m s–2 OR = 9.6 m s–2

(iii)

1.

Distance = first area above graph + second area below graph

Distance = {(1.1 × 10.8) / 2} + {(0.9 × 8.8) / 2} (= 5.94 + 3.96)

Distance = 9.9 m
2.

Displacement = first area above graph – second area below graph

Displacement = {(1.1 × 10.8) / 2} – {(0.9 × 8.8) / 2}

Displacement = 2.0 (1.98) m

(iv)

The sketch should have

correct shape with straight lines and all lines above the time axis or all below

correct times for zero speeds (0.0, 1.15 s, 2.1 s) and peak speeds (10.8 m s–1 at 1.1 s and 8.8 m s–1at 1.2 s and 3.0 s)

Question 1027: [Waves > Diffraction]

Light of wavelength 700 nm is incident on a pair of slits, forming fringes 3.0 mm apart on a screen. What is the fringe
spacing when light of wavelength 350 nm is used and the slit separation is doubled?

A 0.75 mm B 1.5 mm C 3.0 mm D 6.0 mm

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2008 Paper 1 Q29

Solution 1027:

Answer: A.

For double slit: x = λD / a

where x = fringe separation, λ = wavelength, D = distance between slits and screen and a = slit separation

When λ = 700nm, x = 3.0mm

3.0 = 700 (D / a)

D / a = 3.0 / 700

When λ = 350, split separation = 2a

x = λD / 2a = (350 / 2) × (D / a) = (350 / 2) × (3.0 / 700) = 0.75mm

Question 825: [Electric field]

An electron enters a region of space where there is uniform electric field E as shown.

Initially, electron is moving parallel to, and in the direction of, the electric field.

What is the subsequent path and change of speed of the electron?

path of electron speed of electron

A linear decreases

B linear increases

C parabolic decreases

D parabolic increases
Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 13 Q31

Solution 825:

Answer: A.

Electric field direction is drawn from positive to negative – that is, it shows the direction of the electric force on a
positive charge. So, the force on the electron (which is negatively charged) is opposite to the direction of its motion.
This causes deceleration (reducing the speed) since the force is opposite to the direction of motion.

The path of the electron will be linear (since the direction of the force is (anti-) parallel and opposite to the direction
of motion). Additionally, the field is uniform.

Question 826: [Waves > Interference > Double slits]

Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident on a pair of slits. Fringes with spacing of 4.0 mm are formed on a screen.

What will be the fringe spacing when the wavelength of the light is changed to 400 nm and separation of the slits is
doubled?

A 1.3 mm B 3.0 mm C 5.3 mm D 12 mm

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2013 Paper 11 Q27

Solution 826:

Answer: A.
For double slits: Separation of slits, a = Dλ / w

where D is the distance of the slits from the screen, λ is the wavelength and w is the fringe spacing

When λ = 600nm, w = 4.0mm

a = D (600 / 4.0)

The separation of the slits, a has now been doubled and the wavelength λ is changed to 400nm. D is still kept
constant.

Fringe spacing, w = Dλ / a

The slit separation is now 2a (= 2D (600 / 4.0)).

Fringe spacing, w = D (400) / [2D (600 / 4.0)] = (400×4.0) / (2×600) = 1.3mm

Note that the units have not been converted in these equations since they would have cancelled out directly at the
end of the calculations.

Question 827: [Electric field]

Two oppositely-charged horizontal metal plates are placed in vacuum. A positively-charged particle starts from rest
and moves from one plate to the other plate, as shown.

Which graph shows how kinetic energy EK of the particle varies with the distance x moved from the positive plate?
Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 12 Q29

Solution 827:

Answer: D.

Electric field strength, E = V / d

The electric field, E is uniform (since the p.d. V and the plate separation d are constant) and so the electrical
potential energy decreases uniformly with the distance moved in the electric field.

From the conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the particle therefore increases uniformly too. [D is correct]

The answer could also be obtained by reasoning that a constant force (F = Eq) gives a constant acceleration (F = Eq =
ma), and then using the equation of uniformly accelerated motion v2 = 2ax shows that kinetic energy (which is
proportional to v2) is proportional to x.

Question 828: [Waves > Interference > Diffraction grating]

A narrow beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on diffraction grating. Third-order diffracted beams are
formed at angles of 45° to the original direction.

What is the highest order of diffracted beam produced by this grating?

A 3rd B 4th C 5th D 6th

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2007 Paper 1 Q25

Solution 828:

Answer: B.

For diffraction grating: d sinθ = nλ

When n = 3 (third order), θ = 45°

d sin45° = 3λ

d / λ = 3 / sin45°

For the highest order of diffracted beam, the angle θ should be less (or equal to) 90°. So, consider the angle θ = 90°.

d sin90° = nλ

n = (d / λ) sin90° = [3sin90°] / sin45° = 4.24.

The order n should be an integer which is less than this.

So, highest order n = 4th

Question 829: [Pressure]

A submarine is in equilibrium in a fully submerged position.
What causes upthrust on the submarine?

A The air in the submarine is less dense than sea water.

B The sea water exerts a greater upward force on the submarine than the weight of the steel.

C The submarine displaces its own volume of sea water.

D There is a difference in water pressure acting on the top and on the bottom of the submarine.

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2013 Paper 12 Q11

Solution 829:

Answer: D.

Pressure = hρg

The pressure acting at the top and that acting at the bottom of the submarine are different since the depths h are
different. The pressure at the bottom acting (upwards) on the surface of the submarine is greater.

Pressure P = Force / Area

The resultant pressure causes an upward force on the submarine. This is the upthrust.

Since the submarine is in equilibrium, the upthrust should be equal to the weight of the submarine.[B is incorrect]

Question 751: [Current of Electricity > Resistance]

A conductor consists of three wires connected in series. The wires are all made of same metal but have different
cross-sectional areas. There is current I in the conductor.
Point Y on the conductor is at zero potential.

Which graph best shows variation of potential V with distance along the conductor?

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2014 Paper 11 & 12 Q33

Solution 751:

Answer: A.

Resistance R = ρL / A

Ohm’s law: V = IR

The resistance R of the wire is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. So, the thickest conductor has the
least resistance.
Now from Ohm’s law, the potential difference V is proportional to the resistance R. The thickest conductor has the
least resistance, so the smallest voltage drop occurs across the thickest conductor.

Consider a part of the wire with constant cross-sectional area – say, the thickest conductor.

Resistance R = ρL / A

So, along the thickest conductor, as the distance from X increases, the length L of the conductor also increases. Since
the resistance is directly proportional to the length L, as we go along the same conductor (of constant cross-
sectional area), the resistance R increases and so, the potential difference also changes. That is, the potential V is
not constant (not a straight line) for any of the conductors of constant cross-sectional area. The stepped changes in
C and D are unphysical. [C and D are incorrect]

As explained above, the thickest conductor has the least resistance, so the smallest voltage drop occurs across the
thickest conductor.

The potential drop with distance is represented by the gradient of the graph. So, the value of the gradient should be
smallest for the thickest conductor. [B is incorrect] Since there is a potential DROP, the gradient is negative.

Question 752: [Measurement > Estimates]

What is approximate kinetic energy of an Olympic athlete when running at maximum speed during a 100 m race?

A 400 J B 4000 J C 40 000 J D 400 000 J

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2012 Paper 12 Q3

Solution 752:
Answer: B.

In this question, we need to estimate the maximum speed and mass of an Olympic athlete.

A 100m race in an Olympic competition is usually completed in about 10s by the fastest persons.

Let the maximum speed of the Olympic athlete be about 10ms-1.

Let the mass of the Olympic athlete be about 80kg.

Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 = ½ (80)(10)2 = 4000J

Question 753: [Waves > Diffraction]

A diffraction grating with 500 lines per mm is used to observe diffraction of monochromatic light of wavelength 600
nm.

Light is passed through a narrow slit and grating is placed so that its lines are parallel to the slit. Light passes through
the slit and then the grating.

Observer views the slit through the grating at different angles, moving his head from X parallel to the grating,
through Y, opposite the slit, to Z parallel to the grating on the opposite side.

How many images of the slit does he see?

A3 B4 C6 D7

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2011 Paper 11 Q27

Solution 753:

Answer: D.

For diffraction grating: d sinθ = nλ

The largest value of θ is 90° on both sides of Y. We need to identify the largest order n for which an image can be
seen (constructive interference).

There are 500 lines in 1×10-3m.

Slit separation, d = (1×10-3) / 500 m

Value of n = d sinθ / λ = (1×10-3) (sin90°) / (500) (600×10-9) = 3.33

Since n can only be an integer, the largest order is n = 3. So, there are 3 images on both sides of Y. An image will also
be seen at Y, which is directly along the source.

Number of images = 3 + 3 + 1 = 7

Question 754: [Waves > Period]

Diagram shows a square-wave trace on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope. A grid of 1 cm squares covers the
screen. Time-base setting is 10 ms cm–1.

What is approximate frequency of the square wave?

A 70 Hz B 140 Hz C 280 Hz D 1400 Hz

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2010 Paper 11 Q4 & Paper 12 Q5 & Paper 13 Q3

Solution 754:

Answer: B.

In the diagram shown, there are approximately 8 periods shown. This takes 6 squares (= 6cm).

Time-base setting is 10 ms cm–1.

Time corresponding to 6 cm = 6 x 10 = 60ms

1 period T = 60 /8 = 7.5ms
Frequency = 1 / T = 1/ (7.5x10-3) = 133.3Hz.

So, answer: B.

Question 755: [Current of Electricity]

An extension lead is used to connect a 240 V electrical supply to heater as shown.

A voltmeter measures potential difference (p.d.) across the heater as 216 V and an ammeter measures the current
through the heater as 7.7 A.

What is the total resistance of the extension lead?

A 3.1 Ω B 6.2 Ω C 28 Ω D 31 Ω

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2014 Paper 13 Q36

Solution 755:

Answer: A.

The extension lead is connected in series with the heater and the supply.

The same current of 7.7 A flows through both the heater and the extension lead.

From Kirchhoff’s law, the sum of p.d. in a circuit is equal the e.m.f. in the circuit here.

Let the p.d across the extension lead be V.

V + 216 = 240

p.d. V = 240 – 216 = 24 V

Ohm’s law: V = IR

Total resistance R = V / I = 24 / 7.7 = 3.1 Ω

Question 756: [Matter > Deformation]

A simple crane consists of rigid vertical pillar supporting a horizontal beam.

Weight W is lifted by a rope at the end of the beam.

What are the forces at points X, Y and Z due to the weight W?

force at X force at Y force at Z

A tension compression tension

B tension tension compression

C compression tension compression

D compression compression compression

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2007 Paper 1 Q20

Solution 756:

Answer: B.

With the weight W placed there, the horizontal beam would very slightly be curved up (like the upper part of a semi-
circle). This is only slightly since it is a rigid pillar. It may not even be observed by our eyes.

Thus, the part around point Z would be compressed. Force at Z: compression

As the horizontal beam is now slightly curved, the part around Y would be extended. Force at Y: tension.

The same is true for the area around X, which is on the outside of the pillar. Force at X: tension.

Question 85: [Forces > Resultant force]

Car of mass m travels at constant speed up slope at an angle θ to horizontal, as shown in diagram. Air resistance and
friction provide resistive force F.
What force is needed to propel car at this constant speed?
A mg cos θ B mg sin θ C mg cos θ + F D mg sin θ + F

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2012 Paper 13 Q15

Solution 85:
Answer: D.
For constant speed, the forward force should be equal to the total backward force so that the resultant acceleration is
zero.
Component of weight along slope = mg sin θ
Total backward force = mg sin θ + F

Forward force needed = Total backward force = mg sin θ + F

Question 86: [Waves > Intensity]

Sound wave consists of series of moving pressure variations from normal, constant air pressure.
Graph shows these pressure variations for two waves at one instant in time.

Wave 1 has intensity of 1.6 × 10–6W m–2.

What is intensity of wave 2?
A 2.4 × 10–6W m–2 B 3.0 × 10–6W m–2 C 3.6 × 10–6W m–2 D 4.5 × 10–6W m–2

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 12 Q23

Solution 86:
Answer: C.
Intensity is proportional to amplitude square, A2.
For wave 1, amplitude A = 2 (from graph).
So, 22 = 4[units] corresponds to the intensity of 1.6x10 -6Wm-2.

Wave 2, which has amplitude A = 3 (from graph), will have intensity corresponding to 32 = 9[units].
This (9 units) is equal to an intensity of (9/4) x 1.6x10-6 = 3.6x10-6Wm-2

Question 87: [Resistance > Power]

Diagram shows low-voltage circuit for heating water in a fish tank.

Heater has resistance of 3.0 Ω. Power supply has e.m.f. of 12 V and internal resistance of 1.0 Ω.
At which rate is energy supplied to heater?
A 27 W B 36 W C 48 W D 64 W

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 13 Q35

Solution 87:
Answer: A.
Rate of energy supplied to heater = power in heater
Power in heater = I2R where R is the resistance of the heater.

Total resistance = 3.0 + 1.0 = 4.0Ω

Current = emf / total resistance = 12 / 4 = 3.0A

Power in heater = (32) (3) = 27W

Question 88: [Forces > Torque]

Four beams of same length each have three forces acting on them.
Which beam has both zero resultant force and zero resultant torque acting?

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2012 Paper 13 Q16

Solution 88:
Answer: D.
Torque is the moment of a torque. It causes a turning effect.

Consider A:
Upward force = 30 + 50 = 80N
Downward force = 90N
Resultant force = 90 – 80 = 10N downward
Resultant force is not zero. So, A is incorrect

Consider B:
Upward force = 36 + 70 = 106N
Downward force = 106N
Resultant force = 106 – 106 = 0

Consider forces acting about the centre of mass (where the 106N acts downwards),
Clockwise moment = 36 (50) = 1800Ncm
Anticlockwise moment = 70 (30) = 2100Ncm
Resultant moment = 2100 – 1800 = 300Ncm
Resultant moment is not zero. So, B is incorrect

Consider C:
Upward force = 28 + 35 = 63N
Downward force = 63N
Resultant force = 63 – 63 = 0

Consider forces acting about the centre of mass (where the 63N acts downwards),
Clockwise moment = 28 (50) = 1400Ncm
Anticlockwise moment = 35 (30) = 1050Ncm
Resultant moment = 1400 – 1050 = 350Ncm
Resultant moment is not zero. So, C is incorrect

Consider D:
Upward force = 42 + 70 = 112N
Downward force = 112N
Resultant force = 112 – 112 = 0

Consider forces acting about the centre of mass (where the 112N acts downwards),
Clockwise moment = 42 (50) = 2100Ncm
Anticlockwise moment = 70 (30) = 2100Ncm
Resultant moment = 2100 – 2100 = 0
Both the resultant force and the resultant moment are zero. So, D is correct

Question 89: [Forces > Torque]

Two 8.0N forces act at each end of beam of length 0.60m. Forces are parallel and act in opposite directions. Angle
between forces and beam is 60 °.
What is the torque of the couple exerted on beam?
A 2.4 N m B 4.2 N m C 4.8 N m D 9.6 N m

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2007 Paper 1 Q13

Solution 89:
Answer: B.
A couple consists of 2 forces, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, acting on different points such that they
produce a turning effect.

Torque of the couple, τ = F x d

where F is the magnitude of one of the forces and d is the perpendicular distance between the 2 forces

{We cannot use the distance as 0.60m since this is NOT the perpendicular distance between the forces. + There is
no need to identify any pivot since perpendicular distance between the 2 forces is required.}

{Now, here is a working that was suggested (it is not a correct method to solve the question).
Consider the centre of the beam and try to calculate the corresponding length that would be perpendicular to the
forces and pass through the origin. Let the perpendicular distance from the centre to 1 of the forces = x

x = 0.30 sin60
So, the total ‘resolved’ perpendicular distance between the 2 forces = 2 (0.30 sin60)
Torque, τ = F x d = 8.0 x 2 (0.30 sin60) = 4.156 = 4.2Nm

Even if the correct answer is obtained, this method is ‘physically’ incorrect because the beam is a ‘physical’ material
with a ‘physical’ length, so we cannot resolve for another length that does not actually exist.

The correct what would be to resolve for the perpendicular (vertical) component of the forces. This is accepted since
force is a concept (and this method is much easier and quicker). This is what is described next.}

Component of one force perpendicular to beam = 8sin60

Torque = 0.6 x 8sin60 = 4.157 = 4.2Nm
Distance d between sliding contact and a particular end of potentiometer is varied.
Current measured is then plotted against distance d.
For which two circuits will graphs be identical?
A W and X B W and Y C X and Y D Y and Z

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 13 Q36

Solution 163:

Answer: A.

A potentiometer is different than a regular resistor in that the potentiometer can allow for different values of
resistance.

As in this case, a potentiometer usually consists of a long wire having some resistance (R = ρL / A). In simple terms,
we can imagine current to flow at one end of the wire and up to a specific distance on the wire where is slider is
placed into contact with the wire. Then, instead of continuing along the rest of the wire, the current would flow in
the slider which is connected to another point in the circuit. This is possible if, for example, the slider has a negligible
resistance. Current would chose the easiest way, that is, the path is the smallest resistance.

W and X will give identical graphs. In each of these 2 arrangements, the resistance of the length d of the
potentiometer is connected into the circuit but the right-hand end does not contribute {current flows from positive
terminal of the cell – so the right-hand end does not contribute}.
The flow of current in the 4 arrangements is shown below. This will allow us to better identify which circuit would
give the same graph. Current flows from the positive terminal of the battery towards it negative terminal.

In arrangement W, the right-hand end is even not connected, so only the length d of the wire will contribute some
resistance, along with the resistance of the fixed resistor.

In arrangement X, the slider (head of arrow in diagram) is connected the bold point shown. Since the slider has
negligible resistance, it is at the same potential as the point. So, the potential difference between the slider and the
point is zero. When the p.d. between 2 points is zero, current does not flow through the component connected
between these 2 points. In this arrangement, the right part of the potentiometer is connected between these 2
points, so no current flows through the right part of the potentiometer. Instead, the current chooses the easiest
path – the path with no resistance – and this is the slider as shown.

For arrangement Y, the path other than the distance d on the wire of the potentiometer is connected to the circuit.
So, this arrangement is different from those of W and X. Even if the circuit is complete, the results obtained on a
graph would not be identical to that of W or X.

For arrangement Z, current flows from the positive terminal of the battery, then along a distance d on the
potentiometer but here, the current does not flow through the fixed resistor. The reason is similar to the circuit in X.
The bold point and the slider (head of arrow) are at the same potential and the fixed resistor is connected between
these 2 points. So, current does not flow through it and instead, current flows through the slider. Thus, the total
resistance in the circuit is not the same as in W or X.
Question 164: [Waves > Superposition]
Noise reduction headphones actively produce their own sound waves in order to cancel out external sound waves.
Microphone in headphones receives waves of one frequency. Loudspeaker in headphones then produces wave of
that frequency but of a different phase.
What is the phase difference between external sound wave and wave produced by the loudspeaker in the
headphones?
A 90° B 180° C 270° D 360°

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2013 Paper 11 Q29

Solution 164:

Answer: B.

For the waves to cancel out (from the principle of superposition), the waves should be out of phase (phase
difference should be between 180° and 359°).

A phase difference of 360° means that the waves are completely in phase (there is no phase difference between
them.). In this case, the noise is amplified to twice its amplitude .

A phase difference of 90° also means that sound becomes noisier.

To completely cancel the noises, the ideal phase difference should be 180°.

Question 165: [Matter > Stress]

Diagram shows a large crane on construction site lifting a cube-shaped load.

Model is made of crane, its load and cable supporting the load.

Material used for each part of model is the same as that in full-size crane, cable and load. Model is one tenth full-
size in all linear dimensions.

What is ratio of stress in the cable on the full size crane to stress in the cable on the model crane?

A 100 B 101 C102 D 103

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2013 Paper 12 Q23

Solution 165:

Answer: B.

Stress = force per unit area = F / A

Let the force (weight) and the (cross-sectional) area in the full-size crane be F and A respectively.

Stress in cable of full-size crane = F / A

As mentioned in the question, the model is one-tenth full-size in all linear dimensions.

For the model,

The load, which has a cube-shaped load, is in 3-dimension. So, for each of the 3 dimensions, the length of the model
is reduced by a factor of 1/10. Therefore, the volume of the load is reduced by a factor of (1/10)3 = 1 / 1000.

Weight = mg and Mass = density x volume. Since the same material is used, the density is the same. So, the mass is
proportional to the volume. A reduction in the volume causes the mass to be reduced by the same factor. The
weight, which depends on the mass (g is constant), is also reduced by the same factor.

Force (weight) in model = F / 1000

Similarly, the cross-sectional area (which depends on (diameter)2) will be reduced by a factor of (1/10)2 = 1 / 100.

(Cross-sectional) Area in model = A / 100

Stress in cable of model crane = (F/1000) / (A/100) = 0.1 (F/A)

Ratio = (F/A) / 0.1(F/A) = 10

Question 166: [Waves > Phase difference]

X and Y are two points on surface of water in a ripple tank. Source of waves of constant frequency begins to
generate waves which then travel past X and Y, causing them to oscillate.

What is phase difference between X and Y?

A 45° B 135° C 180° D 270°

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2012 Paper 12 Q28

Solution 166:

Answer: D.

A distance of 1 λ represents a phase difference of 360o (that is, the points behave exactly in a similar way)

Consider point X to be the 1st node of a wavelength. Considering nodes and antinodes, X is followed by an antinode
(minima), then a node and finally point Y which is an antinode (maxima). For 1 complete wavelength, we need to
consider the node just after point Y.
So, distance between X and Y is ¾ λ.

1 λ represents a phase difference of 360o

¾ λ represents a phase difference of ¾ x 360 = 270o

Question 167: [Waves > Two-source interference]

Diagram shows experiment which has been set up to demonstrate two-source interference. Microwaves of
wavelength λ pass through two slits S1 and S2.

Detector is moved from point O in direction of the arrow. Signal detected decreases until the detector reaches point X,
and then starts to increase again as detector moves beyond X.
Which equation correctly determines position of X?
A OX = λ
B OX = λ / 2
C S2X – S1X = λ
D S2X – S1X = λ / 2

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 12 Q27

Solution 167:

Answer: D.

A minima is found at X since the signal keeps on decreasing until it reaches X (so at X, the signal has the lowest
amplitude). X is the first minima.

S2X and S1X are distances.

Distance from point O to 1st minima = λ/2 (destructive interference) [This equation alone does not allow us to
determine the position of X. So, B is not the answer here]

{The distance between point O and the first MAXIMA would be λ}

This distance (λ/2) is also equal to the path difference between S2X and S1X which is (S2X – S1X)

Question 168: [Matter > Kinetic Theory of Gases]

Graph shows distribution of speeds for molecules of a gas at a particular temperature.

Which statement is correct?

A All molecules have the same kinetic energy.
B Commonest value of speed is also the average speed.
C Graph shows that the molecules of a gas are widely spaced apart.
D Peak value of the graph would move to the right if the temperature is increased.

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2014 Paper 13 Q21

Solution 168:

Answer: D.

The speed varies, so the molecules do not have the same kinetic energy. [A incorrect]
The commonest value of speed {this is the most frequent value of speed – it should be the speed that the greatest
number of molecules have} is the speed corresponding to the peak number of molecules with speed v axis, not the
average speed (the average speed gives an idea of the general speed of the molecules as a whole). [B incorrect]

The graph does not show that the molecules of a gas are widely spaced apart, but shows that most of the molecules
are concentrated to a specific range of energies (which is close to the peak number of molecules – the other values
of speed correspond to a relatively much smaller number of molecules). [C incorrect]

The peak value of the graph would move to the right if the temperature is increased (they gain thermal energy
which is converted into kinetic energy (= ½ mv2). So, their speed increases).

Question 169: [Waves > Stationary wave]

Sound from loudspeaker placed above a tube causes resonance of the air in the tube.
Stationary wave is formed with two nodes and two antinodes as shown.

Speed of sound in air is 330 m s–1.

What is the frequency of sound?
A 413 Hz B 550 Hz C 830 Hz D 1650 Hz

Reference: Past Exam Paper – November 2013 Paper 11 & 12 Q27

Solution 169:

Answer: A.

From the diagram, it is seen that 0.75 λ (¾ of a wavelength) is formed in the 60.0cm (0.60m) long tube.

0.75 λ = 0.6m

Wavelength, λ = 0.8m

Speed, v = f λ

So, frequency, f = v/ λ = 330/0.8 = 412.5Hz

Question 170: [Waves > Interference > Diffraction grating]

Diffraction grating has N lines per unit length and is placed at 90° to monochromatic light of wavelength λ.
What is the expression for θ, the angle to the normal to grating at which third order diffraction peak is observed?
A sin θ = 1 / 3Nλ B sin θ = 3N λ C sin θ = Nλ / 3 D sin θ = 3λ / N

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2008 Paper 1 Q28

Solution 170:

Answer: B.

For diffraction grating,

d sinθn = nλ

where d is the slit separation

θn is the angle made by the nth order diffraction peak
and λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic light

Slit separation, d = 1 / N

For 3rd order diffraction peak,

(1/N) sinθ = 3λ
sin θ = 3N λ

Question 171: [Matter > Young modulus]

The diagram shows a large crane on a construction site lifting a cube-shaped load.

Model is made of crane, its load and cable supporting the load.

Material used for each part of model is the same as that in full-size crane, cable and load. Model is one tenth full-
size in all linear dimensions.

What is ratio of extension of the cable on the full size crane to extension of the cable on the model crane?

A 100 B 101 C102 D 103

Reference: Past Exam Paper – June 2013 Paper 13 Q19

Solution 171:

Answer: C.
As explained in question 165 above, the full-size load has 1000 times the weight of the model and the area of cross-
section of the cable itself is 100 times that of the model.

Now, the length (which is 1 dimensional) of the cable should be 10 times that of the model.

Young modulus, Y = Stress / strain

Young modulus, Y = (Force, F / Area, A) / (extension, e / original length, l)

Extension, e = force × length / (Y × area)

Since the same material is used, the Young modulus, Y is the same.

Let all the quantities involved in the determination of the extension be unity (1) for the model. The extension in the
model would be 1.

Then, for the full-size crane,

Extension = force × length / (Y × area) = 1000 × 10 / (1 × 100) = 100

Ratio = 100 / 1 = 100

This is an introduction to Electricity, Strength of Materials and Waves.

Lecture 14 (Waves, Wave Equation and Intensity)

In this lecture the following are introduced:

• Wave motion as an energy transfer
• Types of waves
• Basic Basic Wave Parameters
• Representing Moving Shapes
• Transverse Sinusoidal Waves
• The Intensity, Impedance and Pressure Amplitude of a Wave
• Intensity Level and decibel scale
• Hearing Loss
• The Fletcher-Munson Curves and the Phon
• Pitch
Waves transfer energy

Any vibrating body that is connected to its environment will transfer energy to its environment.
The vibrations are then transferred though the environment from neighbour to neighbour. This
energy transfer is called wave motion. Waves move energy through a medium without moving the
whole medium.

Leonardo di Vinci
"waves made in a field of grain by the wind, ... we see the waves running across the field while
the grain remains in place."

Types of waves

Longitudinal waves

When waves transfer energy by pushing neighbours in the same direction that the energy moves,
the waves are called longitudinal waves. In the simulation below (from Dr. Daniel A. Russell) you
can see energy move to the right while individual particles vibrate to the left and right about fixed
points.

The places when the particles cluster together are volumes of high pressure so these waves are
also called pressure waves. Sound waves are an example of pressure waves and they can move
through gases, liquids and solids. For sound waves, the denser the medium the faster the speed.
Speed through air (1atm, 200) =344 m.s-1
Speed through sea water = 1531 m.s-1
Speed through iron = 5130 m.s-1

Transverse waves

When waves transfer energy by pulling neighbours sideways to the direction of travel, the waves
are called transverse waves. In the simulation below (also from Dr. Daniel A. Russell) you can see
energy move to the right while individual particles vibrate up and down about fixed points.
Electromagnetic waves (X-rays, light, radio, radar and TV waves) are examples of transverse
waves formed by electric and magnetic fields vibrating together at right angles to the wave's
motion. They don't need any medium so they can move through a vacuum, (good for us or we
wouldn't see the Sun!). They all move at the same speed of 300,000 km.s-1 when they travel
through vacuum. They slow down when they travel through a medium (this is an average
speed between interactions).

Mechanically twisting or pulling a medium sideways is called shearing so waves formed this way
are also called shear waves.

Longitudinal and Transverse waves together

Sometimes longitudinal and transverse waves occur together. Ocean waves are a combination of
longitudinal and transverse waves because the surface of the water can be pulled sideways as
well as pushed longitudinally. In the simulation below (also from Dr. Daniel A. Russell) you can
see energy move to the right while individual particles move clockwise in circles or ellipses.

When ocean waves get to a shelving beach the speed of the waves changes relative to each other
and circles go to ellipses and then the wave breaks.

Seismic waves are formed when there is a sudden movement (or slip) between layers in the
Earth's crust. This may happen anywhere between several km and several 100s km down from
the surface. The wave motions that occur through the crust have Pressure ("P") components
and Shear ("S") components.
The P waves move at 5 - 14 km. s-1
The S waves move at 3 - 8 km. s-1
When they reach the surface an Earthquake occurs, and the timing between the arrivals of the
The S and P waves and their sizes at different places will enable the epicentre to be determined.
(Note: seismic waves can also have "surface" waves. Again see Dr. Daniel A. Russell's excellent
pages for details.)

Basic Wave Parameters

The amplitude A, is half the height difference between a peak and a trough.
The wavelength λ, is the distance between successive peaks (or troughs).
The period T, is the time between successive peaks (or troughs).
The wave speed c, is the speed at which peaks (or troughs) move.
The frequency ν, (Greek letter "nu") measures the number of peaks (or troughs) that pass per
second.
Note that "c" (from the Latin word "celeritas" meaning swiftness) is used for wave speed, not "v".
One reason is so that it is not confused with frequency.

Example W1
Seismic Shear waves travel at 4000 m.s-1 and they have a period of 0.12s. Find the wavelength of
these waves.
Answer W1

Representing Moving Shapes

The station below has a frame of reference with axes labelled x and y.
The engine and carriage below have a frame of reference at the end of the first carriage.
It has axes labelled X and Y.
The shape Y = F(X) is drawn on the side of the carriage in the (X,Y) frame of reference.
The engine and carriage are moving at a constant speed c to the right (positive x axis).

At time t = 0 s, the carriage and the station At time t s later:

axes coincide.

Vertical distance references do not change, i.e. Y = y at all times.

The horizontal distance between the Y and y axes increases uniformly with time, i.e. d = ct.
The distance X from the carriage origin to a point P on the side of the carriage will not change in
time.
The distance x from the station origin to the point P will increase with time, i.e. x = X + ct

This means that the reference frames transform as:

(x,y) ⇒ (X + ct, Y) and

(X,Y) ⇒ (x - ct, y)

In the carriage frame of reference: Y = F(X) defines a shape on the side of the carriage.
In the station frame of reference: y = f(x - ct) defines the same shape f(x) moving at a
speed c to the right.

Representing Transverse Sinusoidal Waves

You can only have the sine of an angle. To represent a sine shape in space, the x distance has to
be converted to get an angle.

One complete cycle in space (one wavelength)

is equivalent to one cycle in phase (2π radian).
A fractional distance of a wavelength will equal
the same fraction of 2π.

φ is a phase angle, it relates a distance in The relationship between phase angle and
space to a fraction of a wavelength. distance is given by:

k is called the wave number: The wave speed is:

It is measured in radians per metre (rad.m-1). It is measured in metres per second (m.s-1).
ω (above right), is the angular frequency: ν is the linear frequency:

It is measured in radians per second (rad.s-1). It is measured in Hertz (s-1).

A sine shape in space is given by:

A sine wave moving to the right (positive x

direction) at speed c will be written:

A sine wave moving to the left (negative x

direction) at speed c will be written:

The time part of the wave can be written:

A sine wave moving to the right is: Also written as:

Adding an initial phase α, (Greek letter

"alpha") tells what is happening at time 0 s.

Particle Motion in Transverse Sinusoidal Waves

From Dr. Daniel A. Russell's transverse wave diagram above, while the wave moves at constant
speed in the +x direction (to the right), the vibrating particles which make up the wave, move
with simple harmonic motions in the y direction .
In concentrating on the particles, it is seen that neighbouring particles have slightly different x
values which appear as slightly different initial phases in a Simple Harmonic Motion.
At position x1, the equation y = A sin (kx1 - ωt + α) is effectively y = A sin (α1 - ωt), i.e. an SHM.

The transverse displacements of The transverse particle speeds are given by:
particles are governed by:

Notice that displacement and particle speed are 90° out of phase (sines and cosines). When the
particle is at its largest displacement, there is zero particle velocity. Maximum transverse particle
velocity occurs as the particle crosses the axis.

Example W2
A sinusoidal wave has a wavelength of 1.4m. Find the phase difference between a point 0.3m
from the peak of a wave and another point 0.7m further along from the same peak.

Answer W2
Example W3
The equation of a transverse sinusoidal wave is given
by: .
Find
(a) the amplitude of the wave,
(b) the wavelength,
(c) the frequency,
(d) the wave speed, and
(e) the displacement at position 0 m and time 0 s.
(f) the maximum transverse particle speed.

Answer W3

Amplitude, A is 2 mm.
The Intensity, Impedance and Pressure Amplitude of a Wave

In general, an Intensity is a ratio. For example, pressure is the intensity of force as it is

force/area. Also, density (symbol ρ) is the intensity of mass as it is mass/volume.
The Intensity of waves (called Irradiance in Optics) is defined as the power delivered per unit
area.
The unit of Intensity will be W.m-2.

The wave energy comes from the simple harmonic motion of its particles. The total energy will
equal the maximum kinetic energy.

Combining these two results:

The Impedance of the medium (called the Specific Acoustic Impedance in Acoustics) is defined
by the product of density and wave speed.
In symbols: Impedance, z = ρc with a unit of Pa.s.m-1.

The quantity Aω is the maximum transverse speed of the particles, so it has m.s-1.

It can be seen that the intensity of a wave increases with its wavespeed c, amplitude A, and
frequency ω.

Multiplying top and bottom by ρc:

P0 is called the pressure amplitude, because when the unit for Impedance (Pa.s.m-1) is
combined with Aω, a transverse speed term (m.s-1), it has the unit of Pressure (Pascal). It is
useful when dealing withpressure waves.

Example W4
A wave of frequency 1000 Hz travels in air of density 1.2 kg.m-3 at 340 m.s-1. If the wave has
intensity 10 μW.m-2, find the displacement and pressure amplitudes.

Answer W4
Intensity Level

The intensity of a sound is given by power/area. It is an objective measurement and has the unit
of W.m-2. Loudness is a subjective perception. For a long time it was thought that the ear
responded logarithmically to sound intensity, i.e. that an increase of 100× in intensity (W.m -2)
would be perceived as a loudness increase of 20×.

The Intensity Level was defined to represent loudness. It was accordingly based on a
logarithmic scale and has the unit of Bel (after Alexander Graham Bell, not the Babylonian deity).

The deciBel (β) is commonly used as the smallest difference in loudness that can be detected.

The reference intensity I0 = 10-12 W.m-2 is the (alleged) quietest sound that can be heard. Only
about 10% of people can hear this 0 dB sound and that only in the frequency range of 2kHz to
4kHz. About 50% of people can hear 20dB at 1kHz. (The frequency response will be looked at
later.)

Approximate Intensity Levels

Type of sound Intensity level at ear (dB)

Threshold of hearing 0

Rustle of leaves 10

Very quiet room 20

Average room 40

Conversation 60

Busy street 70

Loud radio 80

Train through station 90

Riveter 100

Threshold of discomfort 120

threshold of pain 140

damage to ear drum 160

Example W5
The average intensity level for each of two radios is set to 45dB. They are tuned to different radio
stations. Find the average intensity level when they are both turned on.

Answer W5
Here the Intensity doubles but the Intensity Level goes up by only 0.3 dB.

Example W6
Sound radiates in a hemi-sphere from a rock band. If the sound level is 100 dB at 10 m, then find
the sound level at 4 m.

Answer W6

First find the Intensity from the Intensity Level.

Calculate the new Intensity. The key is that the radiated power is fixed and as it spreads out over
greater areas the Intensity decreases in accordance with the following relationship.

Calculate the new Intensity Level.

Other Loudness measures

There are other ways of representing the human response, some of these are:

This puts the threshold of hearing at 4dB.

and
1 Sone = 40dB at 1kHz.

Degrees of Hearing Loss

Hearing loss information.

A person can have up to 25 dB hearing level and still have "normal" hearing. Those with a mild
hearing loss (26-45 dB) may have difficulty hearing and understanding someone who is speaking
from a distance or who has a soft voice. They will generally hear one-on-one conversations if they
can see the speaker's face and are close to the speaker. Understanding conversations in noisy
backgrounds may be difficult. Those with moderate hearing loss (46-65 dB) have difficulty
understanding conversational levels of speech, even in quiet backgrounds. Trying to hear in noisy
backgrounds is extremely difficult. Those with severe hearing loss (66-85 dB) have difficulty
hearing in all situations. Speech may be heard only if the speaker is talking loudly or at close
range. Those with profound hearing loss (greater than 85 dB HL) may not hear even loud speech
or environmental sounds. They may not use hearing as a primary method of communicating.

The Fletcher-Munson Curves

Fletcher and Munson were researchers who first accurately measured and published a set of
curves showing the human's ear's frequency sensitivity versus loudness. The curves show the ear
to be most sensitive to sounds in the 3 kHz to 4 kHz area, a range that corresponds to ear canal
resonances.
The lines give a unit called the phon. 100Hz at 71dB has the same apparent loudness as 60dB at
1kHz and hence it is 60 phons. The important range for speech is 300Hz - 3000Hz. Loud noise
and age cause the high frequency response to decline.

D.W. Robinson and R.S. Dadson, re-did these lines in 1956 in an article titled: 'A re-determination
of the equal-loudness relations for pure tones', British Journal of Applied Physics, 7, 1956, 166-
181. These data are generally regarded as being more accurate than those of Fletcher and
Munson.

Both sources apply only to pure tones in otherwise silent free-field conditions, with a frontal plane
wave etc.

Pitch

Frequency is measured objectively in Hertz. The subjective sensation of frequency is called

the pitch of the note. The ear is not linear with frequency (Hertz). There is a "S" shaped curve
between frequency and pitch. The ear is reasonably OK in the range 400Hz to 2.4kHz, but outside
this range perception is pitch and frequency differ. For example, 300Hz is perceived as 500Hz, but
10kHz is perceived to be 3kHz. The subjective determination of frequency has a unit called
the mel, and is thought to be due to the variable elastic properties of the basilar membrane in
the ear.

Summarising:

Waves move energy through a medium without moving the whole medium.
In longitudinal waves the vibration is in the same orientation as the wave movement.
In transverse waves the vibration is at right angles to the wave movement.
Amplitude: A, is half the wave height.
Wavelength: λ, is the distance between successive maxima (or minima).
Frequency: ν, is the number of maxima (or minima) that pass per second and the reciprocal of
the Period, T.

Wavespeed: Angular frequency:

Wave Number: Phase Angle:

Sinusoidal wave:
Intensity:

Pressure Amplitude:
deciBel:
Hearing depends on both frequency and intensity.

Frequency is measured physically in Hertz and subjectively in Mels.

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