Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Compendium of Strategies
Cool Pavements
Acknowledgements
Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies describes the
causes and impacts of summertime urban heat islands and promotes
strategies for lowering temperatures in U.S. communities. This compendium
was developed by the Climate Protection Partnership Division in the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Atmospheric Programs. Eva
Wong managed its overall development. Kathleen Hogan, Julie Rosenberg,
Neelam R. Patel, and Andrea Denny provided editorial support. Numerous
EPA staff in offices throughout the Agency contributed content and
provided reviews. Subject area experts from other organizations around the
United States and Canada also committed their time to provide technical
feedback.
Experts who helped shape this chapter include: Bruce Ferguson, Kim Fisher,
Jay Golden, Lisa Hair, Liv Haselbach, David Hitchcock, Kamil Kaloush, Mel
Pomerantz, Nam Tran, and Don Waye.
1.4 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
5. Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Cool Pavements
C
ool pavements refer to a range of
established and emerging materials.
These pavement technologies tend to In many U.S. cities, pavements represent the largest
store less heat and may have lower surface percentage of a community’s land cover, compared
temperatures compared with conventional with roof and vegetated surfaces. As part of EPA’s
products. They can help address the prob Urban Heat Island Pilot Project, Lawrence Berkeley
lem of urban heat islands, which result in National Laboratory (LBNL) conducted a series of
part from the increased temperatures of urban fabric analyses that provide baseline data on
paved surfaces in a city or suburb. Commu land use and land use cover, including paved sur
nities are exploring these pavements as part faces for the pilot program cities.1 Figure 1 shows
of their heat island reduction efforts. the percent of paved surfaces in four of these
urban areas, as viewed from below the tree canopy.
Conventional pavements in the United States The data are from 1998 through 2002, depending
are impervious concrete* and asphalt, which on the city. Paved areas, which can absorb and
can reach peak summertime surface tem store much of the sun’s energy contributing to the
peratures of 120–150°F (48–67°C).2 These urban heat island effect, accounted for nearly 30 to
surfaces can transfer heat downward to be 45 percent of land cover.
stored in the pavement subsurface, where it
is re-released as heat at night. The warmer
daytime surface temperatures also can heat Figure 1: Paved Surface Statistics for Four U.S. Cities
stormwater as it runs off the pavement into
local waterways. These effects contribute to Salt Lake City
urban heat islands (especially at nighttime)
and impair water quality.
Sacramento
Houston
Chicago
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Percent Coverage
* When new, concrete has a high solar reflectance and generally is considered a cool pavement; however, it loses reflectance over time, as discussed in
Section 1.2.
1. Pavements are complex. Conditions that affect pavement temperatures, but not
roofing materials, include: (a) dirtying and wearing away of a surface due to daily
foot and vehicle traffic, affecting pavement surface properties; (b) convection
due to traffic movement over the pavement; and (c) shading caused by people
and cars, vegetation, and neighboring structures and buildings. These factors are
discussed in Sections 1.2 and 2.
2. Pavement temperatures are affected by radiative and thermal characteristics, un
like cool roofs, where radiative properties are the main concern. This is discussed
in Section 1.3.
3. Pavements serve a variety of functions throughout an urban area. Their uses
range from walking trails to heavily trafficked highways (unlike cool roofs, which
generally perform the same function and are off-the-shelf products). Different
materials and specifications are needed for these different uses, and pavements
are often individually specified, making it difficult to define or label a cool pave
ment.
Concerned communities that move forward with paving often shade it with vegeta
tion. The “Trees and Vegetation” chapter discusses the use of measures such as park
ing lot shading ordinances as part of a heat island mitigation strategy.
Another option some local governments and private firms are considering involves
installing canopies that incorporate solar panels in parking lots. These photovoltaic
canopies shade surfaces from incoming solar energy and generate electricity that can
help power nearby buildings or provide energy for plug-in electric vehicles.4
For more information on urban planning and design approaches to minimize paved
surfaces, see <www.epa.gov/smartgrowth>, and for information on vegetated sur
faces, see the “Trees and Vegetation” chapter of this compendium.
Figure 3: Solar Energy versus Wavelength Reaching Earth’s Surface on a Typical Clear Summer Day
1.00
0.90 ultraviolet visible infrared
Normalized Solar Intensity
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Wavelength (in nanometers)
Solar energy intensity varies over wavelengths from about 250 to 2,500 nanometers. Figure 3 demonstrates this
variation, using a normalized measure of solar intensity on a scale of zero (minimum) to one (maximum). Currently,
reflective pavements are light colored and primarily reflect visible wavelengths. However, similar to trends in the
roofing market, researchers are exploring pavement products that appear dark but reflect energy in the near-infrared
spectrum. 5 (See the “Cool Roofs” chapter of the compendium for more information.)
40
Solar reflectance in %
1.2 Solar Reflectance (Albedo) 35
Concrete pavements
30
Solar reflectance, or albedo, is the per 25
centage of solar energy reflected by a 20
because less heat is available at the sur Due to weathering and the accumulation of dirt, the
solar reflectances of conventional asphalt and concrete
face to then be transferred into the pave
tend to change over time. Asphalt consists largely of
ment. Researchers, engineers, and industry petroleum derivatives as a binder mixed with sand or
have collaborated to develop methods to stone aggregate. Asphalt tends to lighten as the binder
determine solar reflectance by measuring oxidizes and more aggregate is exposed through wear.
how well a material reflects energy at each Concrete also uses sand and stone aggregate, but in
wavelength, then calculating the weighted contrast to asphalt, typically uses Portland cement as
a binder. 7 Foot and vehicle traffic generally dirty the
average of these values.* (See Table 1 on
cement causing it to darken over time.
page 7.)
material, and thus usually change over time.
Conventional paving materials such as as Figure 5 shows how changing only albedo
phalt and concrete have solar reflectances of can significantly alter surface temperatures.
5 to 40 percent, which means they absorb Although researchers, including those at
95 to 60 percent of the energy reaching LBNL, have made light-colored pavements
them instead of reflecting it into the atmo with solar reflectances greater than 75 per
sphere. (See Figure 4.) However, as Figure 4 cent,8 these high albedo pavements do not
also shows, these values depend on age and have widespread commercial availability.
* Albedo is typically measured on a scale of zero to one. For this compendium, albedo is given as a percentage, so an albedo of 0.05 corresponds to a solar
reflectance of 5 percent. The “solar reflectance index” is a value on a scale of zero to 100 that incorporates both solar reflectance and thermal emittance in
a single measure to represent a material’s temperature in the sun. (See Table 1 on page 7 or further explanation.)
Emittance
To evaluate how “cool” a specific product is, ASTM International has validated labo
ratory and field tests and calculations to measure solar reflectance, thermal emit
tance, and the solar reflectance index, which was developed to try to capture the
effects of both reflectance and emittance in one number. (See Table 1 below.) Labo
ratory measurements are typically used to examine the properties of new material
samples, while field measurements evaluate how well a material has withstood the
test of time, weather, and dirt.
The final method listed in Table 1 is not an actual test but a way to calculate the
“solar reflectance index” or SRI. The SRI is a value that incorporates both solar reflec
tance and thermal emittance in a single value to represent a material’s temperature
in the sun. This index measures how hot a surface would get compared to a standard
black and a standard white surface. In physical terms, this scenario is like laying a
pavement material next to a black surface and a white surface and measuring the
temperatures of all three surfaces in the sun. The SRI is a value between zero (as hot
as a black surface) and 100 (as cool as a white surface).
Mark Meier
The row of three- and four-story townhouses on the left creates a relatively modest urban canyon, while the
skyscrapers on the right have a more pronounced effect.
Angeles from pavement albedo improve uses. Some are best for light traffic areas,
ments would be more than $90 million per for example. Further, depending on local
year (in 1998 dollars).19 conditions—such as available materials,
labor costs, and experience with different
2 . Potential Cool Pavement Types applications—certain pavements may not
be cost effective or feasible.
Current cool pavements are those that have
increased solar reflectance or that use a Generally, decision-makers choose pav
permeable material. Some of these pave ing materials based on the function they
ments have long been established—such serve. Figure 8 shows the proportions of
as conventional concrete, which initially pavement used for different purposes in
has a high solar reflectance. Others are four cities. Parking lots typically make up
emerging—such as microsurfacing, which a large portion of the paved surfaces in
is a thin sealing layer used for mainte urban areas. All current cool pavement
nance.20 Some pavement applications are technologies can be applied to parking
for new construction, while others are used lots, which may explain why many re
for maintenance or rehabilitation. Not all search projects have been and are being
applications will be equally suited to all conducted on them.
Roads
30 Parking For example, some forms of porous
Sidewalks
20 Other
pavements, such as open-graded fric
tion course (OGFC) asphalt pave-
NEW CONSTRUCTION
Pavement Type Description of Properties to Consider Pavement Temperature Urban Climate Impacts Issues and Target Use
Technology Impacts Considerations
Reflective Pavement Options
Asphalt pavement, Asphalt pavements • Solar reflectance, + Lowers pavement + Can contribute to • Solar reflectance • Can be used in all
modified with high consist of an asphalt which initially may temperature because lower air tempera- increases over time, applications, such as
albedo materials or binder mixed with sand be 5%, can increase more of the sun‘s tures day and night, and conventional trails and roads.
treated after installation or stone, referred to as to 15–20% as con- energy is reflected although air tempera- asphalt may reach a • May be most effec
to raise albedo. aggregate. ventional asphalt away, and there is less tures are not directly reflectance of 20% tive when paving
ages. 27 heat at the surface to related to surface after seven years.29 large, exposed areas
• Using light-colored absorb into the pave temperatures and (See Section 1.2.) such as parking lots.
aggregate, color pig ment. many complicating • Urban geometry,
ments, or sealants, factors are involved.28 in particular urban
the reflectance of – Reflected heat can be canyons, influences
conventional asphalt absorbed by the sides the impact reflective
can be increased. of surrounding build pavements have on
• Maintenance ap ings warming the in the urban climate.
plications such as terior of the building
chip seals also can and contributing to
increase solar reflec the nighttime urban
tance. (See below.) heat island effect,
• Urban geometry can due to the additional
influence the effect heat that needs to be
of high albedo pave released from urban
ments. infrastructure.
15
Table 2: Properties that Influence Pavement Temperatures—Impacts and Applications (continued)
16
• Other porous equivalent due to daytime surface pavement impacts parking lots, alleys,
asphalts or open- the increased surface temperatures, but on pavement and air and trails.
grade course friction area.33 may not affect or may temperatures. • May be best in cli
surfaces can also be • Increased convec even reduce night mates with adequate
used for reducing tion may help cool time air temperatures, moisture during the
noise. 32 the pavement due although air tempera summer.
to increased surface tures are not directly
area. 34 related to surface
temperatures and
many complicating
factors are involved.
Table 2: Properties that Influence Pavement Temperatures—Impacts and Applications (continued)
cOOl PAVeMeNts – dRAFt
conditions.
Table 2: Properties that Influence Pavement Temperatures—Impacts and Applications (continued)
20
MAINTENANCE/REHABILITATION
Pavement Type Description of Properties to Consider Pavement Temperature Urban Climate Impacts Issues and Target Use
Technology Impacts Considerations
Reflective Pavement Options
Chip seals made with • Chip seals describe • Solar reflectance of + Lowers pavement sur- + Can contribute to • Solar reflectance • Chip seals are most
high-albedo a ggregate aggregate used to chip seals will corre- face and subsurface lower air tempera- decreases over time, often used to resur-
resurface low- late with the albedo temperature because tures day and night, as soiling from traffic face low-volume
volume asphalt of the aggregate more of the sun’s although air tempera- makes chip seals asphalt roads,
roads and some- used. In San Jose, CA, energy is reflected tures are not directly darker. although highway
times for highway researchers identi- away, and there is less related to surface • Urban geometry, in applications also
surfaces. fied albedo of 20% heat at the surface temperatures and particular urban exist.
for new chip seals, to absorb into the many complicating canyons, influences • May be most effec-
which then decline p
avement. factors are involved. the impact high- tive when paving
with age. 37 – Reflected heat can be albedo pavements large, exposed areas,
• Urban geometry can absorbed by the sides have on the urban such as parking lots.
influence the effect of surrounding build- climate.
high-albedo pave- ings warming the in-
REDUCING URBAN HEAT ISLANDS – DRAFT
MAINTENANCE/REHABILITATION (continued)
Pavement Type Description of Properties to Consider Pavement Temperature Urban Climate Impacts Issues and Target Use
Technology Impacts Considerations
Reflective Pavement Options (continued)
Whitetopping • Whitetopping is a • The solar reflectance + Lowers pavement sur- + Can contribute to • Solar reflectance • Whitetopping and
thick layer (thick- of whitetopping face and subsurface lower air tempera- decreases over time, ultra-thin whitetop-
ness greater than material can be as temperature because tures day and night, as soiling from traffic ping are generally
4 inches or 10 cm) high as concrete. more of the sun’s although air tempera- makes whitetopped used to resurface
of concrete applied • Urban geometry energy is reflected tures are not directly surfaces darker. road segments,
over existing asphalt can influence the away, and there is less related to surface • Urban geometry, in intersections, and
when resurfacing effect of high-albedo heat at the surface temperatures and particular urban parking lots.
or can be applied to p
avements. to absorb into the many complicating canyons, influences • May be most effec-
new asphalt. It often p
avement. factors are involved. the impact high- tive when paving
contains fibers for – Reflected heat can be albedo pavements large, exposed areas,
added strength. absorbed by the sides have on the urban such as parking lots.
• Ultra-thin whitetop- of surrounding build- climate.
ping is generally 2–4 ings, warming the in-
inches (5–10 cm) terior of the building
thick and similar to and contributing to
whitetopping. the urban heat island
effect.
21
Table 2: Properties that Influence Pavement Temperatures—Impacts and Applications (continued)
22
MAINTENANCE/REHABILITATION (continued)
Pavement Type Description of Properties to Consider Pavement Tempera- Urban Climate Impacts Issues and Consider- Target Use
Technology ture Impacts ations
Reflective Pavement Options (continued)
Microsurfacing • A thin sealing • Solar reflectance of + Lowers pavement + Can contribute to lower • Solar reflectance • Used to extend pavement
with high- layer used for road microsurfacing will cor- surface and sub- air temperatures day and may decrease over life and on worn pave-
albedo materials maintenance. relate with the albedo surface tempera- night, although air tem- time, if soiling from ments that need improved
• Light-colored of the materials used. ture because more peratures are not directly traffic makes high- friction, such as low- to
materials can be • Researchers recently of the sun’s energy related to surface tempera- albedo microsurfac- medium-volume roads,
used to increase measured solar reflec- is reflected away, tures and many complicat- ing materials darker. airport runways, and park-
the solar reflec- tances of microsurfac- and there is less ing factors are involved. • Urban geometry, ing areas.
tance of asphalt. ing applications over heat at the surface – Reflected heat can be particularly urban
35%.38 to absorb into the absorbed by the sides of canyons, influences
pavement. surrounding buildings, the impact high-
warming the interior of the albedo pavements
building and contributing have on the urban
to the urban heat island climate.
REDUCING URBAN HEAT ISLANDS – DRAFT
effect.
3. Benefits and Costs
Currently, few studies provide detailed
Measuring Energy Savings
data on the benefits and costs of cool
pavements. This section aims to provide from Cool Roofs versus
a general discussion as a starting point Cool Pavements
for decision-makers to consider and gives
examples where available. Again, decision- Measuring the energy impacts from a
makers will also consider location-specific cool roof is relatively easy compared
factors such as functionality of pavements with quantifying those from pave-
in the local climate, political acceptance, ment installations. With a roof, one
and experience with the technology. Re- can measure energy demand before
sources and examples providing the latest and after the installation, and in a
information are listed in Sections 4 and 5. controlled experiment, the change in
demand can be associated with the
3.1 Benefits roofing technology. In contrast, pave-
ments affect building energy demand
Installing cool pavements can be part of
through influencing air temperature,
an overall strategy to reduce air tempera-
which is a more complex relation-
tures, which can result in a wide range of
ship to isolate and measure.
benefits. The information below highlights
existing research in this area.
old, combined sewers (where stormwater
Reduced Energy Use drains into the sanitary sewer system).
As noted earlier, researchers predicted that
if pavement reflectance throughout a city Air Quality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
were increased from 10 to 35 percent, the Depending on the electric power fuel mix,
air temperature could potentially be re- decreased energy demand associated with
duced by 1°F (0.6°C), which would result in cool pavements will result in lower associ-
significant benefits in terms of lower energy ated air pollution and greenhouse gas emis-
use and reduced ozone levels. For example, sions. Cooler air temperatures also slow the
an earlier, separate study estimated over $90 rate of ground-level ozone formation and re-
million/year in savings from temperature duce evaporative emissions from vehicles. A
reductions attributed to increased pavement 2007 paper estimated that increasing pave-
albedo in the Los Angeles area.39 ment albedo in cities worldwide, from an
average of 35 to 39 percent, could achieve
Similarly, when permeable pavements reductions in global carbon dioxide (CO2)
evaporate water and contribute to lower emissions worth about $400 billion.41
air temperatures, they also provide other
energy benefits.40 Permeable pavements Water Quality and Stormwater Runoff
can allow stormwater to infiltrate into Pavements with lower surface tempera-
the ground, which decreases stormwater tures—whether due to high solar reflec-
runoff. With reduced runoff, communities tance, permeability, or other factors—can
may realize energy savings associated with help lower the temperature of stormwater
pumping stormwater and maintaining con- runoff, thus ameliorating thermal shock to
veyance structures. These cost savings may aquatic life in the waterways into which
be significant in areas where there are stormwater drains.42 Laboratory tests with
Maintenance
Surface applications Chip seals with light aggregate, if $0.10–$0.15 2–8
locally available
Microsurfacing $0.35–$0.65 7–10
Ultra-thin whitetopping $1.50–$6.50 10–15
* Some technologies, such as permeable options, may reduce the need for other infrastructure, such as stormwater
drains, thus lowering a project’s overall expenses. Those savings, however, are not reflected in this table. (1 square foot
= 0.09 m2)
• Targeting alternative paving options for specific types of paved surfaces, such as
highways or parking lots, or expanding residential or commercial roadways. This
requires coordination with the Texas Department of Transportation and the Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality.
• Educating local and state decision-makers about public health, environmental
management, and public works maintenance benefits of alternative pavements.
• Combining and embedding alternative paving incentives into larger programs
and regulations, such as meeting Clean Air or Clean Water Act standards, with the
support of the Greater Houston Builders Association and the Texas Aggregates
and Concrete Association.
Type of
Initiative Description Links to Examples
Research Industry <www.nrmca.org/>—Since 1928, the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association’s
research laboratory has helped evaluate materials and set technical standards. Recent
projects include developing permeability tests and assessing concrete with high fly-
ash content.
National <http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/>—The Heat Island Group at Lawrence
laboratory Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) provides research and information about cool
paving and other heat island mitigation measures. The Cool Pavements section
describes the benefits of this technology, and published reports are included under
Recent Publications.
University- <www.asusmart.com/pavements.php>—Arizona State University’s National Center
supported of Excellence collaborates with industry and government to research and develop
and similar technologies to reduce urban heat islands, especially in desert climates.
consortia <www.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/>—The Houston Advanced Research Center
(HARC) brings together universities, local governments, and other groups interested in
improving air quality and reducing heat islands. It has examined how cool paving could
be implemented in the Houston area to reduce urban heat island effects.
<http://ncsu.edu/picp/index.html> and <www.bae.ncsu.edu/
info/permeable_pavement/index.html>—North Carolina State University has an
active permeable pavement research program, as well as a specialized collaborative
effort with ICPI and the Low Impact Development Center on permeable interlocking
concrete pavements.
Type of
Initiative Description Links to Examples
Voluntary Demonstration <www.cityofpoulsbo.com/CityCouncil/PDFsDOCs/Works/2007/4-25minutes.pdf>—
efforts programs Poulsbo, Washington, used a $263,000 grant from the Washington Department of
Ecology to pave 2,000 feet of sidewalk with pervious pavement, making it one of the
largest pervious surface projects in the state.
<www.heifer.org/site/c.edJRKQNiFiG/b.1484715/>—The nonprofit Heifer Interna-
tional used pervious pavement and other sustainable techniques for its new head-
quarters in Arkansas.
Outreach & < www.epa.gov/heatisland/>—EPA’s Heat Island Reduction Initiative provides infor-
education mation on the temperature, energy, and air quality impacts from cool pavements and
other heat island mitigation strategies.
<http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298>—EPA’s Office of Water
highlights design options, including permeable pavements that reduce stormwater
runoff and water pollution.
<www.greenhighways.org/>—The Green Highways Partnership, supported by a number
of groups including EPA and the U.S. Department of Transportation is a public-private
partnership dedicated to transforming the relationship between the environment and
transportation infrastructure. The partnership’s Web site includes a number of cool pave-
ment resources, especially with respect to permeable pavements.
<http://nemo.uconn.edu/index.htm>—The University of Connecticut runs Nonpoint
Education for Municipal Officials (NEMO), which helps educate local governments
about land use and environmental quality.
Tools <www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees/>—The National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) has developed a software tool, Building for Environmental and
Economic Stability (BEES). The tool enables communities to conduct life cycle cost
assessments for various types of building initiatives, including pavement projects.
Policy Municipal <http://files.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/CoolHoustonPlan.pdf>—The Cool Hous-
efforts regulations that ton! Plan promotes cool paving as well as other techniques to reduce the region’s
support cool heat island.
pavements <www.toronto.ca/planning/urbdesign/greening_parking_lots.htm>—
Toronto’s “Design Guidelines for ‘Greening’ Surface Parking Lots” encourage reflective
and permeable pavements to reduce surface temperatures.
Haselbach, L. 2008. Pervious Concrete and Mitigation of the Urban Heat Island Effect. Un-
der review for the 2009 Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting.
Kevern, J., V.R. Schaefer, and K. Wong. 2008. Temperature Behavior of a Pervious Concrete
System. Under review for the 2009 Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting.
Claudio, L. 2008. Synthetic Turf: Health Debate Takes Root. Environmental Health Perspec-
tives 116.3. Retrieved September 16, 2008, from <www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articleren-
der.fcgi?artid=2265067>.
Aubrey, A. 2008. High Temps On Turf Fields Spark Safety Concerns. NPR Morning Edi-
tion, 7 Aug. Retrieved September 16, 2008, from <www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=93364750>.