MEE40004 Fluid Mechanics 2

Faculty of Engineering, Computing & Science

Swinburne University of Technology
Sarawak Campus

Textbook for MEE40004 classes

Roberson, J.A., Crowe, C.T., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 9th Edn., John Wiley.

Disclaimer
These lecture notes are used only for students who are enrolled in HES5340 Fluid Mechanics
2 in Swinburne Sarawak. You are expected to purchase the textbook. Figures therein are
from the aforementioned textbook and copyrighted materials. They are NOT to be distributed
and reproduced without permission from the book authors and the publisher.
Drag and Lift
 Pressure and Shear Stress

Figure 11.1 (p. 437)

Pressure and shear stress acting on an airfoil.
 Pressure and Shear Stress
For an inviscid flow, we can apply
Bernoulli’s equation.
Velocity increases, pressure drops.
It happens that air velocity at the top of
airfoil flows at a higher than free stream
velocity than the bottom side.
Hence, uneven pressure distributions are
created, which result lift and drag.
Basics

Figure 11.2 (p. 437)

Pressure and viscous forces
acting on a differential element
of area.
 Basics

dFL   pdAsin   dAcos

dFD   pdAcos  dAsin 

FL   (  p sin    cos )dA

FD   (  p cos   sin  )dA

 Basics
Pressure coefficient
P P0 F A
CP
1 V 2 1 V 2
0 0
2 2

FP 1 C V 2
P 0
2
Figure 11.1 (p. 437)
Pressure and shear stress acting on
an airfoil.
 Drag
Textbook
Roberson, J.A., Crowe, C.T., Engineering Fluid
Mechanics, 9th Edn., John Wiley
 Basics
Previous equations are for a two-dimensional
flow, so we assume that velocity component
in the direction normal to the plane is absent.
At the same time we can consider and easily
add another dimension in our considerations.
This is necessary when we deal with short
bodies like short cylinder.
Sometimes when we deal with the
axisymmetric bodies we can go for two
dimensions x and r.
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
Drag of a thin plate - From previous topic we have
had for thin plate parallel to the flow as surface
resistance for both sides, if there is no pressure
force acting on the plate.

V02
FD 2 Fshear 2C f b 
2
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
For the plate normal to the flow, both pressure and
viscous forces act on the plate. For laminar flow,

See
http://www.youtub
e.com/watch?v=fJ
lMjEXXJkU
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
For the plate normal to the flow, both pressure and
viscous forces act on the plate. For laminar flow,

See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0z_hFZx7qvE
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
For the plate normal to the flow, both pressure and
viscous forces act on the plate. For turbulent flow,

See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6rPL-QkUFf8&list=PLF550BB0E03777E11
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
For the plate normal to the flow, both pressure and
viscous forces act on the plate.

Figure 11.3 (p. 439)

Flow past a flat plate.
Figure 11.4
(p. 439)
Pressure
distribution on a
plate normal to the
approach flow for
Re > 104.
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
• The viscous forces do not contribute in this case to drag
and lift as in this case they act in transverse direction
and the flow is symmetrical about the midpoint of the
plate. So
FD ( p cos   sin  )dA

( p cos  )dA
• Experimental pressure distribution on a plate normal to
the approach flow for

Re  10 4
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
Since the pressure on the downstream side is
essentially constant:
2
V
p  p0  1.2  0

2
FD ( p cos   sin  )dA
Since =0, the contribution to drag for the
downstream side is
V02
FD ,downstream ( p0 1.2 )b
22
V0
p0b 1.2 b
2
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
 ℓ - is the length of the plate normal to the plane and by
definition of two dimensional body ℓ >> b
 For the front side =, so cos=-1, and for upstream
b/ 2
V02
FD ,upstream ( p0 C p ) dy
b/ 2 2
b/ 2
V02
p0b  C p dy
2 b/ 2

 The total drag on the plate is

V02 b / 2
FD  FD ,upstream  FD ,downstream   ( b / 2 C p dy  1.2b)
2
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
Evaluation of the first term inside the parentheses
on right-hand side yields a magnitude of
approximately 0.8 so we have
2
V
FD   b(0.8  1.2)
0

2
0.8 represents the average pressure coefficient Cp
over upstream side of plate. In fact (0.8+1.2)
reflects the manner how the pressure is distributed
over upstream and downstream sides of the body.
 Drag of Two-Dimensional Bodies
As drag is function of this quantity it has been
appropriately defined as the coefficient of drag
CD and we can write
2
V
FD  C D Ap  0

2
where Ap is the projected area of the body,  -
fluid density, V0 - free stream velocity. The
projected area is silhouetted area that would be
seen from the direction of flow.
 Coefficient of Drag for Various
Two-Dimensional Bodies
CD can be determined if the pressure and shear
stress distribution around body are known. The
coefficient of drag also can be calculated if the
total drag is measured by means of a force
balance in a wind tunnel. Then CD is calculated
using the equation above
FD
CD 
Ap V0 / 2
2

The coefficient of drag for a flat plate normal to

free stream is given in the next Figure.
Figure 11.5 (p. 441)
Coefficient of drag versus
Reynolds number for two-
dimensional bodies. [Data
sources: Bullivant (1), Defoe
(2), Goett and Bullivant (3)
Jacobs (4), Jones (4), and
Lindsey (6)]
Discussions of Drag Coefficient for
Two-Dimensional Bodies
At low Re numbers CD changes with Re, it
happens due to relative change in viscous
resistance.
Above Re=104 the flow pattern remains virtually
unchanged producing constant value of Cp over
the body – it leads to constant value of CD.
This leads to constancy of drag coefficient at
high values of Re for most bodies having
angular shape, but for rounded shape bodies CD
decreases with Re increase from 105 to 5105.
 Discussions of Drag Coefficient for
Cylinder Flow separation

Figure 11.6 (p. 443)

Flow pattern around a cylinder
for 103 < Re < 105.
Flow pattern around a cylinder for 10  Re  10
3 5
 Discussions of Drag Coefficient for
Cylinder
See
http://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v
=agxVZvZxY4s
 Discussion of Drag Coefficient for
Cylinder

Figure 11.7 (p. 443)

Flow pattern around a cylinder
for Re > 5  105.
Flow pattern around a cylinder for Re  5  10 5
Discussion of Drag Coefficient for
Cylinder
The pressure difference between the
upstream and downstream surfaces is less
at high values of Re, yielding a lower drag
and lower CD.
In this situation, sensitivity of the drag to,
say, small roughness is high as well as to
producing preliminary turbulence. Earlier
turbulence leads to smaller drag.
Figure 11.8
(p. 444)
Effects of roughness
on CD for a cylinder.
[After Miller et al.
(7)]
 Vortex Shedding from Cylindrical Bodies
For Re > 50 vortices are formed.
Vortices are shed periodically downstream.
This is changing the pressure and periodically creates
the thrust on the side of the cylinders.
If the frequency of the vortex shedding is in
resonance with the natural frequency of the member
that produces it, large amplitude of vibration can
be developed and large stresses too.

Figure 11.9 (p. 445)

Formation of a vortex behind a cylinder.
 Vortex Shedding from Cylindrical Bodies
See
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQS5GI5AWOQ&index=7&list=UUn6znA7XH_FK_
dok5enUw-Q
 Vortex Shedding from Cylindrical Bodies
See
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADEYONQ941M&index=5&list=UUn6znA7XH_FK
_dok5enUw-Q
 Vortex Shedding from Cylindrical Bodies
Experiments show that frequency of vortex shedding
is given in terms of Strouhal number,
nd
St 
V0
n = frequency of shedding of vortices from one side
of cylinder, in Hz,
d = the diameter of the cylinder
V0 = the free stream velocity
Engineers should be aware of the vibration and
design accordingly.
For example, for St=0.23, V0=35 m/s, and d=0.30m,
the frequency, n=27 Hz
 Vortex Shedding from Cylindrical Bodies

Figure 11.10 (p. 445)

Strouhal number versus Reynolds number for flow past a circular cylinder.
[After Jones (5) and Roshko (8)]
 How to reduce drag? Effect of streamlining
Intuitively 
Streamlining is the shaping of an object, such as an
aircraft body or wing, to reduce the amount of drag.
A curved shape allows air to flow smoothly around it.
A flat shape fights air flow and causes more drag or
resistance.
Streamlining reduces the amount of resistance and
increases lift.
How to reduce drag? Effect of streamlining

See images from

http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0094b.shtml
 How to reduce drag? Effect of streamlining
 More explanation 
 Pressure difference between upstream and
downstream areas of body causes the drag.
 This is due to flow separation.
 Separation can be reduced by streamlining (reducing
the curvature of the downstream side of the body).
 Therefore, the coefficient of drag can be greatly
reduced.
 However, keep in mind: streamlining to produce
minimum drag at high Re may not produce
minimum drag at low Re.
 Advantage of streamlining  eliminate periodic
formation of vortices.
 Drag of 2D and 3D Bodies

Fig. 11.5 Coefficient of drag versus Re for 2-D Fig. 11.11Coefficient of drag versus Reynolds
bodies number for axisymetric bodies.
Table 11.1 (p. 449)
Approximate CD Values for
Various Bodies
 Stokes’ Law
Drag of a spherical object at very low speed (Re<0.5)
can be described using Stokes’ law.
FD 3Vd
FD
We know that CD
Ap V 2 2
Therefore,
3Vd
CD
Ap V 2 2
CD 24 Stoke's law
Re
 Effect of Compressibility on Drag

Figure 11.12 (p. 455)

Drag characteristics of projectile, sphere and cylinder with compressibility
effects. [After Rouse (12)]
Effect of Compressibility
on Drag

Figure 11.13
(p. 456)
Contour plot of the
drag coefficient of
the sphere versus
Reynolds and Mach
numbers.
 Terminal Velocity
The drag data is very often used to calculate the
terminal velocity.
When a body first dropped in the atmosphere or in
water, it accelerates under the action of its weight.
Then as speed of the body increases the drag also
increases till the drag becomes equal to weight of the
body.
The velocity when it happens is the terminal one.
Terminal velocity = maximum velocity attained by
a falling body.
 Lift
Textbook
Roberson, J.A., Crowe, C.T., Engineering Fluid
Mechanics, 9th Edn., John Wiley
 Lift
Pressure difference between top and bottom of a
body causes lateral force of lift to be imposed on the
body.
To illustrate the concept of lift, we need to first
describe Circulation.
Along any differential segment of the path, the
velocity can be resolved into components that are
tangent and normal to the path.
VL is the tangential component of velocity. Now let us
integrate VLdL around the curve, the resulting
quantity is called circulation Γ (capital gamma).
The sign convention is – a clockwise direction
considered here as positive.
 Circulation
  VL dL

Figure 11.14 (p. 457)

Concept of circulation.
 If tangential velocity = 0, then there is no circulation.
Figure 11.15 (p. 458)
Ideal flow around a cylinder. (a) Circulation. (b) Uniform flow. (c) Combination
of circulation and uniform flow.
 Combination of Circulation and Uniform Flow
around a Cylinder

If we combine flow around rotating cylinder and

uniform flow, we can see that velocity is reinforced
on the top of cylinder and reduced on the other side.
Also we can see that stagnation points have moved
toward the low-velocity side of the cylinder.
Applying Bernoulli principle we understand that at
upper part pressure lower than at the bottom
part.
There is a pressure difference which creates a side
thrust or lift on the cylinder.
 Combination of Circulation and Uniform Flow
around a Cylinder
Ideal-flow theory (incompressible & inviscid) gives
the lift per unit of length of an infinitely long cylinder

FL /   V0
where FL is the lift on the segment of length  .
When a body is rotating and translating through fluid
the lift is significant.
The lift due to rotation of the body is known as
Magnus effect.
Combination of
Circulation and Uniform
Flow around a Cylinder
Figure 11.16 (p. 459)
Coefficients of lift and drag as
functions of rω/V0 for a rotating
cylinder. [After Rouse (12)]

FL
CL 
Ap V0 / 2
2
Figure 11.17
(p. 459)
Coefficients of lift
and drag for a
rotating sphere.
[After Barkla et al. (2)
Reprinted with the
permission of
Cambridge
University Press.]
 Lift of an Airfoil

Figure 11.18 (p. 461)

Patterns of flow around an airfoil. (a) Ideal flow – no circulation. (b) Real flow –
circulation.
 Lift of an Airfoil

Figure 11.19 (p. 461)

Definition sketch for an airfoil section.
 Lift of an Airfoil
Ideal flow shows stagnation point at the top near the
trailing edge = no circulation, which is not real.
The real flow, in fact, has stagnation point at the
trailing edge of the airfoil so that the flow leaves the
airfoil smoothly.
This is called the Kutta condition.
For the stagnation point to occur at the trailing edge, a
circulation of appropriate magnitude is needed.
This condition brings a very good agreement between
theory and experiment for the flow pattern.
 Lift of an Airfoil
Ideal flow theory to accommodate the move of rear
stagnation point to the leading edge (the Kutta
condition) proposes
  cV0
c is the chord length of the airfoil, and  is the angle of
attack of the chord of the airfoil with the free stream
direction.
From rotating cylinder in uniform flow, we know
FL /   V0
Eliminate  to obtain the lift force FL  V c
2
0
The coefficient of lift for an airfoil is then
S is planform area of the wing. FL
CL 2
S c SV02 / 2
Figure 11.20
(p. 462)
Values of CL for
two NACA airfoil
sections. [After
Abbott and Van
Doenhoff (22)]
 Lift of an Airfoil
See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6UlsArvbTeo&list=PLhN5mcwkUghGSrWo-
s7PMj4nA4eZLTMMa
 Airfoil of Finite Length – Effect on
Drag and Lift
The drag of a two-dimensional at a low angle of
attack is primarily viscous drag.
The wings of finite length having additional drag
and reduced lift associated with vortices generated
at the wing tips.
They occur because of the pressure lower on the top
of the wing and higher below the wing. It makes fluid
to circulate around the end of the wing from the
high- to the low-pressure zone.
 Figure 11.21 (p. 463)
Formation of tip vortices.

Also see images from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingtip_vortices
 Airfoil of Finite Length – Effect on
Drag and Lift
See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=id_DUwH6Zag
 Airfoil of Finite Length – Effect on
Drag and Lift
See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uy0hgG2pkUs
Also see images from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingtip_vortices
Airfoil of Finite Length–Effect on
Drag and Lift

Figure 11.22 (p.

463)
Definition sketch for
induced-drag relations.

Induced drag due to airfoil of finite length

 Airfoil of Finite Length – Effect on
Drag and Lift
The induced flow has the effect of adding a
downward component of velocity w to the approach
velocity V0.
Now the “effective” free-stream velocity is at an
angle (  w/V0) to the direction of the original
free-stream velocity, so the resultant force is tilted
back.
Thus the effective lift is smaller than the lift for the
infinity long wing because the effective angle of
incidence is smaller.
So resultant force parallel to Vo which is called
induced drag and equal to FL.
 Airfoil of Finite Length–Effect on
Drag and Lift
• Prandtl showed that the induced velocity w for an
elliptical spanwise lift distribution equals
2 FL
w
V0b 2
where b is the total length or span of the finite wing.
• So induced drag can be presented in the form
2 FL2 CL2 S 2 V02
FDi  FL  
V0 b
2 2
 b2 2
CL2
• The coefficient of induced drag is CDi 
 (b 2 / S )
which happens to represent the minimum induced drag
for any platform.
 Airfoil of Finite Length – Effect on
Drag and Lift
• Here the ratio b2/S (or b/c) is called the aspect ratio
 of the wing and S is the platform area of the wing.
• Thus for a given wing section (constant CL and
constant chord c), longer wings have smaller
induced-drag coefficient.
• The total drag of a rectangular wing is computed by
bcV02
FD  (CD 0  CDi )
2
where CD0 is the coefficient of form drag of the wing
section and CDi the induced drag coefficient.
Figure
11.24 (p.
466)
Coefficients of
lift and drag for
a wing with an
aspect ratio of
5. [After
Prandtl (23)]
Figure 11.23
(p. 464)
Coefficients of lift
and drag for three
wings with aspect
ratios of 3, 5, and
7. [After Prandtl
(23)]
 Drag and Lift on Road Vehicles
• At the beginning of the cars era nobody was
caring about aerodynamic drag as the
velocities used to be low.
• Thus in the 1920s, coefficients of drag for cars
were around 0.8.
• As highway speed increased and the
technology improved cars started to look not
that angular.
• By the 1940s drag coefficients were 0.7 and
lower. Since that time shape started to improve
faster.
 Drag and Lift on
Road Vehicles

Table 11.2 (p. 468)

Coeffiecients of Drag For
Cars
 Drag and Lift on Road Vehicles

Figure 11.25 (p. 469)

Effect of rear-deck lip on model surface. Pressure coefficients are plotted
normal to the surface. [After Schenkel (25). Reprinted with permission from
SAE Paper No. 770389. © 1977 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.]
 Drag and Lift on Road Vehicles

Figure 11.26 (p. 469)

Racing car with negative-lift devices.
 Summary
• The drag force on a body is evaluated using
1 2
FD  CD V0 Ap
2 24
• The drag coefficient of a sphere for Re<0.5 is CD 
Re
• The frequency of vortex shedding is given by Strouhal
number St  nd
V0 1
• The lift force on a body is quantified by L F  CL  V 2
0 S
2
• The lift on an airfoil is due to circulation produced by
airfoil on the surrounding fluid. The lift coefficient for
a symmetric wing is C  2
L
 Example 1 (Minimum power)
The total drag coefficient for an airplane wing is
2
C
CD  CD 0  L

where CD0 is the form drag coefficient, CL is the lift
coefficient and  is the aspect ratio of the wing. The
power is given by 1
P  FDV  CD V S 3

2
For level flight the lift is equal to the weight, so the
wing loading is given as
W 1
 CL V 2

S 2
Find an expression for V for which the power is
minimum in terms of Vmin=f(, , W/S, CD0)
 Example 1 (Minimum power)

2W 2
C
CL  CD  CD 0  L
V S
2


1
P  FDV  CD V S
3

2
1 2W
P  CD 0 V S 
3

2 VS
 Example 1 (Minimum power)

dP  3  2  2W  1
2
  CD 0  S V     0  (1)
dV  2    S  V
2

2
d P  4W  1 2
  3CD 0  S V     0 (minimum)
  S  V
2 3
dV
Solving Eq. (1) for V , we obtain
1/4
 4  W  1 
2
Vmin. power    2 S 2  C  
 3   D0 
 Example 2 (Minimum drag to lift ratio)

The total drag coefficient for a wing with an elliptical

lift distribution is 2
CL
CD  CD 0 

Derive an expression for CL that corresponds to
minimum CD/CL (maximum CL/CD) and the
corresponding CL/CD.
 Example 2 (Minimum drag to lift ratio)
CD CD 0 CL
Let us define R   
CL CL 
For minimum R, we need dR /dCL and d R /dC  0.
2 2
L

dR CD 0 1
 2   0  (1)
dCL CL 
2
d R 2CD 0
2
 3  0 (there is a minimum)
dCL CL
From Eq. (1), CL   CD 0 
 Example 2 (Minimum drag to lift ratio)

1 1
 CD   CD 0 CL 
 C    C   
 L  L 
1
CL  CD 0  CD 0   1 
   
CD   CD 0    2 CD 0