Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Topic
1 Biological Molecules (Enzymes)
2 Biological Molecules (Nutrition)
3 Cell Division
4 Cell Structure & Organisation
5 Ecology
6 Excretion
7 Heredity
8 Homeostasis
9 Hormones
10 Molecular Genetics
11 Nutrition in Human
12 Nutrition in Plants
13 Our Impact on the Ecosystem
14 Reproduction in Humans
15 Reproduction in Plants
16 Respiration in Humans
17 The Human Eye
18 The Nervous System
19 Transport Across Membranes
20 Transport in Man
21 Transport in Plants
a-a Amino acid
Amt Amount
b/w Between
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
EA Activation energy
Fa Fatty acids
+
H Hydrogen ions
KE Kinetic energy
mRNA Messanger RNA
RBC Red blood cells
RNA Ribonucleic acid
rxn Reaction
Temp Temperature
tRNA Transfer RNA
SA:V Surface Area to Volume Ratio
SA Surface area
+ve(ly) Positive(ly)
-ve(ly) Negative(ly)
Biological Molecules (Enzymes)
Catalysts: Substances that can alter/speed up a chemical reaction w/o itself
being chemically changed at the end of the reaction
Activation energy (EA)
- All chemical reactions involve breaking & forming of bonds
- Energy is required to break existing bonds in order to form new ones
- Transition state: unstable state reached when existing bonds are strained
- EA is the energy required to bring reactant molecules to their transition state
- New bonds form after existing bonds break
Overall change in energy is –ve:
energy content of products lower
than that of reactants
- Enzymes
Biological catalysts that are mostly protein-based
Speed up rate of rxns by lowering EA, w/o being chemically changed at
the end of the rxn
Required in minute amounts during rxns
→ Efficient molecules – same enzyme can catalyse rnx many times
→ No. of substrate molecules that one enzyme can react on in a given
span of time is the turnover number
Specific in action
→ Each chemical rxn in a cell is catalysed by a unique enzyme
→ Most enzymes can only catalyse one specific rxn due to the specific
3D shape of its active site
Enzyme-substrate complex: temporary structure formed when enzyme
and substrates bind
[Lock-and-Key Hypothesis]
[Induced Fit Hypothesis]
Active site of enzyme: part where enzyme comes into contact with
substrate
Amino acid chain folded into complex 3D shapes
Catalytic amino acids may be far from each other along the chain, but
brought together after folding to form the active site
High temperatures denature proteins (proteins loses its 3D structure
and active site changes shape – substrate can no longer bind to it)
Anabolic Reaction Catabolic Reaction
Reactions that build up complex Reactions that break down complex
substances substances
A-A Polypeptides Proteins 2H2O2 O2 + 2H2O
1. Measure of H+ concentration
2. H-bonds of 3D shape of enzymes may break
depending on H+ concentration
3. Each enzyme functions at its optimum pH
4. Changes in pH enzymes denature, enzyme
activity decrease, eventually stop
temperature
→ each enzyme has its optimum temp where it’s most active
→ low temps: enzymes are inactive (K.E. of both enzyme & substrates
are low low chances of effective collision between enzyme &
substrate)
→ high temps: enzymes may denature at ~60ºC (K.E of enzyme is
high bonds that maintain shape of enzyme break)
→ Increasing temp from low to optimum: increase in enzyme activity
– K.E of both enzyme & substrate increases chances of effective
collision b/w enzyme & substrate increases
A: enzyme less active at low temp
B: enzyme activity increases with increasing temp (on average,
rate doubles with every 10ºC rise)
C: Optimum temp – enzyme is most active; rate of rxn at its
peak (~40ºC for most enzymes)
D: Enzymes start denaturing at temps above optimum temp;
activity decreases rapidly
E: Enzyme completely denatures; unable to catalyse any rxns
Enzyme Concentration
→ Low concentration of enzyme can catalyse a large amt of substrate
→ Limiting factor: amt of substrates available (addition of more
enzyme would not increase rate of rxn if substrate concentration is
low as there is not enough substrates to fill up active sites)
→ If all conditions are optimum, & excess substrates are available, rate
of rxn is directly proportional to concentration of enzymes
Substrate Concentration
→ Rate of rxn increase with increasing substrate concentration, up to a
certain point
→ Limiting factor: amt of enzymes available (addition of more
substrates will not increase rate of rxn is enzyme concentration is
low as all available active sites are filled)
Class of enzymes
Class of Enzymes Eg of Enzymes Substrates Products
Carbohydrases Amylase Starch Maltose
(digest Maltase Maltose Glucose + Glucose
carbohydrates) Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactase Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Proteases Pepsin Proteins Shorter Polypeptides
Trypsin Polypeptides Amino Acids
Erepsin Polypeptides Amino Acids
Lipase - Fats Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids
Biological Molecules (Nutrition)
7 classes of nutrients
- Carbohydrates
- Fats Complex substances (need to be digested)
- Proteins
- Dietary Fibre: a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by us. Helps to
bulk up faces & in egestion
- Vitamins No need to be digested (can be absorbed as
- Water they are small enough)
- Minerals (Fe2+,K+, Ca2+, Zn2+)
Water
- Functions
Solvent for chemical reactants
Key component of tissues
Controls body temperature: evaporation of water in sweat removes latent
heat
Transports dissolved substances to/for/from: digested products (small
intestine to other parts), removal of waste products from cells,
photosynthesis, maintaining cell turgidity, mineral salts, food substances
Carbohydrates
- Organic molecules
- Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (H:O is always 2:1)
- Functions
Substrate for respiration (provides energy for cell activities)
Forms supporting structure
Converted to other organic compounds (e.g. a-a, fats)
Formation of nucleic acids
Synthesize lubricants (e.g. mucus)
Synthesize nectar
- General formula: CnH2mOm
- Disaccharides
Union of 2 monosaccharides (condensation reaction: loss of one water
molecule) – glycosidic bond formed (H-O-H)
Splitting of disaccharides (hydrolysis: addition of one water molecule) –
forms its initial monosaccharides
- Reducing sugars: all monosaccharides and disaccharides, except sucrose
- Benedict’s Test for reducing sugars
Blue precipitate (ppt): no reducing sugar (sucrose)
Green ppt: traces of reducing sugar
Yellow/orange ppt: moderate amounts of reducing sugar
Brick-red ppt: large amounts of reducing sugar
- Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharides joined together, formed by many condensation
reactions
Cellulose: made up of ~10 000 glucose molecules, sheet-like structure
with long, unbranched glucose chains
Unsaturated fats may be converted to trans fats under very high heat
Trans fats are geometric isomers of unsaturated fats
Trans fats may deposit along blood vessels block flow of blood
heart attacks
- Emulsion Test for fats: addition of ethanol white cloudy emulsion formed
in presence of lipids, solution remains clear in absence of lipids
Proteins
- Organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
(sometimes present)
- Basic units: amino acids (a-a, consists of amino grp, acid grp, side chain)
Over 100 types of which 20 are most commonly found, all of them are
different
Polypeptide formation
Condensation: loss of water (peptide bond formed)
Hydrolysis: addition of water
Basic structure of a-a
- Functions
Synthesis of new protoplasm, growth & repair of worn out cells
Synthesis of enzymes
Synthesis of some hormones
Formation on antibodies
- Protein deficiency kwashiorkor stomach swell, skin crack
- Polypeptides
formed by condensation of a-a
form proteins by joining many polypeptides to form a long chain of a-a;
chains fold into complex, 3D shapes – impt for function of protein
3D shapes formed via 4 types of bonds
→ Disulphide bond
→ Hydrogen bond
→ Ionic bond
→ Hydrophobic interations
Mitosis
Type of nuclear division (nucleus divides)
Results in production of 2 daughter nuclei, genetically identical (same set of genes) to
the parent
Daughter nuclei have the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus
interphase
Metaphase
Interphase
Non-dividing stage (no cell division), also ‘resting’ stage
During this stage, the cells are being prepared for mitosis
- Absorb nutrients
- Build up protoplasm
- Synthesise new organelles
- Replicate DNA
Chromosomes appear as chromatin (initial stage of long
thin threads)
Just before the cell goes into mitosis,
- Chromatin threads replicate (DNA replication)
- Centrioles replicate & divide
DNA replication
- Chromatin thread replicate to produce 2 identical chromatin threads
- Chromatin threads coil & shorten to form chromosomes
- Each chromosomes has sister chromatids, which are 2 genetically
identical DNA molecules (DNA helix)
- Sister chromatids are joint at the centromere (point of attachment b/w
sister chromatids)
- 1 chromatid is 1 DNA molecule (but not all DNA molecules are
chromatids)
Control of DNA replication
- Ensure that all daughter cells are genetically stable (genetically
identical)
- If an error occurs during replication, the new DNA strand formed
would be different from the original – gene mutation, passed on to the
daughter cell
- Some forms of gene mutation may lead to cancer (uncontrolled
mitosis)
Occurs in prophase,
Interphase not interphase
Stages of mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase
Early prophase (in nuclear envelope)
- Asters (develop into spindle fibres) from around centrioles
- 2 pairs of centrioles move apart to opp. poles of the cell
- Nucleolus disappears
- Chromatins condense, coil & shorten to become chromosomes
- Each chromosomes contains 2 sister chromatids attached at the
centromere after DNA replication
- Chromosomes appear as X-shaped structures under the microscope
Late prophase
- Nuclear envelopes disappears
- A spindle forms the spindle fibres (facilitate in anaphase) extending
from one pole of the cell to the other
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up singly along equator
(imaginary line – centre of cell) of the spindle
Centromere of each chromosome is attached to a
spindle fibre
Each spindle fibre must be attached to a centromere
Spindle fibres elongate the cell
Anaphase (chromosomes move away)
Each centromere divides to allow the sister
chromatids to separate
The spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids apart
to opp. poles of the cell
Spindle fibres shorten/contract, pulling the
chromosomes to the end poles
Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
become daughter chromosomes
Telophase
Spindle fibres disintegrate
Nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
chromosomes
A nucleolus forms around each nucleus
Chromosomes uncoil (decondense) & lengthen
into chromatin (thread-like structures)
Cytokinesis (immediately after telophase)
Division of cytoplasm
Not under mitosis
In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms (2 at the
same time), deepen and eventually split the cell into
2
Mitosis in plants & animals
Plants Animals
- Centrioles are absent - Centrioles are present
- Cleavage of cytoplasm does not - Cleavage of cytoplasm occurs during
occur in cytokinesis cytokinesis (formation of cleavage
- Cell plate forms b/w 2 daughter furrows)
nuclei by fusion of fluid-filled
vesicles (contains cellulose)
Importance of mitosis
Growth of an organism (increase in no. of cells in body through mitosis)
Repair of worn-out parts of tissue, wound healing and replacement of dead
cells via regeneration of new cells
Asexual reproduction in plants such as development of shoots and roots in
storage organs (i.e. rhizomes & bulbs)
For genetic stability
Meiosis
Results in the production of 4 non-genetically identical daughter nuclei
Each daughter nuclei contains half the no. of chromosomes as the parent cells
Interphase
Chromatin threads replicate to produce 2 identical
sister chromatids
Centrioles divide
Prophase I (as a whole – no early/late prophase)
Chromatin threads condense, coil & shorten into
visible chromosomes
Synapsis (only in MEIOSIS) occurs & homologous chromosomes pair up
Each pair is called a bivalent
Homologous chromosomes have the same shape, same genes, same
centromere position and same length
One member pair is inherited from each parent
Crossing over (only in MEIOSIS) b/w chromatids of homologous
chromosome may occur
The point where they cross over is a chiasma
Results in new combination (genetic variation) of genes along the
chromosomes
Centrioles reach opp. poles of the cell
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrates
Spindle fibres form
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves along
the equator in PAIRS
One of each pair faces the opp. poles
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate when spindle
fibres shorten
One of each pair of the homologous chromosomes is
pulled to the opp. poles of the cell
Centromere of chromosomes does not divide as the
chromosomes are already aligned in pairs
Telophase I
Spindle fibres disintegrate
Nuclear envelope reforms (animal cells only)
Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
Nucleus reforms
NO CLEAVAGE FURROW
Most plant cells do not undergo Telophase I and
move straight to Metaphase II
Cytokinesis I
Centrioles replicate so that each daughter
cell has one centriole
Cytoplasm cleaves to produce 2 daughter
cells (furrow forms)
The cells are now haploid
The next stage would be Prophase II, as there
is no more interphase after this stage
Prophase II
Centrioles move to the opp. poles of the cell
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Spindle fibres appear
Nucleolus disintegrates
Metaphase II
Chromosomes/chromatids line up singly (same
as Metaphase) along the equator
Different arrangement from Metaphase I, where
homologous chromosomes lie next to each other
Equator at Met I is perpendicular as compared to
equator at Met II
Crossing over may occur
Anaphase II
Centromeres divide because they are aligned
singly and chromatids (non-genetically identical)
are separated
Daughter chromosomes are then pulled to the opp.
poles of the cell
Telophase II
Spindle fibres disintegrates and nuclear envelope
reforms
Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
Nucleolus reforms
Cytokinesis II
Cells divide, forming four daughter cells, each with
a haploid number of chromosomes
Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction
Produce haploid (n) gametes, which fuse together during fertilization to
produce diploid (2n) cells [an end product zygote]
- Ensures that the no. of chromosomes in an organism is maintained
through the successive generations
- Allows for no. of chromosomes are stable
Meiosis gives rise to genetic variation due to:
- Crossing over b/w homologous chromosomes at Prophase I
- Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes (randomly
arranged along the equator) at Metaphase I
Since fertilization is random, such variations in gametes produce variations in
the offspring
Variations increase the chances of survival of the species during changes in
the environment
• Organelles
Organelle Structure Function
Rough Consists of a network of sheet-like - Produces proteins that are
Endoplasm membrane sacs (cisternae) studded exported/targeted to various
Reticulum with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic cellular organelles. Secretory
(rER) face of the membrane hence proteins leave the rER in transport
appearing ‘rough’ under EM vesicles
- Hollow tubes allow for packaging
of contents into vesicles for
transport into Golgi Apparatus
Smooth Consists of a network of membranous - Synthesis of lipids (including oils,
Endoplasmic tubules (cisternae) that appear phospholipids, steroids like sex
Reticulum ‘smooth’ due to the lack of hormones)
(sER) ribosomes
- Detoxification of drugs and poison
- Metabolism of carbohydrates
- Storage of calcium ions for use in
muscle contraction (for
sarcoplasmic reticulum, special
type of sER)
- Hollow tubes allow for packaging
of contents into vesicles for
transport into Golgi Apparatus
Golgi - Consists of a stack of flattened, - Increased surface area for vesicle
Apparatus membrane-bound sacs reception & budding
(Wi-Fi) (cisternae), with each stack having - Stores and modifies substances
different thickness & molecular made by the ER progressively as
composition they move from cis to trans face
- Distinct polarity: - Modifications include glycosylation
Cis face (facing nucleus): where (adding of sugar groups), trimming
new cisternae are constantly (of excess monomers)
being formed as it receives - Packages these substance in
vesicles from the ER vesicles for secretion. Hence, cells
Trans face: where cisternae bud active in any form of secretion
off to from secretory vesicles usually have abundant GA
and lysosomes
Lysosome - Round vesicles released from GA - Digest internalized materials
- Contains hydrolytic enzymes (e.g. (phagocytosis)
proteases, nucleases, lipases) that - Digest macromolecules
can digest most molecules (pinocytosis)
- Lysosomal contents have a pH of - Carry out autophagy of worn-out
~5 (acidic), and must thus bound organelles
by a membrane - Carry out apoptosis/autolysis of
cell (programmed cell suicide by
the mass release of lysosomal
contents)
Mitochondria - Elongated or spherical organelle - Site of aerobic respiration
(Sausage/Hot- enclosed by a double membrane (catabolic that generates ATO by
dog) oxidizing & extracting energy from
- Outer membrane is smooth
sugars, fats & other metabolic fuel
- Inner membrane is highly in the presence of oxygen
convoluted (infoldings known as
cristae)
- Cristae increases surface area for
embedment of required enzymes &
- Space between two membranes: proteins, thus increasing efficiency
perimitochondrial space of reactions
- Mitochondrial matrix (contains - Manufacture its own proteins
enzymes, circular DNA, RNA,
ribosomes) is enclosed by inner
membrane
Vacuoles Animal Cell - Site of storage of substances in
- Many small, mobile, temporary general
vacuoles that are structurally Animal Cell
similar to vesicles - House and transport substances
Plant Cell Plant Cell
- Usually a large central vacuole - Store organic compounds &
that is enclosed by the tonoplast inorganic ions
(take up to 90% of space in plant
cell)
- Site of disposal for toxic metabolic
by-products (forms small crystals in
- Contains cell sap, which contains vacuole)
dissolved substances (mineral
salts, sugars, amino acids)
- Contains pigments
- Protects plants by accumulating
toxic compounds
- Cell growth & elongation without
cytoplasm synthesis
- Maintains turgidity of plant cell
Chloroplast - Lens-shaped organelle enclosed - Site of photosynthesis
by chloroplast envelope (double - Increased surface area for
membrane) attachment of chlorophyll & other
- Inner membrane encloses stroma pigments for photosynthesis
(contains circular DNA, ribosomes - Stroma contains enzymes required
and starch grains) for Calvin Cycle
- Thylakoids: - Manufactures its own proteins
- Third set of membranes within - Stores synthesized carbohydrates
stroma arranged in flattened sacs as starch granules in the stroma
- Enclose the thylakoid
lumen/space
- Some thylakoids are stacked to
form grana (s: granum), which
are connected by intergranal
lamellae (sheet-like thylakoids)
Ribosomes - Small round structures (made of - Site of protein synthesis
protein & rRNA)
- Bound ribosomes synthesize
proteins destined for export or
targeted to membrane-bound
organelles
- Free cytosolic ribosomes
synthesize proteins that function
with the cytosol
*Centrioles - Located neat nucleus at - Act as microtubule organizing
centrosome (contains specialized centres (MTOCs) for spindle
proteins required for microtubule apparatus the separates the various
assembly) cell components
- Found in pairs, each consisting of
nine triples arranged in a ring, each
being perpendicular to each other
- Only found in eukaryotic cells
(present in animal cells, commonly
absent in plant cells)
Cell Wall - Made of cellulose (structural - Supports and defines the shape of
polysaccharide) plant tissues
- Rigid and inflexible - Protects cells from mechanical
- Fully permeable injury & invasion
- Withstands hydrostatic pressure
exerted by uptake of water by cell
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Movement of Synthesized Proteins
Cell Membrane
- Functions:
1. Partially permeable – regulates movement of substance into & out of cell
2. Defines cell’s boundaries, keeps interior separated from the surroundings
3. Allows for localization of various structures (e.g. enzymes embedded on membranes)
4. Contains receptors – involved in signal transduction (detecting specific signals and
triggering specific responses)
5. Allows for cell-to-cell communication
- Fluid Mosaic Model
‘Fluid’ because phospholipids are in constant sideways movement
‘Mosaic’ because there is a wide variety of proteins embedded in the membrane
- Structure
Component Structure Function
Phospholipids - Hydrophilic head (due to –vely - Results in cell membrane being
charges phosphate group + other partially permeable
small charged molecules) - Hydrocarbon tails from an effective
- Hydrophobic hydrocarbon (fatty hydrophobic barrier that prevents
acid) tail amphipathic diffusion of polar and charged
- Glycerol backbone solutes
- Forms bilayers spontaneously as
contents and surroundings of cells
are aqueous
Cholesterol - Steroids (type of lipid made up of - Rigid steroid ring interferes with
rings) motions, providing mechanical
- Wedged between phospholipids stability
(i.e. in hydrophobic core) - Decreases membrane fluidity at
high temperatures
- Increases membrane fluidity at low
temperatures (dual effect)
- Decreases membrane permeability
by filling up spaces between
phospholipids
Proteins - Integral/intrinsic - Anchorage
- Peripheral/extrinsic - Recognition (glycoprotein)
- Enzymatic activity
- Receptor (specific shape for
chemical signalling)
- Carrier (undergoes structural
change)
- Channel (hydrophilic channel)
- Intercellular joining
Carbohydrates - Short, branched chains - Bind to extracellular signal
- Glycolipids: covalently bonded to molecules
polar ends of phospholipids - Intracellular adhesion
- Glycoproteins: - Cell-to-cell recognition
Specialized Cells
Pyramid of biomass
Allows the comparison of the mass of organisms present in each trophic level
at a particular
Constructed based on the dry mass of organisms in each trophic at a particular
time
Can be oddly shaped if organisms in one trophic level have a high reproductive
rate
Pyramid of energy
Represents the total energy in each trophic level of a food chain over a certain
period of time
Energy is lost to the environment as heat during respiration, in uneaten body
parts, through undigested matter egested by consumers, through waste
products excreted by consumers
90% of energy is lost when it is transferred from one trophic level to another
Broad at the base and narrow at the top because energy is lost
Kidneys Urine
Excess water Skin Sweat
Lungs Expired air (as water vapour)
- Funnel-like space
Renal - Enlarged portion of ureter in kidneys NIL
Pelvis - Where the kidney is connected to
ureter
- Collects urine
Collecting - Pass straight through the medulla - Reabsorbs NaCl & urea
+ -
Duct - Opens into renal pelvis - Creatinine, water, urea, Na , Cl ,
+
K present
4 Blood leaves glomerulus and enters blood capillaries surrounding the kidney tubule.
Urine Formation
• 2 main processes within the kidney tubule
A. Ultrafiltration (occurs at the renal pelvis)
- Force: High hydrostatic blood pressure at glomerulus
- Filer: Basement Membrane around the glomerular is partially permeable
- Basement Membrane wraps around the glomerular blood capillaries
- The filtrate:
Water
Small molecules (e.g. Glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, urea):
glucose, a-a, mineral salts are all smaller than urea, so they get
filtered out together with the urea as nephron cannot create another
filter that only filters urea.
Limitation of size of renal corpuscle (filter)– cannot be any
smaller or further altered to filter only urea.
- Not in filtrate:
Large molecules (e.g. plasma proteins, RBC, WBC)
Osmoregulation
Control of water and solute concentrations (levels) in the blood to maintain a
constant W.P. in the body
W.P. of blood plasma needs to be kept relatively constant
o large fluctuations in W.P., numerous problems can occur
o blood plasma too concentrated (more –ve W.P.) crenated RBC
(dehydrated)
o blood plasma too dilute (less –ve W.P.) lysed RBC (absorb water,
expand & burst)
W.P. of blood plasma depends in the amount of water
and solutes in plasma
W.P. of blood plasma is controlled by anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH)
ADH: produced by hypothalamus, released by
pituitary gland
ADH increases reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules
Kidneys are osmoregulators
A type of homeostasis: maintains W.P. & concentration of salts in blood
Blood pressure (BP) is indirectly regulated by osmoregulation: blood vol. is
controlled by removing excess salt & water
High BP can cause blood vessels in brain to burst result in a stroke
Mechanism of osmoregulation
o Amount of water reabsorbed by kidney tubules is controlled by ADH
o ADH secretion by pituitary gland depends on ‘instructions’ from
hypothalamus
o Hypothalamus has receptors that detect changes in blood W.P.
Excess Water Dehydration
Kidney Failure
If one kidney fails, a person still can lead a normal life
Causes
o High blood pressure
o Diabetes
o Alcohol abuse (content heavy drinking)
o Severe accidents that physically damage kidneys
o Complications from undergoing major surgery
Effects
o Tinge of red in urine when basal membrane of BC is damaged
If both kidneys, a person requires either a kidney transplant or dialysis
Dialysis machine mimics the function of a kidney
Patient needs to undergo dialysis for 2-3 times for effective treatment
How dialysis works
1 Blood is drawn from a vein into patient’s arm
2 Blood is pumped into dialysis machine through
a tubing
3 Tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid & is partially
permeable
4 Small molecules (e.g. urea) and metabolic
waste products diffuse out of tubing
5 Larger molecules (e.g. platelets & blood cells)
remain in tubing
6 Filtered blood is returned to a vein in the
patient’s arm
Features of dialysis machine
o Dialysis fluid contains same concentration of essential substances such as
healthy food
o Dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste products
o Tubing in machine is narrow, long and coiled
o Direction of blood flow is opp. to the flow of dialysis fluid
1 Dialysis fluid has same composition as blood but lacks the nitrogenous waste
2 Patient’s blood enters dialysis machine
3 Blood flows in the direction opposite to the flow of the dialysis fluid
Determining Genotypes
• Recessive trait displayed: homozygous recessive
• Dominant trait displayed: homozygous/heterozygous dominant
• Test cross: used to determine genotype of an organism with dominant trait by
crossing the organism with a homozygous recessive organism
Ø If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the offspring should
show the dominant trait
Ø If the organism is heterozygous, half of the number of offspring
should show the dominant trait. The remaining half should show the
recessive trait
• Co-dominance: both alleles are equally expressed in the heterozygous
conditions (show the same characteristics)
Ø Short-horned cattle: homozygous red bull (CRCR) + homozygous white
cow (CWCW) = offspring with a mixture of red & white hair (CRCW)
Ø ABO blood group [O is recessive, A & B are co-dominant]
• Sex determination: sex chromosomes (X & Y chromosomes)
Ø Autosomes: other chromosomes in the cells other than the sex
chromosomes
Ø Sex cells: cells that produce gametes by meiosis
Ø Somatic cells: other cells in the body
Ø Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes & 1 pair of sex chromosomes [XY
– male, XX – female]
Ø Sperms: either X or Y chromosome
Ø Eggs: X chromosomes only
Ø Sex of zygote: whether the X-carrying sperm of Y-carrying sperm
fertilises the ovum
Ø When male & female gametes fuse during fertilization, there is an
equal chance that the offspring could be a male or a female
Multiple Alleles
• A gene for a particular trait exists in more than 2 alleles
• Coat colours in rabbits [C: full colour, ch: Himalayan, ca: albino]
Phenotype Genotype
h a
Full Colour CC, Cc , Cc
Himalayan chch, chca
Albino caca
• Human blood groups [IA & IB: co-dominant, IO: recessive]
Ø It is not possible for the blood groups of AB and O to have
heterozygous form
Ø It is possible for a couple with blood group A & blood group B to have
a child with the blood group O
Blood Genotype
group
A IAIO (heterozygous)
IAIA (homozygous dominant)
B IBIO (heterozygous)
IBIB (homozygous dominant)
AB IAIB (co-dominant)
O IOIO (homozygous recessive)
Discontinuous & Continuous Variations
• Variations: differences in traits b/w individuals of the same species
• Traits of an individual is dependent on the interactions b/w the genes & the
environment
• Genetic variation is heritable, but variations due to the environment are not
• Discontinuous variation: brought about by one/a few genes
• Continuous variation: brought about by the additive effect of many genes
Mutation
• Occurs as a result of error during replication of the gene/chromosome
• Somatic mutations that occur in normal body cells cannot be inherited
• Mutations may be inherited by the next generations if they occur in cells that
give rise to gametes
• Dominant mutations are easily detected unlike recessive mutations, which
may not be detectable for generations
• Chromosome mutation
Ø Change in the structure/number of chromosomes
Ø Causes Down’s syndrome [nondisjunction: chromosomes did not split
properly]
ü Humans normally have 46 chromosomes in their body cells
ü People with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes
ü They have an extra copy of chromosome 21
• Gene mutation: change in the structure of DNA
Ø Produces variation b/w individuals as it results in new alleles of genes
Ø Causes albinism (lack of melanin)
ü Caused by mutation in a recessive allele
ü Absence of melanin results in reddish-white skin, white hair &
pink eyes (red irises that show blood in choroid as it is
transparent)
ü Albinos get sunburn & skin cancer easily as they are very
sensitive to sunlight
Ø Causes sickle-cell anaemia
ü Caused by mutation in gene controlling haemoglobin
production
ü Mutated gene is recessive, hence only expressed in
homozygous recessive condition
ü Sickle-shaped RBC have low oxygen carrying capacity & tend
to clump together
ü Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele are
more resistant to malaria (these individuals are common in
West Africa, where malaria is prevalent)
• Mutation & selection
Ø Can be harmful/beneficial
Ø Natural selection of organisms with more favourable characteristics,
in order for them to survive & reproduce
Ø Mutagenic agents
ü Radiation: UV light, X-ray, alpha & beta radiation, gamma rays
ü Chemicals: mustard gas, formaldehyde, lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD)
ü Greatly increase the rate of mutations
Selection
• Variation may arise due to
Ø Crossing over & independent assortment of chromosomes during
meiosis
Ø Mutation in genetic material
• Mutation provides new alleles to the gene pool for natural selection to act on
• Natural selection
Ø Process that ensures the best adapted organisms in a population survive
to reproduce & pass on their genes to the next generation
Ø Nature selects varieties of organisms that are
ü More resistant to diseases
ü Better adapted to changes in the environment
Ø Evolution: present complex forms of living organisms have arisen
from simpler ancestral forms
Ø Mechanism of evolution
1 Organisms reproduce rapidly as food supply is abundant
2 Organisms migrate to different environments
3 Spontaneous mutation takes place, resulting in variation in the organisms.
Favourable traits will confer a selective advantage and such organisms will
survive, reproduce & pass on their favourable genes to their offspring
4 These organisms become the predominant species in their environment
• Artificial selection: plants & animals with desirable traits can be artificially
selected through selective breeding
Natural Selection Artificial Selection
Results from mutations in gene Results from manipulation by humans
Brought about by changes in Humans select organisms with desired
environmental conditions traits to reproduce
Very slow process Relatively fast process
May be advantageous/harmful to man Advantageous to man
Homeostasis
The Need for Homeostasis
Ensures that internal conditions of an organism are kept constant all the time
Stable environment allows organism to be independent of the changes in the external
environment
Conditions to be kept constant:
o Temperature
Enzymes require optimum temp to function
Enzymes are inactive below optimum temperature
Enzymes are denatured beyond optimum temperature
o pH level
Drastic changes in pH level in blood will affect enzyme activity & rate of cellular
rxns (we will die if pH of blood is changed from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline)
o Water potential
Composition of tissue fluid to be maintained to ensure constant water potential of
cells
Changes in water temp affects body cells
Body cells shrink or burst in solutions with W.P. different from that in cytoplasm
o Concentration of metabolic wastes (urea)
o Blood glucose concentration (liver)
Glucose is required for tissue respiration (release energy for cells to carry out
activities)
Glucose levels increase after meal and decrease after physical exertion
Dangerous if blood glucose concentration changes drastically
o Carbon dioxide concentration
Principles of homeostasis:
o Stimulus: a change from normal conditions in the internal environment
o Receptors: detect stimulus
o Corrective mechanism: brings about reverse effects of this stimulus
o Negative feedback: inform receptors that the condition has been restored to its normal
state
Internal conditions rise above normal
Thermoregulation
Hot Day
Vasodilation
Dilation of blood vessels
One of the major ways in which humans
lose heat
More blood flows to capillaries when
shunt vessels constrict
More heat is from skin via radiation
(via vacuum), convection
(flow/regulation) & conduction (touch)
Sweat evaporates via convection
Fun Fact: Why is your face red when the
weather is hot?
Skin at the face is very thin
Blood vessels there expand when it’s
hot, more blood flows to those blood
vessels
If your face is red but you’re not
sweating on a hot day, you have heat
stroke
Increased Production of Sweat
Sweat glands become more active
More sweat is produced
More latent heat is removed when sweat
evaporates
We would sweat in deserts and lose
water through sweat
Reduced Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate slows down
Less heat is produced within body
Relaxation of Hair Erector Muscles (HEM)
HEM relax when body temperature
increases
Hairs lie flat to prevent the trapping of of
a layer of air as air is a bad conductor of
heat, allowing air to circulate over skin
which results in removal of heat
Cold Day
Vasoconstriction
Constriction of blood vessels
Less blood flows to capillaries when
shunt vessels dilate
Less heat is lost from skin via radiation,
convection & conduction
Decreased Production of Sweat
Sweat glands become less active
Less sweat is produced
Less latent heat is removed when sweat
evaporates
Increased Metabolic Rate
Rate of metabolic activities increase
More heat is produced within body
Eating increases metabolism (produces
more heat)
Contraction of HEM
HEM contract when body temperature
decreases
Hairs “stand up”, trapping an insulating
layer of warm air over skin
Shivering (increases metabolic rate)
Occurs when more heat production is
needed to prevent drop in
temperature
Reflex contraction of body muscles
generates heat which increases body
temperature to normal
Types of glands
Endocrine Exocrine
- Ductless glands that transport their - Ducts present to transport secretion
secretions via bloodstream to target organs
- Ductless: - Ducts
No need to go through a tube Meant for transportation
Diffuse directly into blood
vessels
- Adrenal glands - Sweat glands
- Pituitary gland - Salivary glands
- Pancreas - Pancreas
Endocrine Glands & their Hormonal Secretion
Pituitary Gland - Controls functions of other endocrine glands
(in brain) - Secretes many hormones
Growth hormone (GH)
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Hypothalamus regulates secretion of some pituitary hormones
Thyroid Gland - Stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
(in neck) - Released by pituitary gland
- Secretes thyroxine
Controls metabolism rate
Influence physical development
Exerts both short & long term effects in body
Adrenal Gland - Stimulated by nervous system
(above kidney) - Releases adrenaline
- Adrenaline has wide ranging effects on the body
Pancreas - Has both endocrine & exocrine functions
- Exocrine: secretes pancreatic juice via pancreatic ducts
- Endocrine: Islets of Langerhans (a group of tissues) secrete
insulin and glucagon to control blood glucose levels
Ovaries - Secrete oestrogen and progesterone
- Oestrogen
Controls development of breast & broadening of pelvis
Present in a female all the time
- Progesterone
Helps maintain a healthy pregnancy
Used to test of pregnancy on a pregnancy kit (when you
pee out)
Only present when a female is pregnant
Testes - Secretes testosterone
- Testosterone causes deepening of voice & growth of facial hair
Effects
1 Increases rate & depth of ventilation
2 Causes pupils to dilate (let more light in so that we can see better)
3 Increases rate of blood coagulation (healing is fastened with heightened adrenaline)
4 Constricts arteriole in skin (become more pale as capillaries don’t get much blood)
5 Contracts hair muscles, producing ‘goose pimples’
6 Increases blood glucose level (get us hyper/hyped up) – results in 7
7 Increases metabolic rate
8 Increases blood pressure & rate of heartbeat
Extra Information
Hormones are relatable to enzymes & biomolecules
Dwarfism: thyroid glands do not produce enough growth hormones
Gigantism: happens when growth hormones produced by thyroid gland are not
destroyed
Brain cannot communicate with rest of the body fast enough
Can cause death
When you lapse into a coma due to over-secretion of insulin,
Too much insulin too much glucose converted to glycogen for storage
too little energy present
Brain needs energy, coma ‘conserves power of brain’ to ensure survival of
person with minimal damage
If a person is induced in a long-term coma, very big damage can be done to the
person when he/she is trying to survive
Molecular Genetics
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• A cell contains a nucleus that has chromatin strands, which are made up of proteins &
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• How is DNA organised inside the cells?
➢ A small segment of DNA carries a gene that store information used to make a
single polypeptide. Polypeptides are used to make proteins, proteins are
responsible for determining the characteristics of an organism
➢ Each DNA molecule consists of 2 parallel strands twisted around each other to
form a double helix
➢ A molecule of DNA is wrapped around proteins to form a single chromatin
thread
➢ During cell division, the chromatin threads coil more tightly to form
chromosomes inside the cell nucleus
• Basic Units of DNA
➢ The molecule that carries genetic information
➢ Made up of nucleotides
✓ A deoxyribose (sugar) molecule
✓ A phosphate group
✓ A nitrogen-cotaining base
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
➢ Nucleotides can be joined together to form polynucleotides
➢ DNA is made up of 2 anti-parallel polynucleotide strands (in the opposite
directions)
➢ The bases on one strand with the bases on the other strand according to the
rule of base pairing
• Rule of base pairing
➢ Complementary bases
✓ Adenine bonds with Thymine [ (A) - (T) ]
✓ Guanine bonds with Cytosine [ (G) - (C) ]
➢ 2 anti-parallel strands of the DNA molecule coil to form a double helix
structure
➢ Bases are joined together by hydrogen bonds
Genes
• A segment of DNA
• Nucleotide sequence in the gene determines the polypeptide formed
• Since there are 4 different nucleotides, for a gene made up of n nucleotides, ther are 4n
different combinations of nucleotides
• 3 nucleotides in a gene form a codon, each codon codes for 1 a-a
• The genetic code states which a-a each codon codes for
• What happenes when the nucleotide sequence in a gene is altered?
➢ Gene mutation: change in nucleotide sequence
➢ A mutation my or may not lead to a changer in the protein product
➢ A change in the protein product may or may not lead to an observable
phenotype
✓ Albinism: mutation in gene that causes an absence/defect in the
eenzyme that produces pigment
✓ Sickle-cell anaemia: mutation in gene that causes the protein product to
differ from the normal protein by a single a-a, causing RBC to be
sickle-shaped
• How are proteins made?
➢ Transcription: DNA template transcribed into a mRNA molecule
✓ Occurs in nucleus of cell
✓ DNA codons in the cell are converted into RNA codons
✓ Dna is packed b/w Histones
✓ Genes contain instructions for making proteins
✓ RNA polymerase (protein – enzyme)
Moves along DNA
Make strands of mRNA out of free bases
DNA code determines the oder of attachment to the bases of
mRNA
➢ Translation: mRNA molecule translated into polypeptides
✓ Occurs in cytoplasm of cell
✓ MRNA used as a template for protein productions (needs to be
modified first)
✓ Ribosomes need to bind/attach to RNA
✓ Ribosomes read the code in mRNA to make a chain of a-a (20 different
types)
✓ mRNA is read 3 bases at a time
✓ Every triplet read the tRNA delivers a corresponding a-a (a-a attached
to tRNA depends on the tRNA's anticodon)
✓ The chain of a-a becomes longer as a result and falls into a complex
3D shape once the last a-a is added
DNA (double helix) RNA
Sugar unnit: deoxyribose Sugar unit: ribose
Nitrogen-containing bases: adenine(A), Nitrogen-containing bases: adenine(A),
thymine(T), guanine(G), cytosine(C) uracil(U), guanine(G), cytosine(C)
Ratio of A:T & G:C is 1:1 No fixed ratio b/w A and U & b/w G and C
Large insoluble molecule Small soluble molecule
Permanent molecule in the nucleus Temporary molecule that is made when
needed
Digestion in Humans
• What is digestion?
Ø Physical digestion [rock to stones]
ü Mechanical break-up of food into smaller pieces
ü Increases SA:V of ingested food so digestive enzymes can work on
food more efficiently
ü Mouth: chewing food
ü Peristalsis
ü Stomach: continuous contractions & relaxations of muscle walls lead to
churning actions. This breaks up food particles & mixes them with
digestive enzymes
Ø Chemical digestion [stones to mushy puddle]
ü Breaking down/hydrolysis of large molecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed
ü Involves hydrolytic reactions catalysed by digestive enzymes
• Digestion of food in the main alimentary canal
Organ/part How digestion takes place
Mouth ü Digestion begins with the teeth, tongue & salivary glands
ü Chewing action in teeth breaks down large pieces of food into smaller
pieces (mechanical digestion) à increases SA:V of food, enzymes are
able to act on food efficiently
ü Salivary glands secrete saliva into mouth, which flows into buccal cavity
via salivary ducts
F Saliva contains mucin, which moistens food for easy swallowing
F Saliva contains salivary amylase (enzyme) which digests starch
into maltose (chemical digestion)
ü Tongue helps mix food with saliva and roll it into boli (small round
masses), swallowing it into the oesophagus
Oesophagus ü Peristalsis in the walls & gravity push the bolus into the stomach
Stomach ü When the bolus enters the stomach, it stimulates the release of gastric
juice by the gastric glands
F Gastric juice: dilute solution of HCl (aq), mucus & pepsin
F HCl (aq)
v Denatures salivary amylase
v Converts pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin) to pepsin
v Provides an acidic medium for the action of pepsin
v Kills harmful microorganisms in food
F Pepsin digests proteins to polypeptide
ü Peristalsis in the walls of the stomach mixes the food with gastric juice
ü Food remains in the stomach for 3-4 hours
ü Partly digested food forms chyme
Absorption
• Small intestine (ileum) is the site of absorption of the products of digestion
• How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
Ø Large SA
ü Numerous folds
ü Finger-like projections: villi
1. Each villus is a lacteal/lymphatic capillary
2. Lymphatic capillary is surrounded by other blood capillaries
3. Lymphatic capillaries transport fats
4. Blood capillaries transport sugars & a-a away from the intestines
ü Microvilli found on epithelial cell of villus
ü Greater area of absorption of food substances
Ø Epithelium only one-cell thick: reduces distance for diffusion (shorter time)
Ø Steep concentration gradient: continuous transport of digested food substances
maintains concentration gradient for the absorption of digested food
substances
Ø Long (6m): provides sufficient time for absorption
• Fat metabolism
Leaf Structure
External Features of a Dicotyledonous Leaf
Feature Structure/Adaptation Function
Lamina Large flat SA:V Enables it to obtain max amt
of sunlight (large SA:V)
Short diffusion distance for
gases (very fast, e.g. CO2)
Leaf Organized in regular Minimize blockage of
Arrangement pattern sunlight, each leaf receives
Opp to each other/ in sufficient sunlight
alternate arrangement
Petiole - Holds lamina away from
stem, so lamina can obtain
sufficient sunlight & air
Network of - Carries water & mineral salts
Veins to lamina
Carries manufactured food
from lamina to the other parts
of the plant
Internal Features of a Dicotyledonous Leaf
Feature Structure/Adaptation Function
Upper - Single layer of closely -
Epidermis packed cells
- Covered on outside by
waxy cuticle (transparent)
Palisade - One or two layers of - Large amounts of chloroplast
Mesophyll closely packed, long and present for photosynthesis
(PMC) cylindrical cells (most exposed to sunlight)
Spongy - Irregular in shape - Contain fewer chloroplasts
Mesophyll - Numerous large than PMC thus carry out less
(SMC) intracellular spaces (loose photosynthesis
& open arrangement) - Allows diffusion of CO2
- Covered by thin layer of
moisture
Lowe - Single layer of closely -
Epidermis packed cells covered by
cuticle (reduces water loss
through epidermal cells) on
the outside
Stomata - - allow passage of air into plant
- Cuticle, upper & lower epidermis:
transparent
- Palisade Mesophyll, Spongy
Mesophyll & Guard Cells:
Chloroplasts present
- Xylem + Phloem = Vascular Bundle
*Specific for Dicot Leaves ONLY
Absorption Spectrum
- Shows relative absorbance of different wavelengths of light by a
photosynthesis pigment
Action Spectrum
- Shows relative photosynthetic rates at different wavelengths of light
- Obtained by measuring & plotting the rate of photosynthesis against various
wavelengths of light
- Close similarity with absorption spectrum
Highest rates of photosynthesis when chlorophyll is exposed to blue &
red wavelengths (these wavelengths are absorbed most effectively by
chlorophyll)
- Temperature
- Carbon Dioxide Concentration
Fate of Glucose
- Used immediately
For cellular respiration
From cellulose cell walls
- Stored
Excess glucose formed during daylight is converted into starch and
stored in storage organs
Photosynthesis slows down & stops in darkness; starch is converted back
into glucose by enzymes
- Converted into sucrose
Transported to other parts of plant via phloem
Converted to starch/other forms of storage compound (depends on plant)
Might be converted back to glucose
- Reacts with nitrates/other mineral salts absorbed from soil
Forms a-a in leaves
→ Used to from proteins (synthesis of protoplasm in leaves)
→ Excess a-a transported to other parts of plant for synthesis of
protoplasm/storage as proteins
Forms fats
→ For storage
→ Used in cellular respiration synthesis of new protoplasm
Importance of photosynthesis
- Makes ATP available to other organisms directly or indirectly
- Removes CO2, provides O2
- Energy stored in fossil fuels captured through photosynthesis
E.g. coal, oil, gas
Burning of fossil fuels releases energy stored
- Maintain Ecology
Transfer of energy through various trophic levels
Carbon cycle
Our Impact on the Ecosystem
How do we affect the ecosystem?
• Human beings use natural resources everyday
• The use of natural resources must be controlled and regulated because their
depletion will result in environmental damage that is largely irreversible
➢ Renewable: can be replaced via natural cycles as long as they are not
overused (e.g. air, water, soil, wildlife)
➢ Non-renewable: cannot be replaced once they are used (e.g. fossil fuels,
minerals)
• Deforestation
➢ Clearing of forests to make land available for urban and/or agricultural
development, for wood
➢ Forests are usually cleared at a faster rate than they can be replaced
➢ Effects
✓ Soil erosion
Forests prevent soil erosion by providing a leafy canopy that
protects the topsoil from direct impact of rain & retaining water
in the forest through the absorption of water by plant roots
In deforested areas, the soil is exposed to direct rainfall, and
the water is not absorbed and retained
The topsoil would be easily washed away during heavy rain
✓ Flooding
✓ Desertification
Without the leafy canopy, sunlight falls directly onto the
ground and causes water to evaporate from the ground
This creates a desert-like condition that is not suitable for
plants to grow
✓ Climate changes
Reduced plant life results in less carbon dioxide being
removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It traps heat within the
Earth's atmosphere and results in warmer climates
• Uncontrolled fishing practices
➢ Fish is an important food source for humans
➢ As the human population increases, the demand for fish increases
➢ Uncontrolled and unregulated fishing can result in reduced aquatic
biodiversity
✓ Involves the use of dredges: destroy coral reefs & organisms living on
the seabed
✓ Involves the use of drift nets & trawlers: catch marine life
indiscriminately
✓ Cyanide fishing: kills corals and other reef organisms
➢ Effects
✓ Destruction of marine habitat
✓ Decrease and extinction of certain fish population
• Pollution
➢ Harmful substances are being added to the environment
➢ Warer pollution: contamination of water bodies
➢ Can be caused by:
✓ Discarge of untreated sewage into water bodies
✓ Excessive use of fertilisers and insecticides
✓ Dumping of inorganic waste material into water bodies
• Sewage: waste materials from homes & industries
➢ Untreated sewage may contain disease-causing bacteria and that can result
in epidemics if discarded into water bodies
➢ Epidemic: outbreak of a disease that affects a large population of humans in a
given period of time
✓ e.g. cholera – bacteria found in untreated sewage
➢ Untreated sewage also contains phosphates and nitrates that can lead to
eutrophication
➢ Sewage is not directly used as fertilisers because of the disease-causing
bacteria, it is being processed before used as fertilisers
➢ Sewage causes growth of bacteria
• Chemical fertilisers
➢ Contain nitrates and phosphates, used to increase crop yield
➢ Fertilisers lead to algae bloom
➢ Enclosed water bodies are easier to pollute (e.g. ponds)
➢ Excessive use of fertilisers can lead to eutrophication
✓ Excess fertilisers are washed into a water body
✓ Nutrients in fertilisers increase the growth of algae (floats & blocks
sunlight) and water plants in the water body
✓ Submerged plants die due to the lack of sunlight. Bacteria grow
rapidly and use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose the dead
plants
✓ Other organisms die due to the lack of oxygen
• Inorganic waste
➢ Includes posionous metals (e.g. mercury, arsenic, cadmium) and some types of
pesticides
➢ Poisonous metals that are dumped into rivers or lakes are extremely harmful to
humans (mecury posoning in 1971 in Minamata, Japan)
• Insecticides
➢ Some insecticides are compounds that are non-biodegradable (e.g.
dichlorodiphenyltrichloethane, DDT)
➢ DDT cannot be excreted and it is stored in fatty tissues of organisms that
consume it
➢ This means that DDT can be passed along food chains
➢ The concentration of DDT increases as we move along the trophic level
➢ This results in the bioaccumulation of DDT in top consumers
• Bioaccumulation
➢ Chemicals that are not excreted accumulate in bodies of organisms that
consume them
➢ The chemical are then passed along the food chain and become concentrated
in the bodies of the final consumers
Conservation
• Human activities have depleted natural resources, polluted the environment and
destroyed wildlife
• This threatens the biodiversity on Earth
• Biodiversity: range of species that is present in a particular ecosystem
• Conservation: protection and preservation of natural resources in the environment
• Reasons for conservation
➢ Preservation of natural scenery and wildlife
➢ Scientific value: studies on wildlife give us insight on human beings
➢ Maintenance of a balanced ecosystem
➢ Maintenance of biodiversity
✓ Prevents extinction of animal and plant species
✓ Maintenance of a large pool
➢ Economic importance: rainforests are a source of raw materials for industries
➢ Food source: marine life are a major source of human food
• Conservation measures
➢ Envrionmental biotechnology: use of biological sciences to provide
environmentally friendly solutions in reducing pollution
✓ Used water (i.e. sewage) has to be trated before being removed
✓ The usage of microorganisms in sewage treatment helps to speed up
the water treatment process
➢ Conversation of forests: prevent adverse effects of deforestation
✓ Creation of laws to regulate the logging industry
✓ Reforestation: the planting of new trees/seedlings to replace trees that
have been destroyed
✓ Designation of lands as forests reserves
✓ Research to improve quality of forests and making them more
productive
➢ Conservation of fishing grounds: prevent over-fishing & indiscriminate
catches
✓ Banning the use of drift nets, trawlers & dredges
✓ Using nets with a certain mesh size
✓ Limiting the number of ships allowed in fishing grounds at any one
time
✓ Raising endangered species of fish in hatcheries for release into the
sea
Reproduction in Humans
The Male Reproductive System
• Ovum (egg)
➢ Present in the ovaries of a female at birth
➢ Eggs are released into the oviducts from the time a female reaches puberty
until she reaches 45-55 years of age (menopause)
➢ Large nucleus containing one haploid set of chromosomes
➢ Large amount of cytoplasm which may contain a small amount of yolk
➢ Cell surface membrane that is surrounded by an outer membrane
No fertilisation Fertilisation
- Egg breaks down - Fertilised egg becomes a zygote,
- High concentration of progesterone which develops into an embryo
inhibits LH production. Lowered LH - Embryo embeds itself into the
levels result in the corpus luteum uterine liining
breaking down - Embryo secretes a hormone that
- Preogesterone is no longer secreted prevents the corpus luteum from
- Uterine lining breaks down breaking down
- Uterine lining - Corpus luteum continues to secrete
- is discharges together with blood oestrogen & progesterone until the
through vagina (start of placenta forms & is able to take over
menstruation) the production of bothe hormones
- FSH is produced by pituitary gland
and menstrual cycle repeats
Implantation - Cilia lining in oviduct sweeps the fertislised egg towards the uterus
- As zygote travels towards the oviduct, it undergoes mitosis to from
an embryo
- It takes the embryo 5 days to reach the uterus
- The embryo may float freely in the uterus for 2 days before it gets
implanted into the uterine lining
- Occurs about 7 days after fertilisation
Development - After implantation, villi (finger-like projections) grow from the
of the embryo into the uterine lining
placenta - Embryonic villi & uterine lining make up the placenta
- Umbilical cord attaches embryo to the placenta
Development - Amniotic sac is the membrane that encloses the embryo in the
of amniotic amniotic cavity (fluid-filled space)
sac - Amniotic fluid: fluid in amniotic cavity
- Embryo continues to develop, once all major organs are formed,
foetus forms
➢ Fetal blood capillaries are not connected to the maternal blood capillaries
➢ Fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by the maternal blood spaces
➢ Diffusion of dissolved substances can occur across the maternal blood spaces
➢ The fetal blood system is separated from the maternal blood system
✓ Mother's blood pressure is too high for the foetus
✓ Foetus's and mother's blood type may be different
If both blood systems were allowed to mix, the maternal
antibodies would cause the foetus's blood to agglutinate
➢ Functions of placenta
✓ Allows oxygen & food substances to diffuse from the mother's blood
to the foetus's blood
✓ Allows excretory products to diffuse from the foetus's blood into the
mother's blood
✓ Produces progesterone to maintain the uterine lining
✓ Allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother's blood into the foetus's
blood to protect the foetus against diseases
➢ Functions of umbilical cord
✓ 1 umbilical vein: transports oxygenated blood & food substances
from placenta to foetus
✓ 2 umbilical arteries: transport deoxygenated blood & metabolic waste
products from the foetus to the placenta
➢ Functions of amniotic fluid
✓ Allows foetus to move freely during growth
✓ Lubricates the vagina during birth
✓ Supports & cushions the foetus
✓ Protects the foetus against physical injury by absorbing shock
Sexually Transmitted Infection
• Disease that is spread through sexual intercourse
• Caused by bacteria/viruses
• Can be transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person via
➢ Semen
➢ Fluid in vagina
➢ Blood
• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
➢ Caused by Human Imumunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
➢ HIV destroys the body's immune system
➢ Person infected with AIDS is unable to produc sufficient antibodies to preotct
him or herself from other infections
➢ Infections that are normally mild may become fatal for a person with AIDS
➢ Symptoms:
✓ Sever diarrhoea that lasts fro months
✓ Chronic fever
✓ Widespread tuberculosis
✓ Brain infection
✓ Pneumonia
✓ Kaposi's sacroma (cancer of blood vessels)
➢ Modes of transmission
✓ Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
✓ Passed from mother to foetus during pregnancy
✓ Blood transfusion with blood from an infected person
✓ Sharing of hypodermic needles with an infected person
➢ How to prevent HIV infection
✓ Keep to one sex partner/do not have sex
✓ Use a condom when having sexual intercourse
✓ Do not abuse drugs as drug addicts tend to share needles
✓ Do not share instruments that can break skin & get contaminated with
blood (e.g. razors, toothbrushes)
✓ Make sure that needles used for acupuncture, ear-piercing and/or
tattooing are sterilised
Extra Infromation
- Erectile dysfunction: Viagra is prescribed
➢ Viagra increases heart rate
➢ Heart may overwork & this can lead to death)
- Brain grows first during the development of the baby
- Production/concentrations of oestrogen & progesterone are antagonistic
Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction
o Process of producing new organisms
o Continuation of species
o Organisms can reproduce via asexual & sexual reproduction
o Asexual Reproduction
Genetically identical offspring from one parent, without
fusion of gametes is produced
Cell divides to produce 2 identical daughter cells through
mitosis
Each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell
Daughter cells have the same type & amount of genes as
parent cell
Clones: offspring produced
Disadvantages:
No genetic variation in the offspring. Hence species are
not well adapted to changes in the environment
Advantages:
Only one parent required
Fusion of gametes not required
All beneficial qualities are passed on to the offspring
Faster method of producing offspring as compared to
sexual reproduction
Since organisms are already in suitable habitat, they can
colonise the area rapidly
o Sexual Reproduction
Dissimilar offspring produced after fusion of 2 gametes to
form the zygote
Gametes from when a cell divide to produce 4 daughter cells
through meiosis
Each daughter cell had ½ the no. of chromosomes as the
parent cell
Fertilisation: male & female gametes fuse together
Nuclei of the 2 gametes fuse to form a zygote which have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
Disadvantages:
2 parents are required (except in plants with bisexual
flowers)
Fusion of gametes required
Slower method of producing offspring as compared
with sexual reproduction
Advantages:
Offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both
parents
There is greater genetic variation in the offspring,
leading to species that are better adapted to changes in
the environment
Parts of a flower
Pollination
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma
o Brings the male and female gametes together to enable fertilisation
o Self-pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same
flower/a different flower on the same plant
Flowers are bisexual with anthers & stigmas maturing at the
same time
Stigma is situated directly below anther
Certain flowers in bisexual plants never open (cleistogomas) &
only self-pollination can happen
Advantages
Only 1 parent is required
Beneficial qualities are passed down from parent plant
to offspring
Not dependent on external factors fro pollination
Higher probability of pollination as stigmas are closer
to anthers
Less pollen & energy is wasted
Disadvantages
Less genetic variation in offspring. Species is less well
adapted to changes in the environment
Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed
in offspring is higher
o Cross-pollination
Transfer of pollen grains to the flower of another plant of the
be same species
Dioecious plants bear either male/female flowers, making self-
fertilisation impossible
In bisexual plants, cross-pollination can happen when stigmas
and anthers mature at different times and the stigmas of the
plants are situated a distance away from the anthers
Advantages
Offspring can inherit beneficial qualities from both
parents
More varieties of offspring are produced which leads to
greater genetic variation (increases chance of survival
of how people want to change an environment)
Increase probability of offspring being heterozygous
Seeds produced are capable of surviving longer before
germination
Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed
in offspring is lower as compared with cross-pollination
Disadvantages
2 different plants of the same species are required
Dependent on external factors for pollination
More energy & pollen wasted
Less likely to occur as compared to self-pollination
Differences between insect-pollinated & wind-pollinated
flowers
Feature Insect Wind
Petals Large with brightly-coloured Small, dull-coloured & w/o petals
petals
Nectar Nectar is present Nectar is absent
Scent Fragrant & sweet-smelling Scent is absent in flowers
flowers
Stigmas Small, compact & do not protrude Large, feather & protrude out of
out of flowers flowers
Stamen Not pendulous & do not protrude Long & pendulous filaments with
out of flowers protruding anthers
Pollen Fairly abundant. Pollen grains are More abundant. Pollen grains are
larger with rough surfaces tiny with smooth surfaces
Nectar Nectar guides are present Nectar guides are absent
guides
Fertilisation
1 Pollen grain germinates in response to sugary fluid secreted by mature stigma
after pollination
2 Pollen tube grows out of pollen grain. Growth of pollen tube is controlled by
pollen tube nucleus
3 Cytoplasm & 2 nuclei pass into the pollen tube
4 Pollen tube secretes enzymes to digest the surrounding tissue of stigma & style
5 Pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle (place where gametes meet)
6 Generative nucleus divides into 2 male gametes while the pollen tube nucleus
disintegrates
7 When the pollen tube reaches the ovule, its tip absorbs sap & bursts, releasing
the 2 male gametes
8 One male gamete fuses with the ovum to form a zygote. The other male
gamete fuses with the definitive nucleus to form the endosperm nucleus.
9 Zygote divides & develops into embryo, and the endosperm nucleus will give
rise to an endosperm (food source for the seed)
o After fertilisation,
Ovule develops into a seed
Ovary develops into a fruit
Zygote develops into an embryo
When the seed germinates, the embryo will develop into the
new plant
Clitoria: insect-pollinated flower
Calyx has 5 green sepals
Base of calyx is enclosed by epicalyx consisting of 2 leaves
Corolla has 5 brightly-coloured petals that help to attract insects
Standard petal has lines (nectar guides) that guide insects to where nectar is
located
2 deep blue wing petals are enclosed by standard petal
2 yellowish-green keel petals enclose reproductive organs of flower
Aerobic respiration
Breakdown of food molecules in the presence of oxygen
Results in the production of a large amount of energy & it gives off carbon
dioxide & water as waste products
Chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Occurs in mitochondria of all cells
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): main energy currency used in all living cells
Energy is released when a phosphate bond is broken
ATP is the converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Anaerobic respiration
Breakdown of food molecules in the absence of oxygen
Releases less energy than aerobic respiration
Chemical equation (in humans only): C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + energy
Alcoholic fermentation in yeasts & plants
Glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + small amount of energy
Lactate fermentation in muscle cells of animals
Glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy
What happens during exercise?
Muscles contract vigorously to enable movement
Respiratory rate & heart rate increase to enable more oxygen to reach the
muscles
If the increased oxygen intake is not able to meet the oxygen demand, an
oxygen debt results & anaerobic respiration takes place to provide the
energy required
Anaerobic respiration results in the accumulation in lactic acid in the muscle
cells
Lactic acid accumulation can cause fatigue & muscular pains
During the period of rest
Breathing rate continues to be fast provide sufficient oxygen to repay
oxygen debt
Lactic acid is removed from the muscles & transported to the liver where it is
oxidised to produce energy/converted to glucose glucose will be
transported back to the muscles
Uses of energy
Muscle contraction
Protein synthesis
Cell division
Active transport
Building up of protoplasm for growth
Transmission of nerve impulses
Maintenance of constant body temperature
Studying Respiration
Carbon dioxide is a product of respiration
KOH in flask A removes carbon dioxide from the air entering flask B
Limewater (CaO) in flask B should not turn chalky
The air entering flask C does not contain carbon dioxide. Hence any carbon
dioxide detected in flask D would be due to aerobic respiration by the snails
The glucose solution that is used was first boiled and cooled to remove
dissolved oxygen from the solution
Due to the limited oxygen available to the yeast, the yeast undergoes anaerobic
respiration
If carbon dioxide is released during the anaerobic respiration of the yeast, the
limewater will turn chalky
Heat is a product of respiration
The vacuum flask prevents heat from escaping &
entering the area where the seeds are germinating
The cotton wool plug allows gaseous exchange b/w
the seeds & the environment
The antiseptic solution prevents the growth of
microorganisms like bacteria
If heat is produced during respiration, the
thermometer would register a temperature higher
than the surrounding temperature
Gas exchange in Humans
Why the need for a respiratory system?
Humans are large organisms that are made up of millions of cells
We have a small SA:V, unlike unicellular organisms
Therefore, we need a special system of organs for gaseous exchange b/w the
environment & cells in our bodies
External respiration: mechanism of exchange, involves breathing
Pathway of air through the respiratory system
The jar is sealed tight to create a vacuum, like the chest cavity
When the rubber sheet is pulled downwards, the balloons expand & suck in air
from the difference in pressure
Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Humans
Nicotine
Addictive
Makes blood clot more easily
Increases the risk of heart diseases
Carbon monoxide
Decreases the ability of RBC to transport oxygen
Increases the rate at which fats are deposited on the inner arterial walls
Increases the risk of artherosclerosis
Irritants (e.g. formaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide)
Paralyse the cilia lining in air passages
Increase the risk of chronic bronchitis & emphysema
Tar
Carcinogenic
Paralyses the cilia lining in air passages
Reduces the efficiency of gaseous exchange
Chronic bronchitis
The epithelium lining the airways is inflamed
There is excessive mucus secretion
The cilia lining in the airways are paralysed
Symptoms
Breathing difficulties due to blocked airways
Persistent cough (body’s response to clear the blocked airways)
Emphysema
The partition walls of alveoli break down due to violent coughs reduces SA
available for gaseous exchange
Lungs lose their elasticity & become inflated with air
Symptoms
Breathing difficulties
Wheezing
The Human Eye
A receptor (sensory organ) that receives stimuli from the environment
Highly-specialised structure, responsible for sight
Structure
External Structure
Components Function and/or Structure
Cornea Dome-shaped transparent layer
Refracts light rays into the eyes
Conjunctiva Mucus membrane that covers sclera
Secretes mucus to keep the front of eyeball moist
Pupil A hole in the centre of iris, allowing light to enter the eye
Iris Circular sheet of muscles, consisting of circular and radial
muscles (involuntary muscles)
Contains pigment that gives eye its colour
Eyelid Protects cornea from mechanical damage
Squinting prevents excessive entry of light
Blinking spreads tears over the eyes so that dust can be wiped
off
They close to squish the tear ducts and clean the eye
Eyelash Shields eye from dust particles
Tear gland/duct Secretes tears to:
Wash away dust particles
Keep cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve
Lubricate conjunctiva, reducing friction when eyelids
move
Tears secreted flow at the side of the eye, not the centre
Internal Structure
Components Function and/or Structure
Sclera (sclerotic Outermost layer
coat) Tough, white outer covering of eyeball
Continuous with cornea
Eye muscles attached to the sclera facilitates movement of
eyeball
Choroid Black pigmented middle layer
Prevents internal reflection of light
Contains blood vessels that carry oxygen & nutrients to eyeball
Remove metabolic waste products from eyeball
Retina Innermost layer
Retina delamination (bad conditions of detached layers of tissue)
Contains photoreceptors
Rods (night vision)
Thinner in shape
Stimulated even by very dim light
Enable us to see in dim light, but only in black
and white
Contains visual purple (pigment that contains
Vitamin A)
Visual purple is bleached when exposed to
bright light & impulses cannot be sent to brain
Cones (day vision)
Fatter in shape
Three types: red, blue green (white when
together)
Each type contains different pigment, which
absorbs light of different wavelengths
Work together to enable us to see colours in
bright light
Connected to nerve fibres from optic nerve
Fovea Yellow spot (small depression) where images are focused
Contains cones, but not rods
Enables a person to have a detailed colour vision in bright light
Blind Spot Directly at the optic nerve
Region where optic nerve leaves the eye
Does not contain photoreceptors, therefore not sensitive to light
Optic Nerve Transmits impulses to brain when photoreceptors are stimulated
The only nerve that is directly connected to the brain
Lens Transparent, circular and biconvex structure
Shape or thickness can be changed in order to refract light into
the retina
Cannot be perfectly spherical
Flexible (can be compressed & stretched)
Made up of organic matter (needs oxygen)
When it loses elasticity, the lens cannot repair itself (no longer
flexible, becomes harder)
Suspensory Attaches the edge of the lens to the ciliary body
Ligament
Ciliary Body Changes the shape of lens
Contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature and
thickness of the lens
Ciliary muscles control the iris & lens at the same time
Aqueous Space between lens and cornea
Chamber Filled with aqueous humour, a transparent, watery fluid
Aqueous humour keeps front of eyeball firm and refracts light
into the pupil
Vitreous Space behind the lens
Chamber Filled with vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance
Vitreous humour keeps eyeball firm and refracts light onto the
retina
How Do We See?
Formation of image on retina
1 Light rays are refracted when it passes through the cornea and aqueous
humour
2 Light rays are further refracted when they pass through the lens
3 Image on the retina either stimulates the rods or the cones, depending on the
intensity of light
Nature if image formed:
Vertically inverted
Laterally inverted
Smaller than the object
The role of brain in vision
The brain has a corrective function
The image is upside down within
the retina, but the brain makes it
upright
Fun Facts
The eye is the first thing to decay when you die (easy to decompose)
¾ of the eye sits inside the skull
The eye is very fragile (just one punch can break the eyeball)
The eye accounts for 75% of the information that you know of the world
The human eye’s resolution is about 100m away
Eagle’s eyes have the best resolution
Eagle’s eye are in the same spherical shape as human’s eye
There is a “third eyelid” at the eye – it collects dirt and dried tears
Our irises close around the pupil from all around, but a cat’s irises close around the
pupil sideways
The colour of the iris does not affect our eyesight (no scientific proof)
Blood vessels in the eye expand, but if they are permanently expanded for too long,
you get blood-shot eyes
Capillaries burst and damages the eyeball
Capillaries will show if you’re tired too
Close your eyes to rest them, so that the eyeball does not burst
If the eyeball bursts, it will affect your eyesight
Amount of rods and cones in the retina determine the nature of animals
Nocturnal: more rods than cones
Day: more cones than rods
A dog’s vision is colourless
The can only see black & white
Cats are able to resolve colour
The more coloured the organism is, the more dangerous it is
Colour blindness only occur for certain colours
Person is unable to perceive red, blue or green as one/more of those cones are
missing
Colour deficiency is milder than colour blindness
The eyeball constantly moves to focus all the images at the fovea
The fish’s lens is fixed
Has a wider range, but the images obtained will be blur
If the suspensory ligaments break off, lens will return back to being perfectly round
Squinting squishes your eyeballs: if you squint too much, you will get myopia
Why do people get short-sighted?
Image falls in front of retina
Our eyeball is longer than the normal spherical shape
There is a silver lining/shear for night animals, just in front of the retina
Reflective surface (reflects light)
The Nervous System
Sensitivity
Living things respond to their surroundings
Stimulus: a change in environment that causes a reaction
Response: an organism’s reaction to the stimulus
Sensitivity: ability of an organism to detect & respond to the changes in
environment; one of the characteristics of life
Typical responses to stimuli
Withdrawal of your hand when it is in contact with something hot
Plants need light for photosynthesis, so they grow towards the light
Bacteria move towards food sources
Grabbing a note when you see it drop in front of your face
Role of nervous system in humans
Allow organisms to detect changes in their surroundings & respond to it
Enables coordination of different parts of the body
Involuntary actions:
Automatic activities that are not controlled consciously
Heart beating
Digesting food
Breathing
Voluntary actions:
Activities that are controlled consciously
Throwing a ball
Waking up in the morning
The Human Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain & spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): cranial (brain) nerves & spinal nerves
Nervous tissues
Consists of neurones
Sensory neurones
Motor neurone
Relay/intermediate nerounes
Sensory Neurone Basic Structure
Cell body: contains nucleus & cytoplasm (can be anywhere)
Axon (back)
Dendron (front)
Receptor Dendron Cell Body Axon
Basic Structure of a Motor Neurone
Dendron
Dendron - Very small nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses towards the
cell body
Axon - Nerve fibres that carry impulses away from the cell body
Dendrites - On the Dendron: Receive nerve impulses from other neurones
- On the Axon: Transmit nerve impulses to the effector
Cell body - Irregular in shape
Myelin sheath - Layer of fatty substance: shields & insulates nerve fibre
- Surrounded by neurilemma (thin membrane) – made up of
lipids/fats
- Damaged myelin sheath affects signal transmission
Nodes of - Regions where myelin sheath is absent
Ranvier - Speed up transmission by allowing impulses to jump from node
to node
- The longer the nerve, the more Nodes of Ranvier it has
Motor end - Junction between dendrite and muscle fibre
plate - Triggers muscles to worrk
Relationship b/w the 3 types of nerves
The 3 neurones are not connected
Synapses b/w the neurones
Junction or connection b/w 2 or more
neurones
Impulses are transmitted from an axon
to a dendron across a synapse: Synaptic
Vesicle (in axon) Exocytosis into
Synapse Diffusion across (to
dendron through neurotransmitters)
Endocytosis into dendron Vesicles
formed in dendron
Transmission across a synapse is by
chemical means (through
neurotransmitters)
Allows one signal to be transmitted to
many other neurones
Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone Relay Neurone
Fibre Long dendron Short dendron Short dendron
Short axon Long axon Long axon
Has myelin sheath Has myelin sheath No myelin sheath
Function Transmits nerve Transmits nerve Transmits nerve
impulses from sense impulses from CNS from sensory to
organs to CNS to nerve effectors motor neurone
Nerves
Bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a
sheath of connective tissue
Cranial nerves – from brain
Spinal nerves – from spine
Contains both sensory and
motor nerve fibres (mixed
fibres)
Voluntary Action
Transport Across Membranes
Diffusion (passive process)
- The movement of substances (not only molecules) from the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration, down a concentration
gradient
- For small hydrophobic substances that can pass through directly
- Does not require a protein
- Does not matter whether a membrane is present
- Factors affecting rate of diffusion
Concentration gradient
Temperature
Size of molecule
Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)
Presence of specific carriers
- Stores excess Examples of diffusion
Gas exchange at alveoli
Gas exchange for respiration
Gas exchange for photosynthesis
Facilitated Diffusion (passive process)
- For polar molecules that are unable to diffuse through membrane
- Transported across membrane by specific channel or carrier proteins,
down a concentration gradient
Each carrier has a specific shape that allows only one specific
molecule/group of related molecules to pass through
Channel protein: transports ions/very small molecules through a channel
that can open or close
Carrier protein: transport molecules by changing shape. When molecule
attaches to the binding site of protein, it changes configuration and
release the molecule to the other side of the cell membrane
- No energy required
- Examples of facilitated diffusion
Liver cells – control of concentration of glucose in blood
Stores excess glucose as glycogen when blood sugar levels are high
Breaks down glycogen to glucose during glycogenolysis
Carrier proteins allow for glucose to enter and leave cell, depending on
concentration of glucose
Osmosis (passive process)
- Movement of water molecule from a region of less –ve water potential to a
region of more –ve water potential, through a partially permeable
membrane
- Water potential – a measure of the tendency of water to move g=from one
place to another
- When a partially permeable membrane separates two solutions of different
water potentials , a water potential gradient is established
- Effects of osmosis on plant cells
Less –ve Water Potential Equal –ve Water Potential More –ve Water Potential
(hypotonic solution) (isotonic solution) (hypertonic solution)
- Water enters cell via - No net movement of - Water leaves cell via
osmosis water osmosis
- Cell contents press - Cell volume remains - Cell membrane
against cell wall unchanged shrinks away from
- Cell increases in - Cell is flaccid cell wall
volume, and is turgid - Cell decreases in
volume, cell is
plasmolysed
- Effects of osmosis on animal cells
Less –ve Water Potential Equal –ve Water Potential More –ve Water Potential
(hypotonic solution) (isotonic solution) (hypertonic solution)
- Water enters cell via - No net movement of - Water leaves cell via
osmosis water osmosis
- Cell increases in - Cell volume remains - Cell decreases in
volume unchanged volume
- Cell lyses - Cell crenates
- Examples of osmosis
Absorption of water by root hair cells
Vacuole in root hair cell has more –ve water potential that water in
soil
Water potential gradient established
Water enters root hair cell via osmosis
Vacuole in root hair cell has less –ve water potential that vacuoles of
neighbouring cells
Water moves from cells with less –ve water potential to those with
more –ve water potential via osmosis
Water eventually reaches xylem, to be passed on to other cells
Absorption of water by main alimentary canal
Re-absorption of water by proximal & distal convoluted tubes of
nephron
Active transport (active process)
- A process in which energy is used to move the particle of a substance against
a concentration gradient
- Specific carrier proteins needed
- Examples of active transport
Ion uptake by root hairs
Re-absorption of glucose, amino acids and mineral salts by proximal
convoluted tubule of nephron
Glucose uptake by cells in villi
Food in lumen has a lower concentration of glucose than epithelial
cells in the villi
Glucose enters epithelial cells via active transport against the
concentration
Glucose then enters blood capillaries of villi via facilitated diffusion
Endocytosis (active process)
- Incorporation of extracellular substances through invagination (infolding)
of cell membrane
- Examples of exocytosis
Amoeba – feed on microscopic organism such as single-celled algae and
bacteria
Paramecium
Exocytosis (active process)
- Export of intracellular substances into surroundings through pinching off
the cell membrane to from vesicles
Comparison of Diffusion & Osmosis
Similarities
Both are passive processes
l involved move down a concentration gradient
Differences
Diffusion Osmosis
Random movement of any substance Random movement of water molecules
Does not require partially permeable Requires a partially permeable
membrane membrane
Comparison of Facilitated Diffusion & Active Transport
Similarities
Transport solutes across cell membranes
Involve carrier proteins
Differences
Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport
Solutes move from a region of higher Solutes move from a region of lower
concentration to a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration, down a concentration concentration, against a concentration
gradient gradient
Passive process Active process
Energy (ATP) is not needed Energy (ATP) is required
Turgor
- Pressure resulting from the pushing of swollen cell contents against the cell
wall when external solution has a less –ve water potential than cell sap in
vacuole
- Provides support for non-woody tissues
- Changes shape of guard cells, allows formation of stomatal opening
- Helps in enlargement of cells
Transport in Man
The Need for a Transport System
Unicellular organisms do not need a transport system for exchange or distribution of
materials
No part of the cell is far away from the environment outside
Exchange of materials occurs easily by diffusion
Diffusion is inadequate for transport in multicellular organisms
Larger body, reduced SA:V
Cells are located deeper in the body, further away from external environment
Thus a transport system is required
Function of Blood
Transport medium carrying various substances:
Digested food substances from small intestine to all parts of body
Excretory products from tissues to excretory organs
- Nitrogenous waste products (e.g. urea, uric acid, creatinine) –
removed through kidneys
- CO2 binds to haemoglobin / carried as hydrogencarbonate ions in
blood/ ~5% dissolved in blood
Hormones from glands to parts that need them
Distributes heat from respiring tissues to all parts of body
Oxygen (haemoglobin in RBC)
Plasma
Transport of oxygen to body cells
1 Blood passes through lungs, oxygen
diffuses from the air sacs in the lungs
into the blood
2 Haemoglobin combines with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin
3 Blood transports oxygen to the rest
of the body
4 At the tissue cells, oxyhaemoglobin
releases the oxygen
Acclimatisation
People living at high altitudes have an increased number of RBC
Percentage O2 at high altitudes still 21%
Air pressure 30% lower – O2 molecules further apart; [O2] lower
The increased number of RBC increases the amt of haemoglobin in the
blood
More oxygen can be transported to the body cells per unit time
Protective function
Blood clotting
- Platelets - coagulation (fibrinogen to fibrin, causing clotting)
- Plasma – Transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substance
glucose and amino acids, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins,
plasma proteins
- Blood clots when exposed to air
- This seals the wound, prevents the entry of bacteria & further loss of
blood
- Damaged tissues & platelets release thrombokinase
- Thrombokinase, together with calcium ions, converts prothrombin to
thrombin
- Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of prothrombin
- Thrombin catalyses soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads
which entangle blood cells and form a blood clot
Phagocytosis
- Process of engulfing & ingesting foreign particles e.g. bacteria by
phagocytes (type of WBC)
- Causes inflammation at site of infection/injury
- Pus is formed as a result of dead phagocytes and dead bacteria
Production of antibodies
- Chemical substances produced by lymphocytes that help to destroy
pathogens
- Produced by lymphocytes
- Antibodies bind to bacteria & cause their surface membranes to
rupture
- Bacterial cells clump together in the presence of antibodies for easy
ingestion by pphagocytes
- Toxins produced by bacteria are neutralised by antibodies
- Virus attachment to host cells are blocked when lymphocytes bind to
them
- Lymphocytes recruit phagocytes to engulf foreign particle
Organ Transplant and Tissue Rejection
Involves replacing damaged or diseased tissue/organ with healthy tissue/organ
from a donor or the person himself
Donor & recipient should be as genetically identical as possible (immediate
family/relatives)
Recipient may produce antibodies to destroy the transplant
Ways to reduce a tissue rejection includes a tissue match and the use of
immunosuppressive drugs (inhibits recipient’s immune response)
- Disadvantages of immunosuppressive drugs
Lowers recipient’s resistance against other infections
Recipient must continue to take the drugs for the rest of their
lives
Regulation
Blood regulates pH and electrolyte composition of the interstitial fluids.
Blood regulates body temperature
Structure and Composition of Blood
Components of blood
Erythrocyte - Most dense component of blood
(RBC) - 40% of total blood volume
- Produced in bone marrow, destroyed at spleen
- Limited lifespan of 120 days
- Contains haemoglobin – binds reversibly to O2
- Biconcave (increase SA:V for increased rate of diffusion of gases)
- Elastic (squeeze through capillaries)
- No nucleus (more haemoglobin packed in)
- Most numerous component of blood (~40% of total blood volume)
Leucocyte - Larger than RBC
(WBC) - Produced in bone marrow, destroyed at spleen
- Limited lifespan of a few days even though they have a nucleus
- Colourless as they do not contain haemoglobin
- Irregular in shape and contain a nucleus each
- Mobile – able to move, change shape & squeeze through walls of
capillaries
Types of Agranular WBC:
- Lymphocytes
Large rounded nucleus
Small amount of non-granular cytoplasm
Produce antibodies to fight against pathogens
B-cell:
Produced & mature in bone marrow
secretes antibodies which destroys bacteria and
deactivate toxins
T-cell:
Produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus gland
attack viruses, fungi, transplanted tissues & cancer
cells
T-helper cells: Produce opsonins to activate
phagocytosis/ activate B-lymphocytes
T-cytotoxic cells: Kill host cells invaded by viruses,
stopping virus multiplication
T-suppressor cells: Suppress lymphocyte activity
once infection has been eliminated
- Phagocytes
Lobed nucleus
Granular cytoplasm
Able to ingest foreign particles (phagocytosis)
Types of Granular WBC:
- Neutrophils: first responders to invasion, phagocytic, release
enzymes (chemotaxis)
- Basophils: release substance involved in combating inflammation
and allergies
- Eosinophils: release enzymes that combat inflammation and
parasitic infections
Thrombocyte - Not true cells
(platelet) - Colourless
- ~ 20% of RBC
- Fragments of cytoplasm which are membrane bound
- Important for blood clot
- Disc shape (inactive) Irregular shape (active)
Plasma - Least dense component in blood
- 55% of total blood volume
- 90% water
- Transport these dissolved substances:
Proteins such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies
Mineral salts such as NaCl, CaCl2, Na2SO4 & CaSO4
Food substances such as glucose, a-a & fats
Waste products such as urea, uric acid and creatinine
Hormones
Blood Groups
Plasma contains natural antibodies (a & b) which recognizes & bind to specific
antigens on RBCs
RBCs have antigens (proteins) on their surfaces
What happens when different blood groups are mixed?
Blood transfusion
Blood passes through the heart twice as it moves from the pulmonary circulation
into the systematic circulation
Pulmonary circulation:
Circulation linking lungs to heart
Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated
blood from heart to lungs
Pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood
from lungs back to heart
Systematic circulation:
Circulation of blood around body
Oxygenated blood leaves left side of heart
via aorta; distributed to rest of body by
arteries & arterioles
Deoxygenated blood from body carried by
veins; returns to right side of heart via vena cava
Advantages of having double circulation:
Allows pulmonary circulation to operate at low pressure and systemic
circulation at high pressure
Pulmonary: Blood entering lungs at low pressure – flow of blood
through lungs slows, more time for exchange of gases (O2 & CO2)
Systemic: Blood leaving heart to rest of body at high pressure – faster
distribution of oxygenated blood to tissues (maintains high metabolic
rate)
Structure of heart
Roughly conical shape
Lies between lungs & behind chest-bone
Surrounded by pericardium
2 layers of pericardial membrane
Inner membrane: in contact with heart tissues
Pericardial cavity: filled with fluid (between the 2 membranes - reduces
friction)
4 chambers
Lower: Left & right ventricles
Upper: Left & right atria (s: atrium)
Medium Septum
completely separates right side from left
prevents deoxygenated blood on right from mixing with oxygenated
blood on left – increases amount of O2 carried to tissues
Muscular walls of ventricles thicker than that of atria
Ventricles: force blood out of heart (higher pressure)
Atria: force blood into ventricles (low pressure)
Muscular walls of left ventricle thicker than right ventricle
Left V: pumps blood to rest of body (at high pressure – systematic)
Right V: pumps blood to lungs (low pressure – pulmonary)
Coronary artery:
Left & right – 2 small arteries that emerge
from aortic arch
Bring O2 & nutrients to heart
Valves:
Prevents backflow of blood; ensures one
way flow of blood from atrium ventricle
- Right side: tricuspid valves (3 cup-shaped flaps)
- Left side: bicuspid/mitral valves (2 cup-shaped flaps)
Prevents backflow of blood; ensures one way flow of blood from
ventricle to aortic/pulmonary arch
- Semi-lunar valves
Chordae Tendineae:
Cord-like tendons attaching valves to
ventricular wall
Prevents valves from inverting under
pressure
Cardiac muscle: specialized tissue; able to
contract & relax in a rhythmic fashion over a long period of time without
fatigue
Pathway of Blood through Heart
1 - Deoxygenated blood from body returns
to right atrium via vena cava:
From head, neck, arms – by
anterior (superior) vena cava
From other parts – by posterior
(inferior) vena cava
Preventive measures
A healthy diet
With reduced intake of animal fats which can be replaced with
polyunsaturated plant fats
Rich in fruits and vegetables
Manage stress in an appropriate way
Avoid smoking
Nicotine increases B.P and risk of blood clotting
CO increases risk of fatty deposits in arteries
Exercise regularly
Strengthens heart
Maintains elasticity of arterial walls
Reduces risk of high blood pressure
Treatment
Balloon angioplasty
Mechanical widening of narrowed/obstructed blood vessel
An empty and collapsed balloon on a guide wire (balloon catheter) is
passed into the narrowed locations
Balloon inflated to a fixed size using water pressure.
Balloon crushes the fatty deposits - opens up the blood vessel
Balloon is collapsed and withdrawn.
[Use of stents to prevent post-operation closure of blood vessel]
Coronary bypass
Arteries or veins from elsewhere in the patient's body are grafted to the
coronary arteries to bypass the narrowed blood vessel(s)
Improves blood supply to the heart
Extra Information & Fun Facts
Haemoglobin • Why do you need Haemoglobin? Why not simply carry oxygen in your
plasma?
- Solubility of O2 is low, ~1.5%
- - Hb combines with and releases oxygen readily, thus
increasing oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
• High affinity for oxygen – forms oxyhaemoglobin
• Affinity for oxygen increases as [oxygen] increases
• [Oxygen] measured by partial pressure
• Oxygen-dissociation curve
Oxygen- • Sigmoidal curve
dissociation • conformation of Hb depends on the
curve for no. of O2 bound
normal Hb - Hb affinity for O2
increases as more O2 binds
- up to 4 O2 molecules
• curve levels out as Hb becomes
saturated
• up to ~98.5% O2 bound.
• Binding of CO2 to Hb facilitates O2
release
Hb & • Myoglobin:
myoglobin - 1 haem
oxygen- - In muscle
dissociation - Stores O2
curve - Higher affinity for oxygen than
Hb
Phloem
Function
- Transports sucrose & a-a manufactured during photosynthesis to
other parts of the plant for growth/storage
Structure
- Sieve tubes cells: elongated cells that lack nuclei, central vacuole
ribosomes & Golgi Apparatus (degenerate protoplasm) and have a
thin layers of cytoplasm
- Sieve tube elements: sieve tube cells that are joint end to end to form a
column with sieve plates in between
- Sieve plates: cross-walls with many small sieve pores
- Companion cells: narrow, thin-walled cells with cytoplasm, nucleus
& numerous mitochondria; provides nutrients & aids sieve tube cells
in transporting sucrose & a-a
Adaptations for function
- Pores within sieve plates allow rapid flow of sucrose & a-a
(manufactured food substances)
- Arrangement of sieve tube
elements in a continuous
column & little protoplasm
present in sieve tube elements
help to reduce the resistance to
the flow of substances within
phloem
- Companion cells have
numerous mitochondria that
produces energy for them to
load sugars from mesophyll
cells into the phloem sieve tubes
via active transport
- Every phloem sieve tube cell
has an associated companion
cell to ensure its survival
Vascular Bundle
Root
Endodermis
- Helps filter out water
- Acts like a wall: prevent unwanted substances from entering
Casparian strip
- Waterproof
- Creates “wall”/blocking
- Forces water & other substances to go through cell membrane & cytoplasm
- Blocks unwanted substances from passing through the cell wall into
apoplast pathway
Movement of Substances
Translocation (pathway of manufactured food)
Transport of manufactured food substances such as sucrose & a-a in plants
(bi-directional)
Active transport of sucrose into sieve tube at source Osmosis generates
hydrostatic pressure due to inward movement of water into phloem
Experiments to test characteristics
- Aphids
Anaesthetise the aphid with CO2 while it is feeding on a stem
Cut off its body such that its proboscis remains in the plant
tissue
Analyse the liquid that exudes from cut end of proboscis
Section the portion of the stem that contains the proboscis and
examine it under a microscope
Liquids exuded contains sucrose & a-a
Show that sucrose & a-a are translocated in phloem
Supports idea that sucrose & a-a move from source to sink
(hydrostatic pressure)
Anaesthetising aphid: To enable the body of the aphid to be cut
off while the aphid is feeding. This ensures that the proboscis
remains in the phloem sieve tube
Sectioning stem at where proboscis is: determine which tissue
proboscis was inserted into
- Ringing
Phloem removed, xylem intact
Tissue above ring swells, tissue below ring wilts
Solute accumulated above ring contains sugars & a-a
The removal of phloem prevents the translocation of sugars
to the region below the ring. The accumulation of sugars in the
region just above the ring lowers W.P. of the cells in that
region. Water enters the region and this results in swelling.
Water transport not affected
- Radioisotopes
Supply radioactive carbon (14C) to an intact leaf enclosed in a
sealed chamber
Allow photosynthesis to take place
Cut a section of the stem and expose it onto an X-ray
photographic film
Manufactured carbohydrates contain 14C
Only phloem shows radioactivity
Pathway of water
Allow a young plant to stand in a dilute red ink solution
After a few hours, cut a transverse section of the stem and a transverse
section of a portion of the root that was not immersed in ink
Xylem is the tissue stained with the dilute red ink solution
Entry of Water into Plant
1 Root hairs grow between the soil particles. They are in close contact with the
surrounding soil particles
2 Each soil particle has a thin film of liquid surrounding it. The soil solution is a dilute
solution of mineral salts
3 The sap in the root hair cell is more concentrated due to the presence of sugars and
mineral salts; it has a lower W.P. than the soil solution. Hence, water enters the root
hair by osmosis
4 The entry of water dilutes the root hair’s cell sap. The sap of the root hair cell now has
a higher W.P. than that of the next cell (cell B). Hence, water passes by osmosis from
the root hair cell into the inner cell.
5 Similarly, water passes from cell B into the next cell (cell C). This process continues
until the water enters the xylem vessels.
Apoplast pathway
Water & other substances enter & pass through cell walls
Once water reaches Casparian strip, it is forced through the cell membrane
of endodermis cell enters symplast pathway
Symplast pathway
Through interconnecting cytoplasm
Fastest way of water entering the plant
W.P. more –ve nearer the xylem (high concentration of mineral salts in root
hair cells), thus water moves inwards from endodermis to xylem
Transcellular/vacuolar pathway
Through cell & vacuolar membranes (via osmosis)
Slowest way as water needs to go through a lot of membranes
Water form root hair cells must enter cells with Casparian strip to reach xylem
Prevent water loss by passive transport into/out of the xylem
- Regulates flow of water & mineral salts into xylem
Blocks water from entering readily into xylem, thus a slow process
More water enters xylem via symplast pathway
Root
Xylem & phloem not bundled together
Root cortex serves as a storage organ
Epidermis/piliferous layer bears root hairs
Adaptations of root hair cell for its functions
- Root hair cells have large SA:V increases rate of absorption
- Presence of cell membrane prevents leakage of cell sap and allows
water to enter the cell by osmosis down the W.P. gradient
Absorption of water via root hair cell
- More –ve W.P. in root hair cell as compared to soil
- Partially permeable cell surface membrane
- W.P. gradient establishes need for osmosis
Absorption of mineral salts via root hair cell
- Diffusion: When the concentration of ions is higher in soil solution
than in root hair cell, ions diffuse into the root hair cell
-Active transport: When the concentration
of ions is higher in root hair cell than
soil solution, ions are taken into the cell
with the use of energy.
Cork cambium
- Responsible for secondary growth that
replaces epidermis in roots
- Produces cork – tough protective material
Wilting