Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Best Practices
Guide to Operations
and Communications
www.faa.gov/go/runwaysafety
A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Introduction Introduction
Runway Safety is a significant challenge
and a top priority for everyone in aviation.
In the United States, an average of three
runway incursions* occur daily. Each of these
incidents has the potential to cause significant
damage to both persons and property. A pilot
or flight crew member is expected to taxi an
airplane safely whether moving to or from a
runway, or otherwise moving about the airport.
Scenarios including bad weather, low visibility,
construction, unfamiliarity, time of day,
distractions and miscommunications with air
traffic control add greatly to the challenge. Although the guide is aimed at surface
movements for single-pilot operations, all of
* A runway incursion is defined as: Any the information also is relevant for flight crew
occurrence at an aerodrome involving the operations. Another excellent resource is the
incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or FAA’s Office of Runway Safety’s website at
person on the protected area of a surface http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/
designated for the landing and take off of aircraft. pilots/. Additional information on surface
operations also can be found in the Aeronautical
This Best Practices Guide is intended to provide Information Manual (AIM) at http://www.faa.
airmen with basic information with respect to gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim/
safely operating on the surface of both towered
and untowered airports. The publication focuses
on five areas that are the essence of safe surface
operations.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Planning Your Surface Operation Planning Your Surface Operation
Thorough planning is essential for safe taxi always practice a “heads up, eyes out” mode
operations. You should give as much attention while taxiing. Remain especially vigilant of
to planning the airport surface movement of hold short, crossing clearances and Hot Spots,
your flight as you give to other phases of flight. if applicable. (Airport diagrams are available
for download at www.faa.gov/airports/runway_
• Have the current airport diagram readily safety/diagrams).
available. Take time to study the airport
layout and anticipate the taxi route based on • When in doubt, STOP while remaining clear
information provided from the Automatic of the runway and ask for help from ATC.
Terminal Information Service (ATIS), Notices Airport diagrams provide the layout and names of
to Airmen (NOTAMs) and recent experience at runways and taxiways, and show the location of major
that airport. However, do not take for granted
that this is the taxi route you will receive from
the controller.
• Pay special attention to any complex
intersections, or areas designated as “Hot
Spots” and labeled on National Aeronautical
Navigation Services (AeroNav, formerly
NACO) diagrams. For current hot spot info,
visit: http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_
safety/hotspots/hotspots_list/ See Figure 1.
• Use the current airport diagram not only
during the planning phases, but also while
taxiing at the departure, as well as arrival
airports.
• Verify your assigned route on the airport
diagram once taxi clearance has been received
from ATC.
• Prior to brake release, minimize cockpit
tasks, observe “sterile cockpit” procedures and
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Planning Your Surface Operation Taxi Procedures
Following good operating procedures while taxiing
increases the safety of the surface operation. This
section focuses on some of the common tasks that
you should incorporate into your taxi procedures.
Situational Awareness
When taxiing, be aware of your location on the
airport, and how that location relates to your taxi
route, and to other aircraft and vehicles that may be
operating on the airport. This information is otherwise
referred to as “situational awareness”.
Scenario A: November 123QZ, Runway 16, taxi via
Alpha. Answer _______
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Taxi Procedures Taxi Procedures
Maintain a “sterile” cockpit. Focus on your
pilot duties by avoiding distractions regarding
non-flight related matters such as engaging in
unnecessary conversation with other crewmembers
and passengers, as well as refraining from using a
mobile phone or text messaging.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Taxi Procedures Taxi Procedures
• Proper use of CTAF builds situational awareness ►►Prior to taxi, brief passengers to minimize
and increases the margin of safety for all pilots. conversation and questions while operating on the
• Always transmit before taxiing, taking off, surface.
entering the traffic pattern, and landing. ►►Copy the taxi clearance, set heading bug to
assigned runway heading and use the airport
• Routinely monitor and use CTAF within 10 diagram to review the taxi route prior to brake
miles of your destination airport. release.
• Remember some aircraft may not have a radio Additional Best Practices for Pilots and Flight
so always continuously scan the runways and Crews DURING Taxi
approaches for other traffic.
►►Focus attention with your heads up and eyes out,
• CTAF frequencies may be shared by several maintaining a “sterile cockpit” at all times while
airfields in the same geographic area. For this taxiing.
reason, the message protocol is modified to ►►Listen for transmissions to and from other aircraft
begin and end the transmission with the airport or vehicles to enhance situational awareness.
name.
►►Always use standard ATC phraseology and proper
Radio Communications Format voice cadence.
►►Know airport signage and lighting.
●●Identify the airport you are calling
►►Coordinate with your flight crew on:
●●State your aircraft make, model and call • Taxi instruction for takeoff
sign (you may also want to identify your
• Hold short clearances
aircraft color)
• Identifying runway intersections
●●State your position and your intentions • ATC instructions for parking.
●●Repeat the airport name at the end of your ►►Be extra careful at night or during low visibility
transmission conditions. Focus on safe operation of the aircraft
as it is moving. Running checklists and non-
Additional Best Practices for Pilots and Flight essential communication should be deferred until
Crews BEFORE Taxi aircraft is stopped and brakes are set.
►►REMINDER! You may not enter a runway unless
►►Study airport diagram and have it out BEFORE you have been instructed to cross that specific
taxiing to know where you are, where you are runway, cleared to takeoff from or taxi along
going, and to identify complex intersections. that runway, or instructed to line up and wait on
Review identified Hot Spots. that specific runway. This applies to any runway,
►►Make sure you have identified and are clear as to including inactive and closed runways.
the correct departure runway in use and the taxi ►►Visually check to ensure there is not any
route to get there. conflicting traffic prior to crossing a runway as
►►Review NOTAMs and copy down ATIS well as intersecting taxiways.
information including any taxiway closures,
runway closures, or any relevant airfield specific
risks.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Taxi Procedures Aircraft Lights
►►If not sure about an ATC instruction, or if there is Aircraft Lights
confusion as to your aircraft’s location, STOP and Anytime during operations, day and night, exterior
ASK. Make every effort to avoid stopping on the aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft on the
runway. airport surface more visible, conveying location and
►►Before adding power, make one last instrument intent to other pilots.
scan to ensure that the heading indicator is aligned Use Exterior Aircraft Lights as Follows:
with the heading bug, and that both properly • Engines Running – Turn on the rotating
correspond to the assigned runway heading. beacon.
►►Upon receiving takeoff clearance at a towered • Taxiing – Prior to commencing taxi, turn on
airport, or when beginning takeoff roll at an navigation/position, strobe*, taxi, and logo
untowered airport, turn on landing lights to lights, if available.
indicate movement to other aircraft, vehicles or
pedestrians. • Crossing a Runway – All exterior lights should
be illuminated when crossing a runway. You
should consider any adverse effects to safety
that illuminating the forward facing lights will
have on the vision of other pilots or ground
personnel during runway crossings.
• Line Up and Wait – When taking position on
the runway, pilots should make their aircraft
more visible to aircraft on final behind them
and to ATC by turning on lights (except landing
lights) that highlight the aircraft’s silhouette.
• Entering the Departure Runway After
Takeoff Clearance Received – Turn on all
exterior lights to make your aircraft more
visible.
• Takeoff - landing lights should be turned on
when takeoff clearance is received, or when
commencing takeoff roll at an airport without
an operating control tower.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Aircraft Lights Communications
Effective pilot/controller communications are key
Turn off your taxi or landing lights when stopped, to safe surface operations. You can help enhance
yielding or as a consideration to other pilots, drivers the controller’s understanding by responding
or ground personnel. appropriately and using standard phraseology.
Guidelines for clear and accurate communications
include:
• Use proper communications procedures when
Standardized Aircraft Lighting contacting ATC. Your initial transmission should
Rotating beacon contain these elements:
Navigation/Position
Position
►►Who you are calling
Landing lights
Strobe light*
Logo lights
►►Your call sign
Taxi lights
Navigation
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
• Read back all clearances/instructions to enter a Do not make the “Assumption Mistake”
specific runway, hold short of a runway, or “line
Hearing what we expect to hear is human tendency.
up and wait.”
Experience and skill cannot compensate for this
• In your transmission, include the runway natural perceptual limitation.
designator and taxiway intersection when
You can help avoid this mistake with active listening.
appropriate.
The “assumption mistake” has numerous variations.
• When lined up and waiting for takeoff and when Some examples of common mistakes include:
on final approach, actively monitor the assigned • If any portion of the transmission is garbled
tower frequency, or the Common Traffic or stepped on, do not assume that the
Advisory Frequency (CTAF), for potential unheard portion is irrelevant. Request that the
conflicts involving your runway. transmission be repeated by stating “say again”.
• Read back all runway assignments. • If your call sign is not included in the
• Read back all takeoff and landing clearances, transmission, don’t assume that the transmission
including the runway designator. is for you. Ask for clarification: “Was that for
...?”
• If unfamiliar with the taxi routes at an airport,
ask for progressive taxi instructions. • Listen carefully. Don’t assume that a
transmission is exactly what you expected.
• When you are instructed to monitor a frequency,
you should listen without initiating contact. The
controller will initiate contact.
• Clarify any misunderstanding or confusion
concerning ATC instructions or clearances.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
Readback errors Pilot readbacks of controller instructions provide a
A readback is a pilot’s acknowledgement of an critical part of the safety net. With no readback, there
air traffic controller’s transmission that repeats is a hole in the safety net.
the information that the controller conveyed. A
pilot readback presents the first and most efficient A first officer who did not believe in readbacks of
opportunity to catch miscommunications. It provides clearances, as that tends to clutter the frequency,
a “reality check” in two ways: responded, “Roger” to a clearance to “line up and
wait” that was intended for another aircraft. This
First, it tells the controller, “This is what the pilot runway incursion necessitated a go-around for an
heard,” and secondly, it provides the controller the incoming aircraft. (taken from an Aviation Safety
opportunity to reaffirm that is what he/she meant to Reporting System submission)
say.
An effective readback can mitigate the effects
of expectation, because it gives the controller an Pilots should NEVER guess or readback what they
opportunity to correct the error. In the next example, thought they might have heard, and expect the
a readback of what the pilot expected, rather than controller to catch and correct any discrepancies.
what was said, saved the pilot from an unauthorized When in doubt, ASK.
landing, or worse. The controller, recognizing from
the readback that the pilot had lined up on the wrong
runway is able to amend the clearance to reflect the
runway that the aircraft is approaching.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
Line up and wait on intersecting runways Pilots should ensure that when they read back a clearance
for an intersection line up and wait or intersection
Line up and wait can be authorized on intersecting
takeoff, they state the name of the intersection, even if
runways. When this is done, traffic advisories shall be
the controller did not include it in the clearance
issued to both aircraft.
Example of Departure Instructions:
Examples of Landing Clearance:
Controller: November 523QQ, runway three six
at golf four, line up and wait, traffic ATC may withhold or rescind a landing clearance when
departing runway two seven. an aircraft is in line up and wait on the runway.
Controller: November 477ZA, runway four,
Controller: November 523QQ, runway two seven, continue, traffic holding in position.
cleared for takeoff, traffic holding in
position runway three six.
Controller: November 477ZA, landing clearance
cancelled, traffic holding in position,
continue.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
Example:
Pilot: Cajun fifty-two, braking action on
Controller: November 123QY, Charlotte tower, runway two two is good first half of the
runway five, cleared for takeoff. runway, fair on the second half.
Pilot: November 123QY, cleared for takeoff, Controller: Cajun fifty-two, roger.
runway five.
Runway Exiting
After landing and reaching taxi speed, you are expected
to exit the runway at the first available taxiway, or
as instructed by ATC. You should remain on tower
frequency until advised to contact ground control.
Example:
Controller: Unity thirty-two, turn right on taxiway
golf two and contact ground point niner.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Communications Communications
With respect to runways, always stop at the
runway holding position marking unless
otherwise directed by ATC. A read back
confirmation to ATC is required anytime a “hold
short” instruction is given.
• Line Up and Wait (LUAW) – This phrase has
replaced the “position and hold” instruction
Glossary of Phraseology by a controller to direct a pilot to enter the
runway and await takeoff clearance. It is not
This section contains a glossary of terms commonly
authorization for takeoff. It is used when a
used in ground or surface operations. For a complete
takeoff clearance cannot immediately be issued
listing of all ATC phraseology, consult the FAA
because of traffic or other reasons.
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), which
can be accessed at: http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/ • Negative – No; Permission not granted; That is
publications/atpubs/aim/ not correct.
• Acknowledge – Let me know that you have • Proceed – You are authorized to begin or
received and understood this message. continue moving.
• Advise Intentions – Tell me what you plan to • Read Back – Repeat my message back to me.
do. • Roger – I have received your last transmission;
• Affirmative – Yes. but not to be used to answer a question
requiring a “yes” or “no” response (see
• Confirm – My understanding of your Affirmative, Negative).
transmission is ______: Is that correct?
• Say Again – Repeat what you just said.
• Correction – An error has been made in the
transmission and the correct version follows. • Stand By – Wait for further information, as in
“stand by for clearance”. Means the controller
• Expedite - Used by ATC when prompt or pilot must pause for a few seconds, usually
compliance is required to avoid the to attend to other duties of a higher priority. The
development of an imminent situation. caller should reestablish contact if a delay is
• Final – Commonly used to mean that an aircraft lengthy. “Stand by” is not an approval or denial.
is on the final approach course or is aligned • Unable – Indicates inability to comply with a
with a landing area. specific instruction, request or clearance.
• Go Ahead – Proceed with your message. Not to • Verify – Request confirmation of information.
be used for any other purpose.
• Without Delay – Follow instructions
• Hold or Hold Position or Hold For – Stay in expeditiously, specifically and safely.
place where you are currently located.
• Wilco – I have received your message,
• Hold Short of... – Proceed to, but hold short understand it and will comply.
of a specific point and maintain appropriate
distance to avoid interfering with other traffic.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights
Signs and Markings Do not taxi past this sign or marking without a
As a pilot, it is important that you know the clearance from ATC. Doing so without clearance from
meanings of the signs and markings used on the tower poses a hazard to yourself and others. When
airports as navigational aids. Sometimes the the tower is closed or you are operating at a non-
information on the sign is also painted on the towered airport, you may cross only when the runway
airport pavement. An overview of some of the most is clear of aircraft, and then you should proceed with
common signs and markings is described on the extreme caution.
following pages. For more detailed information, Location Signs and Markings Black background
see the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual with yellow letters and/
(AIM). or numbers. These signs
Runway Holding Position Marking and surface-painted
Painted yellow on the taxiway pavement and markings indicate your
collocated with the holding position sign, this is an location. REMEMBER: Runway Taxiway
airport version BLACK SQUARE, YOU’RE
of a stop sign. THERE. (See Figure 2.1)
As you approach Taxiway Direction Signs and Markings These
the runway, you signs and markings with a yellow
will see two solid yellow lines with two dashed lines. background and black characters
Prior to reaching the solid lines, it is imperative that indicate the direction toward a
you STOP and do not cross the line until you have different taxiway leading off a
clearance from ATC. When the tower is closed or you runway or out of an intersection.
are operating at a non-towered airport, you may cross YELLOW ARRAY, LEADS THE WAY. (See Figures
only when the runway is clear of aircraft, and then 2.1 and 2.2)
cross with extreme caution. Always look both ways ILS Critical Area Holding Position Signs and
before you cross any runway! Markings May be seen as a sign
(as shown here), and/or as a painted
When exiting a runway, you will see these surface marking. These are utilized
same markings, except your aircraft will be to show the boundary of the runway's
approaching the dashed lines. Your aircraft must ILS critical area. Hold short of this
completely cross both the dashed and the solid area when instructed to by ATC.
lines to be clear of the runway.
Alternative array of
Surface painted signs when location
Runway Holding Position Sign location sign
for Taxiway A Surface painted
sign not installed.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights
Chevrons Large yellow painted arrows that
identify paved blast pads, If a road or taxiway is close enough to an ILS
stop areas, and EMAS to affect it, there should be an ILS holding
(engineered materials position sign like the one depicted on page 33.
arresting systems).
A minimum of two LIGHTING
chevrons will be painted There are many different lighting combinations
and aligned with the that may be located on some airports, especially
runway end. The pavement marked by chevrons where aircraft operations are conducted in lower
is not to be used, unless in conjunction with an visibility ranges.
EMAS when it may be used to help stop an aircraft Runway Edge and Centerline Lights Runway
overrun. edge lights are clear/white, except on instrument
Aprons/Ramps runways where yellow replaces
Aprons/Ramps have markings for aircraft parking white on the last 2,000 feet
and tie-downs. Some airport aprons/ramps also or half the runway length,
have special markings for vehicle operations. In whichever is less, to form a
addition, taxiways may be marked on the apron to caution zone for landings.
show aircraft routes to gates and parking areas. Centerline lights alternate
red/white starting 3,000 feet
from the end, and are solid red
starting 1,000 feet from the end.
Taxiway Edge Lights or Reflectors are blue in
Examples of vehicle surface markings; roadways color and used to outline the edges of taxiways
bounded by “zipper” markings are also used by
during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
aircraft.
conditions.
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A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights Airfield Markings, Signs, and Lights
Taxiway Centerline Lights or LIGHT GUN SIGNALS
Reflectors are green except for Air traffic controllers have a backup system for
the lead-on and lead-off lights, communicating if radios fail. Controllers use a light
which alternate yellow and gun that flashes different colors to tell pilots or
green to indicate that you are vehicle drivers what to do. Even a failed radio is not
entering or leaving the runway an excuse for proceeding without a proper clearance.
environment. If you are on a runway or taxiway and radio
Runway Guard Lights are flashing yellow lights communication fails, you should:
that can be in-pavement or elevated and are used to
help identify a runway holding position. Turn toward the tower.
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International Civil Aviation Organization A Best Practices Guide to Operations and Communications
For more information on Runway Safety, visit A. “Taxi onto the runway and be ready.”
www.faa.gov/go/runwaysafety B. “Line up and wait.”
Published by FAA Air Traffic Organization C. “Taxi into position and hold.”
(ATO), Office of Safety.
D. None of the above.
40 41
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Self Assessment Self Assessment
4. If you become disoriented or uncertain about 6. The yellow painted marking at the beginning of
your location on the airport, what should you do? this runway indicates:
A. You are approaching a runway holding A. Who you are calling and your call sign.
position and should go into a “heads-up”
B. Where you are located on the airfield
mode to determine the exact
location of the holding position. C. Alphabetical code for the ATIS, if available
and requested actions.
B. The airport had extra yellow paint and
decided to use it on the taxiways. D. All of the above.
C. You are approaching the airport movement
area.
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Self Assessment Self Assessment
8. When communicating with ATC, which of the 10. The red and white sign next to the taxiway is
following is correct? called a runway holding position sign. This sign
indicates:
A. Read back all clearances/instructions to enter
a specific runway, hold short of a runway
or “line up and wait” including runway
designator. A. Runway 15/33 is ahead. This sign is
collocated with surface painted holding
B. Read back all takeoff and landing clearances,
position markings and indicates that you must
including the runway designator.
have clearance from ATC to proceed.
C. If unfamiliar with the taxi route at an airport,
B. That you should follow the sign to get to the
ask for progressive taxi instructions.
parking apron.
D. All of the above.
C. Nothing for a pilot, it is there for airport
9. You are approaching an airport and have vehicle drivers.
received a clearance to land. You notice an aircraft
D. None of the above.
on the runway in position for takeoff. What should
you do? 11. What does “Explicit Runway Crossing
Clearance” mean?
A. Continue the approach and land; the other
aircraft is holding for you. A. A “taxi to” clearance will allow you to cross
multiple runways.
B. Ask the controller about the aircraft on the
runway if you don’t hear them being issued a B. Typically, instructions to cross a runway
takeoff clearance. will be issued individually for each runway
encountered.
C. Execute a go around.
C. It replaced “Position and Hold.”
D. Both B and C.
D. It is a trick question, no such instruction
exists.
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Self Assessment Self Assessment
12. On a runway you see this sign. What does it 14. What is the procedure when you approach
mean? these painted markings from the solid line side?
D. There are 2,200 feet remaining to the end of C. You must always have permission from air
the runway. traffic control prior to crossing.
13. When exiting a runway, you see this sign. What D. Look both ways before moving across the
should you do? line.