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1. Sensory areas which receive and interpret somatic sensory impulses including cutaneous
sensations, the five special senses, and some aspects of proprioception (however, little
visceral sensory information is routed to the cortex),
2. Association areas which integrate sensory information with emotional states, memories,
learning and rational thought processes.
3. Motor areas which generate impulses which innervate voluntary skeletal muscles.
sensory areas
• Specific areas of the cerebral cortex which receive and interpret somatic sensory
impulses, e.g.,
– Somatosensory pathways
• Touch
• Temperature
• Pain
• Itch
• Body position
– Visual cortex
– Auditory cortex
– Olfactory cortex
– Gustatory cortex
motor areas
• Specific areas of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem and spinal
cord which generate impulses which innervate all effectors in the body, e.g.,
– involuntary muscles,
– glands,
• Endocrine
• Exocrine.
– Visceral responses
• Autonomic division
• Voluntary movement
association areas
• Specific areas of the cerebral cortex which integrate sensory information with
– emotional states
– memories
– Learning
– Noradrenergic
– Serotonergic
– Dopaminergic
– Cholinergic
LIMBIC SYSTEM
• Functions:
– Maintenance of homeostasis
1. Hypothalamus
2. Amygdala
3. Septal area
4. Hippocampal formation
5. Cingulate gyrus
NEUROTRANSMITTER
• A neurotransmitter is technically defined by meeting three criteria:
3. The substance must bind with a specific receptor on the postsynaptic neuron
1. Amino acids:
• Glutamate
2. Monoamines
• Catecholamines
• Dopamine
• Norepineprhine
• Epinephrine
• Indoleamines
• Serotonin
• Melatonin
• Histamine
3. Acetylcholine
• Neuropeptides.
• Unconventional neurotransmitters
1. Gases : Nitric oxide (NO)
2. Endocannabinoids
Glutamate
• This is the major workhorse of the brain, with glutamate neurons making up more than
half of the excitatory neurons. Without glutamate the brain does not get started or keep
running.
• Glutamate and another excitatory transmitter aspartate are nonessential amino acids that
do not cross the blood-brain barrier. Consequently, glutamate must be synthesized in the
brain from glucose and other precursors.
• Glial cells assist in the reuptake, degradation, and resupply of glutamate for neurons.
• Disorders:
• GABA is the major inhibitory transmitter in the brain and is used by approximately 25%
of the cortical neurons.
• GABA puts the brakes on the brain: not enough GABA and one can have seizures.
• The GABA neurons are primarily the interneurons in the gray matter providing local
constraint over cortical circuitry.
Dopamine (DA)
2. Mesolimbocortical DA system:
3. Tuberoinfundibular DA system :
4. The branches to the nucleus accumbens are involved with reward and substance abuse.
5. The branches to the prefrontal cortex are involved with attention and cognition, and seem
to be impaired in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
6. Some speculate that problems with the mesolimbic system cause the positive symptoms
of schizophrenia whereas negative symptoms are caused by impairment in the
mesocortical system.
Norepinephrine (NE)
• Approximately 50% of the NE neurons are located in the locus coeruleus. There are
approximately 12,000 neurons in each nucleus.
• The remainder of the NE neurons is found in loose clusters in the medullary reticular
formation .
Epinephrine
• The epinephrine (or adrenaline) neurons are few and play a minor role in the CNS.
• Most of the epinephrine in the body is produced in the adrenal medulla and excreted with
sympathetic stimulation.
• Therefore, epinephrine plays a much greater role outside of the brain as a hormone, than
within as a neurotransmitter
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
• Serotonin is found in many parts of the body outside of the CNS, such as platelets and
mast cells. Only approximately 1% to 2% of the body's serotonin in located in the brain.
• In the pineal gland there are two additional enzymes that convert serotonin to melatonin.
• The serotonin neurons are relatively few in number (approximately 200,000) and reside
in the raphe nuclei in the brain stem.
• As with NE, the serotonin neurons project to virtually all areas of the brain.
• Plays an important role in depression and anxiety, and also in the sleep-wake cycle.
Histamine
• When animals are alert, the histamine neurons are active. Histamine neurons are quiet
when animals are sleeping.
• More recently, there has been increased interest in activating the histamine neurons as a
treatment for fatigue. Modafinil, the only agent in the class, indirectly activates the
histamine neurons and has been used successfully as a treatment for narcolepsy,
excessive sleepiness, and ADHD.
Acetylcholine
• ACh is a small molecule transmitter but it is not an amino acid nor a monoamine.
• In the CNS arises from cell bodies in the brain stem and forebrain with prominent
projects to the cortex and hippocampus.
• Projections to the hippocampus are involved with learning and memory and are disrupted
in Alzheimer's disease.
• In the striatum, the ACh neurons balance the dopaminergic input from the substantia
nigra to coordinate extrapyramidal motor control. Disruption of this balance with DA-
blocking antipsychotic agents can result in extrapyramidal side effects. The
anticholinergic agents are administered to restore the ACh/DA balance and allow normal
movement.
Neuropeptides
• The neuropeptides are small chains of amino acids but larger than the classic
neurotransmitters. Peptides are synthesized in nerve cells and have effects on behaviors
such as learning, attachment, mood, and anxiety.
• Some have important endocrine functions in the body, such as the regulation of
reproduction, growth, water intake, salt metabolism, temperature control.
• The formation, release, and inactivation of the neuropeptides differ from that of the
monoamines. Peptides must be transcribed from mRNA on the ribosomes of the
endoplasmic reticulum. Initially the peptide is a large propeptide precursor, which is
cleaved into an active neuropeptide as it is moved from the Golgi apparatus into large
dense core vesicles that are stored at the terminal bud of the neuron.
• Unlike the monoamines, neuropeptides are not recycled by the neuron, but are rather
broken down by degradative enzymes (peptidases) on the receptor membrane.
Unconventional Neurotransmitters
– NO has the ability to diffuse (without obstruction) out of the originating cell,
through the extracellular medium and into any neighboring cell that it meets.
– It is worth noting that the medications for erectile dysfunction have not been
associated with any adverse effects on mental function. This may be due to the
inability of these medications in their current form to cross the blood-brain
barrier.
• Endocannabinoids:
– The effect of activating CB1 receptors results in inhibition of that neuron and in a
simple way explains the calming effect of marijuana.
– Rimonabant, a potent and selective blocker (antagonist) of the CB1 receptor, has
been shown in clinical studies to facilitate weight loss.
Terjemah:
1. Daerah sensorik yang menerima dan menafsirkan impuls sensorik somatik termasuk
sensasi kulit, panca indera khusus, dan beberapa aspek proprioception (Namun, sedikit
informasi sensorik viseral diarahkan ke korteks),
2. Daerah asosiasi yang mengintegrasikan informasi sensorik dengan keadaan emosi,
kenangan, belajar dan proses berpikir rasional.
3. Daerah motor yang menghasilkan impuls yang menginnervasi otot rangka sukarela.
daerah sensorik
Daerah tertentu dari korteks serebral yang menerima dan menafsirkan impuls sensorik
somatik, misalnya,
penciuman di lobus frontal,
sensasi kulit di lobus parietal,
sensasi visual lobus oksipital,
rasa, pendengaran, dan keseimbangan di lobus temporal;
impuls sensorik viseral diterima dan diinterpretasikan dalam diencephalon, otak
kecil, dan batang otak.
daerah motor
Daerah tertentu dari korteks serebral, diencephalon, otak kecil, batang otak dan sumsum
tulang belakang yang menghasilkan impuls yang innervate semua effectors dalam tubuh,
misalnya,
otot rangka sukarela,
otot tak sadar,
kelenjar,
Kelenjar endokrin
Eksokrin.
daerah asosiasi
Daerah tertentu dari korteks serebral yang mengintegrasikan informasi sensorik
dengan
keadaan emosional
kenangan
Belajar
proses berpikir rasional
SISTEM LIMBIK
Adalah sistem yang menyangkut dengan perilaku termotivasi atau berorientasi pada
tujuan tertentu, langsung ditujukan pada pemeliharaan homeostasis dan pada
kelangsungan hidup individu dan spesies (Nieuwenhuys, 1996)
Fungsi:
Pemeliharaan homeostasis
Termotivasi dan perilaku berorientasi pada tujuan
Kelangsungan hidup individu
Kelangsungan hidup spesies
Belajar dan memori
1. Hipotalamus
2. Amigdala
3. Daerah septum
4. Pembentukan hippocampus
5. Gyrus cingulate
Neurotransmitter
Glutamat
Ini adalah pekerja keras utama dari otak, dengan neuron glutamat membuat lebih dari
setengah dari neuron rangsang. Tanpa glutamat otak tidak memulai atau tetap berjalan.
Glutamat dan aspartat transmitter rangsang lain adalah asam amino nonesensial yang
tidak melewati sawar darah otak. Akibatnya, glutamat harus disintesis di otak dari
glukosa dan prekursor lainnya.
Sel glial membantu dalam reuptake, degradasi, dan memasok glutamat untuk neuron.
Gangguan:
Terlalu banyak glutamat (seperti dalam stroke) merupakan racun bagi sel-sel saraf
glutamatergic disregulasi mungkin hadir pada pasien dengan skizofrenia
GABA adalah pemancar penghambatan utama dalam otak dan digunakan oleh sekitar
25% dari neuron kortikal.
Glycine adalah asam amino penghambatan lain, tetapi kurang umum.
GABA menempatkan rem pada otak: tidak cukup GABA dan satu dapat memiliki kejang.
Neuron GABA terutama yang interneuron di materi abu-abu menyediakan kendala lokal
lebih sirkuit kortikal.
Dopamin (DA)
Norepinefrin (NE)
Epinefrin
Epinefrin (adrenalin atau) neuron sedikit dan memainkan peran kecil dalam SSP.
Sebagian besar epinefrin dalam tubuh diproduksi di medula adrenal dan dikeluarkan
dengan stimulasi simpatis.
Oleh karena itu, epinefrin memainkan peran yang lebih besar di luar otak sebagai
hormon, dari dalam sebagai neurotransmitter
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
Serotonin ditemukan di banyak bagian tubuh luar SSP, seperti trombosit dan sel mast.
Hanya sekitar 1% sampai 2% dari serotonin tubuh di terletak di otak.
Neurotransmitter yang paling erat terkait dengan Neuropsychopharmacology modern.
Serotonin disintesis dari triptofan yang harus diperoleh dalam makanan.
Di kelenjar pineal ada dua enzim tambahan yang mengkonversi serotonin ke melatonin.
Neuron serotonin relatif sedikit jumlahnya (sekitar 200.000) dan berada di inti raphe di
batang otak.
Seperti NE, neuron serotonin proyek untuk hampir semua area otak.
Memainkan peran penting dalam depresi dan kecemasan, dan juga dalam siklus tidur-
bangun.
Histamin
Asetilkolin
Neuropeptida
Neuropeptida adalah rantai kecil dari asam amino tetapi lebih besar dari neurotransmitter
klasik. Peptida disintesis dalam sel-sel saraf dan memiliki efek pada perilaku seperti
belajar, lampiran, suasana hati, dan kecemasan.
Beberapa memiliki fungsi endokrin yang penting dalam tubuh, seperti peraturan
reproduksi, pertumbuhan, asupan air, metabolisme garam, kontrol suhu.
Pembentukan, rilis, dan inaktivasi neuropeptida berbeda dari yang dari monoamina.
Peptida harus ditranskripsi dari mRNA pada ribosom dari retikulum endoplasma.
Awalnya peptida adalah prekursor propeptide besar, yang dibelah menjadi neuropeptide
aktif seperti yang dipindahkan dari aparat Golgi ke besar vesikel inti padat yang disimpan
di kuncup terminal neuron.
Berbeda dengan monoamina, neuropeptida tidak didaur ulang oleh neuron, tetapi bukan
dipecah oleh enzim degradatif (peptidase) pada membran reseptor.
Neurotransmiter inkonvensional
Endocannabinoid:
Reseptor cannabinoid yang (CB 1) banyak diekspresikan di seluruh otak pada
terminal prasinaps.
Pengaruh mengaktifkan CB 1 reseptor hasil penghambatan neuron itu dan dengan
cara yang sederhana menjelaskan efek menenangkan ganja.
Menghalangi CB 1 reseptor dapat menghambat nafsu makan.
Rimonabant, blocker ampuh dan selektif (antagonis) dari CB 1 reseptor, telah
ditunjukkan dalam studi klinis untuk memfasilitasi penurunan berat badan.