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Topic
1 Biological Molecules (Enzymes)
2 Biological Molecules (Nutrition)
3 Cell Division
4 Cell Structure & Organisation
5 Ecology
6 Excretion
7 Heredity
8 Homeostasis
9 Hormones
10 Molecular Genetics
11 Nutrition in Human
12 Nutrition in Plants
13 Our Impact on the Ecosystem
14 Reproduction in Humans
15 Reproduction in Plants
16 Respiration in Humans
17 The Human Eye
18 The Nervous System
19 Transport Across Membranes
20 Transport in Man
21 Transport in Plants
a-a Amino acid
Amt Amount
b/w Between
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
EA Activation energy
Fa Fatty acids
+
H Hydrogen ions
KE Kinetic energy
mRNA Messanger RNA
RBC Red blood cells
RNA Ribonucleic acid
rxn Reaction
Temp Temperature
tRNA Transfer RNA
SA:V Surface Area to Volume Ratio
SA Surface area
+ve(ly) Positive(ly)
-ve(ly) Negative(ly)
Biological Molecules (Enzymes)
 Catalysts: Substances that can alter/speed up a chemical reaction w/o itself
being chemically changed at the end of the reaction
 Activation energy (EA)
- All chemical reactions involve breaking & forming of bonds
- Energy is required to break existing bonds in order to form new ones
- Transition state: unstable state reached when existing bonds are strained
- EA is the energy required to bring reactant molecules to their transition state
- New bonds form after existing bonds break
Overall change in energy is –ve:
energy content of products lower
than that of reactants

Overall energy change might be


+ve sometimes (opp of everything
in –ve)

- Enzymes
 Biological catalysts that are mostly protein-based
 Speed up rate of rxns by lowering EA, w/o being chemically changed at
the end of the rxn
 Required in minute amounts during rxns
→ Efficient molecules – same enzyme can catalyse rnx many times
→ No. of substrate molecules that one enzyme can react on in a given
span of time is the turnover number
 Specific in action
→ Each chemical rxn in a cell is catalysed by a unique enzyme
→ Most enzymes can only catalyse one specific rxn due to the specific
3D shape of its active site
 Enzyme-substrate complex: temporary structure formed when enzyme
and substrates bind

[Lock-and-Key Hypothesis]
[Induced Fit Hypothesis]
 Active site of enzyme: part where enzyme comes into contact with
substrate
 Amino acid chain folded into complex 3D shapes
 Catalytic amino acids may be far from each other along the chain, but
brought together after folding to form the active site
 High temperatures denature proteins (proteins loses its 3D structure
and active site changes shape – substrate can no longer bind to it)
Anabolic Reaction Catabolic Reaction
 Reactions that build up complex  Reactions that break down complex
substances substances
A-A  Polypeptides  Proteins 2H2O2  O2 + 2H2O

- Factors affecting Enzyme Activity


 pH

1. Measure of H+ concentration
2. H-bonds of 3D shape of enzymes may break
depending on H+ concentration
3. Each enzyme functions at its optimum pH
4. Changes in pH  enzymes denature, enzyme
activity decrease, eventually stop

 temperature
→ each enzyme has its optimum temp where it’s most active
→ low temps: enzymes are inactive (K.E. of both enzyme & substrates
are low low chances of effective collision between enzyme &
substrate)
→ high temps: enzymes may denature at ~60ºC (K.E of enzyme is
high bonds that maintain shape of enzyme break)
→ Increasing temp from low to optimum: increase in enzyme activity
– K.E of both enzyme & substrate increases  chances of effective
collision b/w enzyme & substrate increases
A: enzyme less active at low temp
B: enzyme activity increases with increasing temp (on average,
rate doubles with every 10ºC rise)
C: Optimum temp – enzyme is most active; rate of rxn at its
peak (~40ºC for most enzymes)
D: Enzymes start denaturing at temps above optimum temp;
activity decreases rapidly
E: Enzyme completely denatures; unable to catalyse any rxns

 Enzyme Concentration
→ Low concentration of enzyme can catalyse a large amt of substrate
→ Limiting factor: amt of substrates available (addition of more
enzyme would not increase rate of rxn if substrate concentration is
low as there is not enough substrates to fill up active sites)
→ If all conditions are optimum, & excess substrates are available, rate
of rxn is directly proportional to concentration of enzymes

 Substrate Concentration
→ Rate of rxn increase with increasing substrate concentration, up to a
certain point
→ Limiting factor: amt of enzymes available (addition of more
substrates will not increase rate of rxn is enzyme concentration is
low as all available active sites are filled)
 Class of enzymes
Class of Enzymes Eg of Enzymes Substrates Products
Carbohydrases Amylase Starch Maltose
(digest Maltase Maltose Glucose + Glucose
carbohydrates) Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactase Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Proteases Pepsin Proteins Shorter Polypeptides
Trypsin Polypeptides Amino Acids
Erepsin Polypeptides Amino Acids
Lipase - Fats Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids
Biological Molecules (Nutrition)
 7 classes of nutrients
- Carbohydrates
- Fats Complex substances (need to be digested)
- Proteins
- Dietary Fibre: a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by us. Helps to
bulk up faces & in egestion
- Vitamins No need to be digested (can be absorbed as
- Water they are small enough)
- Minerals (Fe2+,K+, Ca2+, Zn2+)
 Water
- Functions
 Solvent for chemical reactants
 Key component of tissues
 Controls body temperature: evaporation of water in sweat removes latent
heat
 Transports dissolved substances to/for/from: digested products (small
intestine to other parts), removal of waste products from cells,
photosynthesis, maintaining cell turgidity, mineral salts, food substances
 Carbohydrates
- Organic molecules
- Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (H:O is always 2:1)
- Functions
 Substrate for respiration (provides energy for cell activities)
 Forms supporting structure
 Converted to other organic compounds (e.g. a-a, fats)
 Formation of nucleic acids
 Synthesize lubricants (e.g. mucus)
 Synthesize nectar
- General formula: CnH2mOm

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides


(Simple Sugars) (Double Sugars) (Complex Sugars)

• Glucose (G) • Maltose (G + G) • Starch (plant)


• Fructose (F) • Sucrose (G + F) • Cellulose (plant)
• Galactose (Ga) • Lactose (G + Ga) • Glycogen (animal)
• Chemical Formula: • Chemical Formula: • No definite formula
C6H12O6 C12H22O11

- Isomers: molecules same chemical formula but have different atom


arrangements (monosaccharides, disaccharides)
- Glycosidic bond is present between two sugars
- Monosaccharide: Glucose

- Disaccharides
 Union of 2 monosaccharides (condensation reaction: loss of one water
molecule) – glycosidic bond formed (H-O-H)
 Splitting of disaccharides (hydrolysis: addition of one water molecule) –
forms its initial monosaccharides
- Reducing sugars: all monosaccharides and disaccharides, except sucrose
- Benedict’s Test for reducing sugars
 Blue precipitate (ppt): no reducing sugar (sucrose)
 Green ppt: traces of reducing sugar
 Yellow/orange ppt: moderate amounts of reducing sugar
 Brick-red ppt: large amounts of reducing sugar
- Polysaccharides
 Many monosaccharides joined together, formed by many condensation
reactions
 Cellulose: made up of ~10 000 glucose molecules, sheet-like structure
with long, unbranched glucose chains

 Starch: made up of thousands of glucose molecules, storage form of


glucose in plants, helical structure, identified using iodine solution
(turns blue-black), mixture of 2 polysaccharides
 Amylose: unbranched polysaccharide, 20-20 000 glucose units
 Amylopectin: branched polysaccharide, short side chains of up to 30
glucose units
 Glycogen: made of thousands of glucose molecules, highly branched
polysaccharide (10-20 glucose in each branch), storage form of glucose
in animals (mainly stored in liver and muscles), helical structure

 Glycogen & starch suitable as storage form of glucose because:


 Insoluble in water – will not affect water potential of cells
 Large molecules – cannot diffuse though cell membrane, thus kept
safely
 Easily hydrolysed to glucose
 Helical shaped molecules – compact & occupy less space than
thousands of individual glucose molecules
 Fats
- Organic molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (H:O < in carbs)
- No general formula
- Found in both plants and animals
- Function
 Storage of energy
 Insulation – prevents excessive heat loss
 Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins & other molecules (e.g. hormones)
 Essential part of cell membrane
 Reduces water loss from surface of skin (oil secreted by glands in skin)
 Protection of organs (absorbs impact)
 Buoyancy – less dense than water (e.g. whales, seals)
- Triglycerides: glycerol + 3 fatty acids
 Condensation: loss of 3 water molecules (ester bond formed)
 Hydrolysis: addition of 3 water molecules
- Phospholipids: glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate grp (H3PO4)
 Fatty acids: hydrophobic; Phosphate grp + glycerol: hydrophilic

- Cholesterol: 4 rings of carbon, hydrophobic molecule


 Functions:
1. Limits uncontrolled leakage of small molecule
2. Restricts movement of phospholipids in membrane
3. Used by liver to make bile salt & steroid hormones
- Saturated, Unsaturated, Trans Fats
Saturated Unsaturated
FA Chain: Straight FA Chain: bent/kinked (many kinks:
polyunsaturated)
Solid at r.t.p. (e.g. butter) Liquid at r.t.p. (e.g. olive oil)

 Unsaturated fats may be converted to trans fats under very high heat
 Trans fats are geometric isomers of unsaturated fats

 Trans fats may deposit along blood vessels  block flow of blood 
heart attacks
- Emulsion Test for fats: addition of ethanol  white cloudy emulsion formed
in presence of lipids, solution remains clear in absence of lipids
 Proteins
- Organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
(sometimes present)
- Basic units: amino acids (a-a, consists of amino grp, acid grp, side chain)
 Over 100 types of which 20 are most commonly found, all of them are
different
 Polypeptide formation
 Condensation: loss of water (peptide bond formed)
 Hydrolysis: addition of water
 Basic structure of a-a

- Functions
 Synthesis of new protoplasm, growth & repair of worn out cells
 Synthesis of enzymes
 Synthesis of some hormones
 Formation on antibodies
- Protein deficiency  kwashiorkor  stomach swell, skin crack
- Polypeptides
 formed by condensation of a-a
 form proteins by joining many polypeptides to form a long chain of a-a;
chains fold into complex, 3D shapes – impt for function of protein
 3D shapes formed via 4 types of bonds
→ Disulphide bond
→ Hydrogen bond
→ Ionic bond
→ Hydrophobic interations

- Biuret Test for Proteins


 Biuret Solution – blue (NaOH + CuSO4)
 Turns violet in presence of proteins
Cell Division
What is growth?
 Occurs in all living things
 Usually results in a permanent increase in size of the organism
 Accompanied by cell division (mitosis & meiosis) & differentiation (specialization)
to form tissues & organs
 Growth in plants & animals
Plant Animal
Growth is restricted to growing points (tips Growth occurs throughout body (hair, skin –
of shoots & roots – upwards & downwards) keeps renewing itself)
Growth occurs throughout life of the plant Growth stops after a certain age (when
(can grow forever until they die – immortal) animal reaches maturity)

Mitosis
 Type of nuclear division (nucleus divides)
 Results in production of 2 daughter nuclei, genetically identical (same set of genes) to
the parent
 Daughter nuclei have the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus

Starts with only


4: 2 long 2 short, Doubled: splits along
2 red, 2 green longitudinal sections

interphase

 The cell cycle


 Sequence of events from the time a cell is formed until its division into 2
daughter cells
 3 stages
- Interphase (resting stage – not part of mitosis)
- Mitosis (nuclear division)
- Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm – not part of mitosis)
Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase Interphase: 90% of


time, always occur
Telophase BEFORE mitosis &
meiosis.
Mitosis + Cytokinesis:
10% of time

 Interphase
 Non-dividing stage (no cell division), also ‘resting’ stage
 During this stage, the cells are being prepared for mitosis
- Absorb nutrients
- Build up protoplasm
- Synthesise new organelles
- Replicate DNA
 Chromosomes appear as chromatin (initial stage of long
thin threads)
 Just before the cell goes into mitosis,
- Chromatin threads replicate (DNA replication)
- Centrioles replicate & divide
 DNA replication
- Chromatin thread replicate to produce 2 identical chromatin threads
- Chromatin threads coil & shorten to form chromosomes
- Each chromosomes has sister chromatids, which are 2 genetically
identical DNA molecules (DNA helix)
- Sister chromatids are joint at the centromere (point of attachment b/w
sister chromatids)
- 1 chromatid is 1 DNA molecule (but not all DNA molecules are
chromatids)
 Control of DNA replication
- Ensure that all daughter cells are genetically stable (genetically
identical)
- If an error occurs during replication, the new DNA strand formed
would be different from the original – gene mutation, passed on to the
daughter cell
- Some forms of gene mutation may lead to cancer (uncontrolled
mitosis)
Occurs in prophase,
Interphase not interphase

 Stages of mitosis
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Prophase
 Early prophase (in nuclear envelope)
- Asters (develop into spindle fibres) from around centrioles
- 2 pairs of centrioles move apart to opp. poles of the cell
- Nucleolus disappears
- Chromatins condense, coil & shorten to become chromosomes
- Each chromosomes contains 2 sister chromatids attached at the
centromere after DNA replication
- Chromosomes appear as X-shaped structures under the microscope
 Late prophase
- Nuclear envelopes disappears
- A spindle forms the spindle fibres (facilitate in anaphase) extending
from one pole of the cell to the other
 Metaphase
 Chromosomes line up singly along equator
(imaginary line – centre of cell) of the spindle
 Centromere of each chromosome is attached to a
spindle fibre
 Each spindle fibre must be attached to a centromere
 Spindle fibres elongate the cell
 Anaphase (chromosomes move away)
 Each centromere divides to allow the sister
chromatids to separate
 The spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids apart
to opp. poles of the cell
 Spindle fibres shorten/contract, pulling the
chromosomes to the end poles
 Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
become daughter chromosomes
 Telophase
 Spindle fibres disintegrate
 Nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
chromosomes
 A nucleolus forms around each nucleus
 Chromosomes uncoil (decondense) & lengthen
into chromatin (thread-like structures)
 Cytokinesis (immediately after telophase)
 Division of cytoplasm
 Not under mitosis
 In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms (2 at the
same time), deepen and eventually split the cell into
2
 Mitosis in plants & animals
Plants Animals
- Centrioles are absent - Centrioles are present
- Cleavage of cytoplasm does not - Cleavage of cytoplasm occurs during
occur in cytokinesis cytokinesis (formation of cleavage
- Cell plate forms b/w 2 daughter furrows)
nuclei by fusion of fluid-filled
vesicles (contains cellulose)

 Importance of mitosis
 Growth of an organism (increase in no. of cells in body through mitosis)
 Repair of worn-out parts of tissue, wound healing and replacement of dead
cells via regeneration of new cells
 Asexual reproduction in plants such as development of shoots and roots in
storage organs (i.e. rhizomes & bulbs)
 For genetic stability
Meiosis
 Results in the production of 4 non-genetically identical daughter nuclei
 Each daughter nuclei contains half the no. of chromosomes as the parent cells

 Interphase
 Chromatin threads replicate to produce 2 identical
sister chromatids
 Centrioles divide
 Prophase I (as a whole – no early/late prophase)
 Chromatin threads condense, coil & shorten into
visible chromosomes
 Synapsis (only in MEIOSIS) occurs & homologous chromosomes pair up
 Each pair is called a bivalent
 Homologous chromosomes have the same shape, same genes, same
centromere position and same length
 One member pair is inherited from each parent
 Crossing over (only in MEIOSIS) b/w chromatids of homologous
chromosome may occur
 The point where they cross over is a chiasma
 Results in new combination (genetic variation) of genes along the
chromosomes
 Centrioles reach opp. poles of the cell
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrates
 Spindle fibres form

 Metaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves along
the equator in PAIRS
 One of each pair faces the opp. poles
 Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes separate when spindle
fibres shorten
 One of each pair of the homologous chromosomes is
pulled to the opp. poles of the cell
 Centromere of chromosomes does not divide as the
chromosomes are already aligned in pairs
 Telophase I
 Spindle fibres disintegrate
 Nuclear envelope reforms (animal cells only)
 Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
 Nucleus reforms
 NO CLEAVAGE FURROW
 Most plant cells do not undergo Telophase I and
move straight to Metaphase II
 Cytokinesis I
 Centrioles replicate so that each daughter
cell has one centriole
 Cytoplasm cleaves to produce 2 daughter
cells (furrow forms)
 The cells are now haploid
 The next stage would be Prophase II, as there
is no more interphase after this stage
 Prophase II
 Centrioles move to the opp. poles of the cell
 Nuclear envelope breaks down
 Spindle fibres appear
 Nucleolus disintegrates
 Metaphase II
 Chromosomes/chromatids line up singly (same
as Metaphase) along the equator
 Different arrangement from Metaphase I, where
homologous chromosomes lie next to each other
 Equator at Met I is perpendicular as compared to
equator at Met II
 Crossing over may occur
 Anaphase II
 Centromeres divide because they are aligned
singly and chromatids (non-genetically identical)
are separated
 Daughter chromosomes are then pulled to the opp.
poles of the cell
 Telophase II
 Spindle fibres disintegrates and nuclear envelope
reforms
 Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
 Nucleolus reforms
 Cytokinesis II
 Cells divide, forming four daughter cells, each with
a haploid number of chromosomes
 Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction
 Produce haploid (n) gametes, which fuse together during fertilization to
produce diploid (2n) cells [an end product  zygote]
- Ensures that the no. of chromosomes in an organism is maintained
through the successive generations
- Allows for no. of chromosomes are stable
 Meiosis gives rise to genetic variation due to:
- Crossing over b/w homologous chromosomes at Prophase I
- Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes (randomly
arranged along the equator) at Metaphase I
 Since fertilization is random, such variations in gametes produce variations in
the offspring
 Variations increase the chances of survival of the species during changes in
the environment

 How do genetic variations arise from meiosis?

Independent assortment of homologous


pairs of chromosomes at the equator at
Metaphase I
Leads to
Random separation of homologous
chromosomes at Anaphase I
Produces
Different combinations of genetic
materials in gametes

 Why are gametes (n) produced?


 In fertilization, when the
nucleus of the male
gamete fuses with the
nucleus of the female
gamete to form a zygote,
a diploid no. of
chromosomes is
maintained in the zygote
 This is because of
meiosis & why meiosis
happens
 1 human cell has 23 pairs
which equals to 46
chromosomes
Difference b/w MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
Comparison Mitosis Meiosis
Where Occurs in all cells Occurs in only reproductive organs
Function Growth of organism & repair of Produces gametes for sexual
tissue reproduction
No. of nuclear Involves 1 nuclear division to Involves 2 nuclear division to
division produce 2 diploid daughter cells produce 4 haploid daughter cells
Daughter cells Daughter cells have the same no. Daughter cells (gametes – n) have
of chromosomes as parent cells half the no. of chromosomes as
(genetically identical) parent cell (2n)
Genetic Daughter cells are genetically Genetic variation occurs in
variation? identical to parent cell and each daughter cells (crossing over &
other independent assortment)
Synapsis? Synapsis does not occur Homologous chromosomes pair up
at Prophase I
Crossing over? No crossing over Crossing over may occur
Cell Structure and Organization
• Prokaryotes: Unicellular, 2 Domains: Bacteria & Archea (commonly found in harsh
environments)
• Eukaryotes: Unicellular or Multicellular, 4 Domains: Protist (microorganisms from kingdom
Protista), Fungi, Animals & Plants
• Common features:
1. Plasma membrane
2. DNA as genetic material
3. RNA
4. Cytoplasm
5. Ribosomes
6. Need for energy
7. Both are made up of same basic molecules (proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids,
minerals, vitamins)
• Cells are made up of protoplasm that consists of:
1. Cytoplasm
2. Cell Membrane
3. Nucleus
• Nucleus
- Controls cell activities (growth & repair of worn out cells)
- Contains genetic material; is essential for cell division (cannot take place w/o nucleus)
- Nuclear Membrane
-
Structure Function
1. Double Membrane 1. Encloses DNA to prevent it from being
 Inner Membrane: nuclear lamina under degraded by enzymes in the cytoplasm
membrane forms fibrous networks to 2. To allow for movement of large
support nucleus macromolecules (messenger & ribosomal
 Outer Membrane: continuous with rER, RNA) out of nucleus
has ribosomes attached creates
perinuclear space that connects directly
to lumen of rER
2. Perforated with nuclear pores
- Neucloplasm
• Aqueous matrix surrounding nucleolus and chromatin
• Contains proteins, metabolites, ions, chromatin
 Nucleolus
Structure Function
1. Small, round, dense mass of protoplasm at Responsible for synthesis or various subunits
centre of nucleus of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which are then
2. Comprises of DNA, RNA, proteins assembled to form ribosomes

• Organelles
Organelle Structure Function
Rough Consists of a network of sheet-like - Produces proteins that are
Endoplasm membrane sacs (cisternae) studded exported/targeted to various
Reticulum with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic cellular organelles. Secretory
(rER) face of the membrane hence proteins leave the rER in transport
appearing ‘rough’ under EM vesicles
- Hollow tubes allow for packaging
of contents into vesicles for
transport into Golgi Apparatus
Smooth Consists of a network of membranous - Synthesis of lipids (including oils,
Endoplasmic tubules (cisternae) that appear phospholipids, steroids like sex
Reticulum ‘smooth’ due to the lack of hormones)
(sER) ribosomes
- Detoxification of drugs and poison
- Metabolism of carbohydrates
- Storage of calcium ions for use in
muscle contraction (for
sarcoplasmic reticulum, special
type of sER)
- Hollow tubes allow for packaging
of contents into vesicles for
transport into Golgi Apparatus
Golgi - Consists of a stack of flattened, - Increased surface area for vesicle
Apparatus membrane-bound sacs reception & budding
(Wi-Fi) (cisternae), with each stack having - Stores and modifies substances
different thickness & molecular made by the ER progressively as
composition they move from cis to trans face
- Distinct polarity: - Modifications include glycosylation
 Cis face (facing nucleus): where (adding of sugar groups), trimming
new cisternae are constantly (of excess monomers)
being formed as it receives - Packages these substance in
vesicles from the ER vesicles for secretion. Hence, cells
 Trans face: where cisternae bud active in any form of secretion
off to from secretory vesicles usually have abundant GA
and lysosomes
Lysosome - Round vesicles released from GA - Digest internalized materials
- Contains hydrolytic enzymes (e.g. (phagocytosis)
proteases, nucleases, lipases) that - Digest macromolecules
can digest most molecules (pinocytosis)
- Lysosomal contents have a pH of - Carry out autophagy of worn-out
~5 (acidic), and must thus bound organelles
by a membrane - Carry out apoptosis/autolysis of
cell (programmed cell suicide by
the mass release of lysosomal
contents)
Mitochondria - Elongated or spherical organelle - Site of aerobic respiration
(Sausage/Hot- enclosed by a double membrane (catabolic that generates ATO by
dog) oxidizing & extracting energy from
- Outer membrane is smooth
sugars, fats & other metabolic fuel
- Inner membrane is highly in the presence of oxygen
convoluted (infoldings known as
cristae)
- Cristae increases surface area for
embedment of required enzymes &
- Space between two membranes: proteins, thus increasing efficiency
perimitochondrial space of reactions
- Mitochondrial matrix (contains - Manufacture its own proteins
enzymes, circular DNA, RNA,
ribosomes) is enclosed by inner
membrane
Vacuoles Animal Cell - Site of storage of substances in
- Many small, mobile, temporary general
vacuoles that are structurally Animal Cell
similar to vesicles - House and transport substances
Plant Cell Plant Cell
- Usually a large central vacuole - Store organic compounds &
that is enclosed by the tonoplast inorganic ions
(take up to 90% of space in plant
cell)
- Site of disposal for toxic metabolic
by-products (forms small crystals in
- Contains cell sap, which contains vacuole)
dissolved substances (mineral
salts, sugars, amino acids)
- Contains pigments
- Protects plants by accumulating
toxic compounds
- Cell growth & elongation without
cytoplasm synthesis
- Maintains turgidity of plant cell
Chloroplast - Lens-shaped organelle enclosed - Site of photosynthesis
by chloroplast envelope (double - Increased surface area for
membrane) attachment of chlorophyll & other
- Inner membrane encloses stroma pigments for photosynthesis
(contains circular DNA, ribosomes - Stroma contains enzymes required
and starch grains) for Calvin Cycle
- Thylakoids: - Manufactures its own proteins
- Third set of membranes within - Stores synthesized carbohydrates
stroma arranged in flattened sacs as starch granules in the stroma
- Enclose the thylakoid
lumen/space
- Some thylakoids are stacked to
form grana (s: granum), which
are connected by intergranal
lamellae (sheet-like thylakoids)
Ribosomes - Small round structures (made of - Site of protein synthesis
protein & rRNA)
- Bound ribosomes synthesize
proteins destined for export or
targeted to membrane-bound
organelles
- Free cytosolic ribosomes
synthesize proteins that function
with the cytosol
*Centrioles - Located neat nucleus at - Act as microtubule organizing
centrosome (contains specialized centres (MTOCs) for spindle
proteins required for microtubule apparatus the separates the various
assembly) cell components
- Found in pairs, each consisting of
nine triples arranged in a ring, each
being perpendicular to each other
- Only found in eukaryotic cells
(present in animal cells, commonly
absent in plant cells)
Cell Wall - Made of cellulose (structural - Supports and defines the shape of
polysaccharide) plant tissues
- Rigid and inflexible - Protects cells from mechanical
- Fully permeable injury & invasion
- Withstands hydrostatic pressure
exerted by uptake of water by cell

Animal Cell

Plant Cell
Movement of Synthesized Proteins

 Cell Membrane
- Functions:
1. Partially permeable – regulates movement of substance into & out of cell
2. Defines cell’s boundaries, keeps interior separated from the surroundings
3. Allows for localization of various structures (e.g. enzymes embedded on membranes)
4. Contains receptors – involved in signal transduction (detecting specific signals and
triggering specific responses)
5. Allows for cell-to-cell communication
- Fluid Mosaic Model
 ‘Fluid’ because phospholipids are in constant sideways movement
 ‘Mosaic’ because there is a wide variety of proteins embedded in the membrane
- Structure
Component Structure Function
Phospholipids - Hydrophilic head (due to –vely - Results in cell membrane being
charges phosphate group + other partially permeable
small charged molecules) - Hydrocarbon tails from an effective
- Hydrophobic hydrocarbon (fatty hydrophobic barrier that prevents
acid) tail  amphipathic diffusion of polar and charged
- Glycerol backbone solutes
- Forms bilayers spontaneously as
contents and surroundings of cells
are aqueous
Cholesterol - Steroids (type of lipid made up of - Rigid steroid ring interferes with
rings) motions, providing mechanical
- Wedged between phospholipids stability
(i.e. in hydrophobic core) - Decreases membrane fluidity at
high temperatures
- Increases membrane fluidity at low
temperatures (dual effect)
- Decreases membrane permeability
by filling up spaces between
phospholipids
Proteins - Integral/intrinsic - Anchorage
- Peripheral/extrinsic - Recognition (glycoprotein)
- Enzymatic activity
- Receptor (specific shape for
chemical signalling)
- Carrier (undergoes structural
change)
- Channel (hydrophilic channel)
- Intercellular joining
Carbohydrates - Short, branched chains - Bind to extracellular signal
- Glycolipids: covalently bonded to molecules
polar ends of phospholipids - Intracellular adhesion
- Glycoproteins: - Cell-to-cell recognition
 Specialized Cells

Cell Structure Function


Red Blood - Contains haemoglobin - Haemoglobin transports oxygen
Cells
- No nucleus - No nucleus – can carry more
- Circular biconcave shape haemoglobin and hence O2
- Resulting increase in SA:V allows
increase in rate of diffusion of O2
Xylem - Cells are dead at maturity, no - Able to transport H2O & mineral
Vessel cross-walls or protoplasm, thus salts through lumen easily
forming a hollow tube/lumen - Provides mechanical support for
- Woody lignified walls plant, prevents collapse of lumen
Root hair cell - Long and narrow in shape - Increases SA:V, so water and
mineral salts can be efficiently
absorbed
Ecology
What is Ecology?
 Habitat: the place where an organisms lives
 Population: a group of organisms of the same species living in a particular habitat
 Community: all the populations of organisms living & interacting with one another
in a particular habitat
 Ecosystem: a community & its abiotic environment
 Ecology: the study of the interactions of organisms with one another, as well as
with their environment
 Environment
 Abiotic: physical factors such as light intensity, water availability & soil pH
 Biotic: all the living things that an organism interacts with
The Abiotic Environment
 Physical features:
 Light intensity
 Affects distribution & growth of plants & animals
 Green plants exist only where there is adequate amount of sunlight
 The growth of certain plants affects the distribution of animals in a
location
 Temperature
 Affects the rate of rxn of enzymes that control the physiology &
metabolic activities of organisms
 Snakes hibernate in winter. They become less active because the
enzymatic rxns in their body proceed at a slower rate in cold
temperatures
 Deciduous trees lose their leaves before winter
 Amount of water available
 Affected by amount & pattern of rainfall, air humidity
 Organisms cannot live without water
 Plants & animals that are found in environments where water is scarce
are adapted for survival in those environments
 Oxygen content
 Oxygen is needed for respiration to occur
 Mangrove plants have their roots buried in oxygen-poor mud
 Mangrove plants have roots with pneumatophores to ensure that the
roots get enough oxygen
 Pneumatophores are breathing roots that project above the mud surface
 Salinity of soil and/or water
 Salt concentration of water
 Affects the movement of salt & water in and out of the cells of
organisms living in the water
 Freshwater fishes face problems of salt loss from cells & excess water
entering cells
 Uptake of salts by cells in gills
 Kidney reabsorbs salts & produces large amount of dilute urine
 If a freshwater fish is placed in a marine environment, the fish gets
dehydrated
 Marine fishes face problems of water loss from cells & excess salt
entering cells
 Seawater is absorbed in the intestines
 Kidney excretes salts and produces small amount of
concentrated urine
 If a marine fish is placed in freshwater, too much water will affect their
circulatory system
 pH of soil and/or water
 Acidity/alkalinity of a solution
 Most organisms can only survive within a range of optimum pH
 Most plants don’t grow well in acidic soil
 Plants like blueberry and orchid grow better in acidic soil
 Several microorganisms (acidophites) have been found to thrive in
highly acidic conditions
The Biotic Environment
 The populations in a community live interdependently
 Predation
 Paratism
 A change in one population would affect the other populations in the community
 The equilibrium in a community is like a web, breaking a single strand will affect the
whole system
Energy & Nutrient Flow
 Energy & nutrients are transferred in the following direction via feeding
 Producers  consumers  decomposers
 Producers
 Convert light energy from the Sun into chemical energy in food
 All food chains begin with producers
 Consumers
 Obtain energy by feeding on other organisms
 Primary consumers: herbivores, feed on plants
 Secondary consumers: carnivores, feed on primary consumers
 Tertiary consumers: carnivores, feed on other carnivores
 All omnivores are primary, secondary & tertiary consumers
 Decomposers
 Obtain energy by breaking down dead organisms, faeces & excretory products
 Decomposition releases inorganic nutrients (e.g. carbon & nitrogen) for
nutrient cycling
 Fungi, bacteria, earthworms
 Do not form part of the food chain
 Food chain
 Series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food
 Illustrates the feeding relationships b/w organisms
 Always begins with a producer
 Trophic level
 Each level/organism in a food chain
 Food chains do not usually have more than 4 trophic levels
 Food webs
 Interlinked food chains
 Interactions b/w organisms can be affected +vely/-vely if one organism is
removed
 Producers increase  primary consumers increase initially
 Caterpillars will increase initially when grasshoppers are removed, birds will
prey more on spiders & ladybirds

 Non-cyclic energy flow in an ecosystem


 The Sun is the main energy source in an ecosystem
 Light energy  chemical energy by producers via photosynthesis
 Energy from producers are passed on from one trophic level to another via
feeding
 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is non-cyclic
 Energy is lost to the environment as heat as it flows through the ecosystem
 Energy keeps dropping as it goes up the trophic level
 90% of energy is lost from one trophic level to another, a maximum of 10% of
energy is passed on
 100 (P)  10 (PC)  SC (1)  0.1 (TC)
Ecological Pyramids
 Pyramid of numbers
 Allow the comparison of the number of organisms present in each trophic
level at a particular time
 Constructed based on the number of organisms at each trophic level
 However, numbers do not refer to the size of the organism
 Can be inverted is organisms in one trophic level are parasitic on organisms of
another trophic level, many small organisms are feeding on a large organism

 Pyramid of biomass
 Allows the comparison of the mass of organisms present in each trophic level
at a particular
 Constructed based on the dry mass of organisms in each trophic at a particular
time
 Can be oddly shaped if organisms in one trophic level have a high reproductive
rate

 Pyramid of energy
 Represents the total energy in each trophic level of a food chain over a certain
period of time
 Energy is lost to the environment as heat during respiration, in uneaten body
parts, through undigested matter egested by consumers, through waste
products excreted by consumers
 90% of energy is lost when it is transferred from one trophic level to another
 Broad at the base and narrow at the top because energy is lost

Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem


 Nutrient cycling
 Nutrients are not lost, but continuously recycled in a balanced ecosystem
 The cycling of these nutrients is brought about by physical, chemical &
biological processes, involving both the abiotic & biotic environments
 The carbon cycle
 Carbon is constantly removed from and released into the atmosphere in the
form of carbon dioxide
 Concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment is fairly constant
 Ensures a continuous supply of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
 Enables energy to flow through the ecosystem
 Carbon compounds carry the trapped solar energy from one organism to
another in the food chain
 Carbon dioxide is removed via:
 Photosynthesis
 When animals feed on green plants, the carbon compounds become
part of their bodies
 Carbon compounds may be preserved as fossil fuels
 Carbon dioxide is released via:
 Respiration: glucose is broken into carbon dioxide
 Combustion of fossil fuels
 Decomposition: decomposers break down dead matter into simple
substances
Carbon Sinks
 Area that stores carbon compounds for an indefinite period & it stores more than it
releases
 Oceans
 Largest carbon sinks on Earth
 Carbon dioxide that dissolves in water is absorbed & used by phytoplankton
& algae in photosynthesis
 A portion of carbon compounds found in oceans is buried in the seabed & is in
the form of fossil fuels such as natural gas & oil
 Forests
 Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants & used in photosynthesis
 A large amount of carbon compounds is stored in trees
 Remains of dead trees form coal (fossil fuel)
Extra Information
 Not all producers are plants
Excretion
Chemical reactions in cells
 Anabolism: reactions that build up complex
 molecules o Growing up
o Photosynthesis – synthesis of glucose using CO2 &
 H2O o Formation of glycogen from glucose molecules
 Catabolism: reactions that break down complex molecules
o Oxidation of glucose during respiration to form CO2 & H2O
o Deamination of proteins and amino acids to form urea
o Digestion
 Metabolism: sum of all the chemical reactions within the body of an organism
o Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism
o Produce waste products that can harm the body if they are
accumulated o The waste products should be removed
Excretion
  Metabolic waste products and toxic substances are removed from the body
 Unicellular: excretion via simple diffusion
 Multicellular: have excretory organs for excretion

 Excretion in Humans
Excretory products Organ Mode of excretion
Carbon dioxide Lungs Expired air

Nitrogenous waste products


and excess mineral salts:
1. Mainly urea
(deamination of
proteins) Kidneys Urine
2. Uric acid (breakdown Skin Sweat (in small quantities for
of nucleic acids) nitrogenous waste products)
3. Creatinine
(breakdown of muscle
proteins)

Kidneys Urine
Excess water Skin Sweat
Lungs Expired air (as water vapour)

Bile pigments (breakdown


Liver Faeces via the intestine
from haemoglobin)

Components of the Human Urinary System


Component Structure and/or Function
Kidneys - Produce urine
- Maintain mineral salts and water balance
- Control of blood volume & blood pressure
Ureters - Narrow tube that connect kidneys to bladder
Bladder - Stores urine temporarily
- Elastic muscular bag located in front of the rectum
Urethra - Passage through which urine is discharged from the bladder
Hilus - Concave depression
- Renal arteries, renal veins and the nerves are connected to kidneys
here
Sphincter - Controls exit of urine from bladder (control urination)
Muscle - Full bladder: brain receives nerve impulses sent by sensory neurones
- To urinate: nerve impulses sent by brain causes sphincter muscles to
relax. Urine is then able to flow into urethra and out of the body.

Structure of a human kidney

Structure Description Function


- outer dark region surrounded by a
Cortex NIL
fibrous capsule

- inner red region that contains 12-16


Medulla NIL
medulla pyramids

Renal - Conical structures that contain a


NIL
pyramids large number of kidney tubules

Kidney - Also called nephrons - Forms urine


tubules - Narrow tubules - Basic functional units of kidney

- Funnel-like space
Renal - Enlarged portion of ureter in kidneys NIL
Pelvis - Where the kidney is connected to
ureter

Structure of a Kidney Tubule


Structure Description Function/What it contains

- Cup-like structure found at the


Bowman's beginning of kidney tubule (front) - Glomerulus: ultrafiltration
Capsule - Glomerulus (capillaries) at the - BC: collects filtrate
opening of Bowman

- Regulates pH of filtrate: exchange


+
H in the interstitium for
bicarbonate ions in filtrate
Proximal - Short, extremely coiled tubule that
- Reabsorption of salt & water
Convoluted straightens out as it enters the
(~66%), organic solutes (mostly
Tubule medulla
glucose & a-a, 100%), potassium
(PCT) - Increased SA for reabsorption
(~65%), urea (~50%), phosphate
(~80%), citrate (70% - 90%)
- Secretes ammonium

- Descending part: water leaving


only
- Ascending part: ions (Na+, Cl-,
Loop of - U-shaped
K+) leaving only – dilute filtrate
Henle - Ascending limb & descending limb
- Bottom most part: highly
concentrated filtrate, contains urea
& creatine
- Regulation of K, Na, Ca & pH
Distal (partly responsible)
- Extremely coiled Tubule that re-
Convoluted - Site for kidney’s hormone based
enters the cortex
Tubule regulation of Ca
- Increased SA for reabsorption
(DCT) - Absorb NaCl & other inorganic
salts while retaining water

- Collects urine
Collecting - Pass straight through the medulla - Reabsorbs NaCl & urea
+ -
Duct - Opens into renal pelvis - Creatinine, water, urea, Na , Cl ,
+
K present

Blood Circulation at the Kidney Tubule (Nephron)

1 Blood enters kidney the kidney via the renal artery.

2 Renal artery branches into many arterioles.


Arterioles branch into a mass of blood capillaries (glomerulus).
3 BC + glomerulus = renal corpuscle/Malpighian corpuscle

4 Blood leaves glomerulus and enters blood capillaries surrounding the kidney tubule.

5 Blood capillaries unite to form venules.


6 Venules join to form renal vein.

7 Blood exits the kidney via the renal vein.

Urine Formation
• 2 main processes within the kidney tubule
A. Ultrafiltration (occurs at the renal pelvis)
- Force: High hydrostatic blood pressure at glomerulus
- Filer: Basement Membrane around the glomerular is partially permeable
- Basement Membrane wraps around the glomerular blood capillaries
- The filtrate:
  
Water

Small molecules (e.g. Glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, urea):
glucose, a-a, mineral salts are all smaller than urea, so they get
 filtered out together with the urea as nephron cannot create another
filter that only filters urea.

Limitation of size of renal corpuscle (filter)– cannot be any
smaller or further altered to filter only urea.
- Not in filtrate:
 
Large molecules (e.g. plasma proteins, RBC, WBC)

B. Selective reabsorption (occurs at the renal tubule)


- Allows useful substances to be reabsorbed
- > 80% of filtrate is reabsorbed at proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT)
 Glucose, a-a and salts are reabsorbd via diffusion
& active transport
 Water of filtrate is reabsorbed via osmosis
 Glucose, a-a and salts diffuse into cells lining the
PCT
 These molecules are actively transported into
the interstitial fluid
 These molecules then enter blood capillaries via
diffusion
 This reabsorption is highly selective, only those
required by body are reabsorbed readily
- Some water is reabsorbed from the filtrate in the tubule
at the loop of Henle
- A lot of aquaporine (water channel) in descending limb
- Solution becomes more concentrated down the descending limb
- Solution is very concentrated at the bottom
- Ascending limb contains active transport proteins, actively transport
electrolytes into interstitium
- Descending limb: osmosis (left)
- Ascending limb: active transport (right)
- At the distal convoluted tubule (DCT), some water and mineral salts
are reabsorbed
- Some water is reabsorbed at the collecting duct
- The remaining fluid in the tubule passes out of the collecting duct into
the renal pelvis to form urine
- Urine is made up of excess water, excess mineral salts and metabolic
waste products like urea, utric acid and creatinine

- Kidney can overowrk by taking in too - Reasons why glucose is reabsorbed by


musch salt and sugar diffusion:
- Energy is used when sugar (be it glucosse,  Low blood sugar, exercise,
lactose) moves into via active transport eating foods with low sugar
- High sugar diet damages BC as blood - Bad to have glucose in pee as it is not
pressure leaves easy to get through digestion

Osmoregulation
 Control of water and solute concentrations (levels) in the blood to maintain a
 constant W.P. in the body
 W.P. of blood plasma needs to be kept relatively constant
o large fluctuations in W.P., numerous problems can occur
o blood plasma too concentrated (more –ve W.P.)  crenated RBC
(dehydrated)
o blood plasma too dilute (less –ve W.P.)  lysed RBC (absorb water,
expand & burst)
 W.P. of blood plasma depends in the amount of water
 and solutes in plasma
 W.P. of blood plasma is controlled by anti-diuretic
 hormone (ADH)
 ADH: produced by hypothalamus, released by
pituitary gland
 ADH increases reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules
 Kidneys are osmoregulators
  A type of homeostasis: maintains W.P. & concentration of salts in blood
 Blood pressure (BP) is indirectly regulated by osmoregulation: blood vol. is
controlled by removing excess salt & water
 High BP can cause blood vessels in brain to burst  result in a stroke
 Mechanism of osmoregulation
o Amount of water reabsorbed by kidney tubules is controlled by ADH
o ADH secretion by pituitary gland depends on ‘instructions’ from
hypothalamus
o Hypothalamus has receptors that detect changes in blood W.P.
Excess Water Dehydration

Kidney Failure
 If one kidney fails, a person still can lead a normal life
 Causes
o High blood pressure
o Diabetes
o Alcohol abuse (content heavy drinking)
o Severe accidents that physically damage kidneys
o Complications from undergoing major surgery
 Effects
o Tinge of red in urine when basal membrane of BC is damaged
 If both kidneys, a person requires either a kidney transplant or dialysis
  Dialysis machine mimics the function of a kidney
 Patient needs to undergo dialysis for 2-3 times for effective treatment
 How dialysis works
1 Blood is drawn from a vein into patient’s arm
2 Blood is pumped into dialysis machine through
a tubing
3 Tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid & is partially
permeable
4 Small molecules (e.g. urea) and metabolic
waste products diffuse out of tubing
5 Larger molecules (e.g. platelets & blood cells)
remain in tubing
6 Filtered blood is returned to a vein in the
patient’s arm
 Features of dialysis machine
o Dialysis fluid contains same concentration of essential substances such as
healthy food
o Dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste products
o Tubing in machine is narrow, long and coiled
o Direction of blood flow is opp. to the flow of dialysis fluid
1 Dialysis fluid has same composition as blood but lacks the nitrogenous waste
2 Patient’s blood enters dialysis machine
3 Blood flows in the direction opposite to the flow of the dialysis fluid

Compare and Contrast a Kidney and a Dialysis Machine


Kidney Dialysis Machine
Similarities
Removal of waste from Blood
Filter our impurities
Differences
Natural, fast & internal process Artificial, slow & straightforward process
Glomerulus as main filter Dialysis tubing as filter
Carries out filtration, diffusion & active Only carries out filtration
transport
Water & some metabolites removed in Wastes & water removed in filtration,
filtration metabolites stay in blood
Urination occurs Some to no urination is occurring to me
Controls blood pressure via producing Does not produce chemicals for the control
chemicals (like Renin) of blood pressure
Heredity
Heredity
• Hereditary traits
Ø A characteristic that can be passed down from one generation to
another
Ø E.g.: hair type, shape of earlobe, eye colour, face shape, chin shape,
ability to roll tongue, skin colour, blood type, etc.
• Genetics
Ø Study of inheritance of characteristics by transmission of genetic
materials from one generation to another
• Monohybrid inheritance (Gregor Mendel’s model)
Ø Inheritance of 1 characteristic that has 2 contrasting forms
Ø Each characteristic is controlled by a single gene
Ø Each gene consists of a pair of alleles
Ø Alleles can be dominant or recessive
Ø Mendel crossed pure-bred tall (T) pea plants with pure-bred dwarf (t)
pea plants
ü Seeds were planted from the cross à resulting F1 generation
hybrids are all tall plants
ü F1 offspring were allowed to self-fertilise & produce seeds
ü Seeds from F1 offspring gave rise to the F2 generation, which
produced a ratio of 3 tall plants to 1 dwarf plant
ü Dominant trait: (T); Recessive trait: (t)
Ø Genes are responsible for the transmission of characteristics
Ø Each characteristic is controlled by a pair of factors in the cell
Ø If the 2 factors are different, only the dominant factor will show its
effect
Ø The 2 factors will segregate during gamete formation, each gamete
will only contain 1 factor (Law of Segregation)
Ø The random fusion of gametes ensures that the zygote formed contains
2 factors
Basic Knowledge for Studying Heredity
• Chromosome: rod-like structure visible in the nucleus during cell division,
made up of DNA
• Gene: a unit of inheritance, born on a particular locus (position) of a
chromosome; small segment of DNA in a chromosome that controls a
particular characteristic/protein in an organism
• Alleles: different forms of the same gene; occupy the same relative
positions on a pair of homologous chromosome; letters are usually used to
represent alleles
• Homologous chromosomes: exist in pairs, one is paternal and the other one is
maternal; they have exactly the same sequence of gene loci
• Introduction to terms
Ø Phenotype: observable traits of an organism; influenced by its
genotype & the environment
Ø Genotype: genetic make-up of an organism which is inherited from
its parents
ü Homozygous organism: 2 alleles controlling the trait are the
same (dominant: TT, recessive: tt)
ü Heterozygous organism: 2 alleles controlling the trait are
different (Tt)
Ø Dominant & recessive alleles
ü Dominant: upper case letter, express itself in both
homozygous dominant & heterozygous conditions
ü Recessive: lower case letter, express itself in a homozygous
recessive genotype only

• Modelling genetic crosses


Ø Used to explain how alleles are passed on to an offspring
Ø Used to predict the traits that will be displayed by an offspring


Determining Genotypes
• Recessive trait displayed: homozygous recessive
• Dominant trait displayed: homozygous/heterozygous dominant
• Test cross: used to determine genotype of an organism with dominant trait by
crossing the organism with a homozygous recessive organism
Ø If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the offspring should
show the dominant trait
Ø If the organism is heterozygous, half of the number of offspring
should show the dominant trait. The remaining half should show the
recessive trait
• Co-dominance: both alleles are equally expressed in the heterozygous
conditions (show the same characteristics)
Ø Short-horned cattle: homozygous red bull (CRCR) + homozygous white
cow (CWCW) = offspring with a mixture of red & white hair (CRCW)
Ø ABO blood group [O is recessive, A & B are co-dominant]
• Sex determination: sex chromosomes (X & Y chromosomes)
Ø Autosomes: other chromosomes in the cells other than the sex
chromosomes
Ø Sex cells: cells that produce gametes by meiosis
Ø Somatic cells: other cells in the body
Ø Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes & 1 pair of sex chromosomes [XY
– male, XX – female]
Ø Sperms: either X or Y chromosome
Ø Eggs: X chromosomes only
Ø Sex of zygote: whether the X-carrying sperm of Y-carrying sperm
fertilises the ovum
Ø When male & female gametes fuse during fertilization, there is an
equal chance that the offspring could be a male or a female

Multiple Alleles
• A gene for a particular trait exists in more than 2 alleles
• Coat colours in rabbits [C: full colour, ch: Himalayan, ca: albino]
Phenotype Genotype
h a
Full Colour CC, Cc , Cc
Himalayan chch, chca
Albino caca
• Human blood groups [IA & IB: co-dominant, IO: recessive]
Ø It is not possible for the blood groups of AB and O to have
heterozygous form
Ø It is possible for a couple with blood group A & blood group B to have
a child with the blood group O
Blood Genotype
group
A IAIO (heterozygous)
IAIA (homozygous dominant)
B IBIO (heterozygous)
IBIB (homozygous dominant)
AB IAIB (co-dominant)
O IOIO (homozygous recessive)
Discontinuous & Continuous Variations
• Variations: differences in traits b/w individuals of the same species
• Traits of an individual is dependent on the interactions b/w the genes & the
environment
• Genetic variation is heritable, but variations due to the environment are not
• Discontinuous variation: brought about by one/a few genes
• Continuous variation: brought about by the additive effect of many genes

Discontinuous Variation Continuous Variation


Deals with a few clear-cut phenotypes Deals with a range of phenotypes
Controlled by 1/a few genes Controlled by many genes
Genes do not show additive effect Genes show additive effect
Not affected by environmental conditions Affected by environmental conditions
E.g. eye colour, blood group E.g. height, skin colour

Mutation
• Occurs as a result of error during replication of the gene/chromosome
• Somatic mutations that occur in normal body cells cannot be inherited
• Mutations may be inherited by the next generations if they occur in cells that
give rise to gametes
• Dominant mutations are easily detected unlike recessive mutations, which
may not be detectable for generations
• Chromosome mutation
Ø Change in the structure/number of chromosomes
Ø Causes Down’s syndrome [nondisjunction: chromosomes did not split
properly]
ü Humans normally have 46 chromosomes in their body cells
ü People with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes
ü They have an extra copy of chromosome 21
• Gene mutation: change in the structure of DNA
Ø Produces variation b/w individuals as it results in new alleles of genes
Ø Causes albinism (lack of melanin)
ü Caused by mutation in a recessive allele
ü Absence of melanin results in reddish-white skin, white hair &
pink eyes (red irises that show blood in choroid as it is
transparent)
ü Albinos get sunburn & skin cancer easily as they are very
sensitive to sunlight
Ø Causes sickle-cell anaemia
ü Caused by mutation in gene controlling haemoglobin
production
ü Mutated gene is recessive, hence only expressed in
homozygous recessive condition
ü Sickle-shaped RBC have low oxygen carrying capacity & tend
to clump together
ü Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele are
more resistant to malaria (these individuals are common in
West Africa, where malaria is prevalent)
• Mutation & selection
Ø Can be harmful/beneficial
Ø Natural selection of organisms with more favourable characteristics,
in order for them to survive & reproduce
Ø Mutagenic agents
ü Radiation: UV light, X-ray, alpha & beta radiation, gamma rays
ü Chemicals: mustard gas, formaldehyde, lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD)
ü Greatly increase the rate of mutations
Selection
• Variation may arise due to
Ø Crossing over & independent assortment of chromosomes during
meiosis
Ø Mutation in genetic material
• Mutation provides new alleles to the gene pool for natural selection to act on
• Natural selection
Ø Process that ensures the best adapted organisms in a population survive
to reproduce & pass on their genes to the next generation
Ø Nature selects varieties of organisms that are
ü More resistant to diseases
ü Better adapted to changes in the environment
Ø Evolution: present complex forms of living organisms have arisen
from simpler ancestral forms
Ø Mechanism of evolution
1 Organisms reproduce rapidly as food supply is abundant
2 Organisms migrate to different environments
3 Spontaneous mutation takes place, resulting in variation in the organisms.
Favourable traits will confer a selective advantage and such organisms will
survive, reproduce & pass on their favourable genes to their offspring
4 These organisms become the predominant species in their environment
• Artificial selection: plants & animals with desirable traits can be artificially
selected through selective breeding
Natural Selection Artificial Selection
Results from mutations in gene Results from manipulation by humans
Brought about by changes in Humans select organisms with desired
environmental conditions traits to reproduce
Very slow process Relatively fast process
May be advantageous/harmful to man Advantageous to man
Homeostasis
The Need for Homeostasis
 Ensures that internal conditions of an organism are kept constant all the time
 Stable environment allows organism to be independent of the changes in the external
environment
 Conditions to be kept constant:
o Temperature
 Enzymes require optimum temp to function
 Enzymes are inactive below optimum temperature
 Enzymes are denatured beyond optimum temperature
o pH level
 Drastic changes in pH level in blood will affect enzyme activity & rate of cellular
rxns (we will die if pH of blood is changed from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline)
o Water potential
 Composition of tissue fluid to be maintained to ensure constant water potential of
cells
 Changes in water temp affects body cells
 Body cells shrink or burst in solutions with W.P. different from that in cytoplasm
o Concentration of metabolic wastes (urea)
o Blood glucose concentration (liver)
 Glucose is required for tissue respiration (release energy for cells to carry out
activities)
 Glucose levels increase after meal and decrease after physical exertion
 Dangerous if blood glucose concentration changes drastically
o Carbon dioxide concentration
 Principles of homeostasis:
o Stimulus: a change from normal conditions in the internal environment
o Receptors: detect stimulus
o Corrective mechanism: brings about reverse effects of this stimulus
o Negative feedback: inform receptors that the condition has been restored to its normal
state
 Internal conditions rise above normal

 Internal conditions decrease below normal


 Regulating blood glucose concentration

 Regulating body W.P.


Temperature Regulation
Heat Gain by body Heat Loss by body
From the Sun & warm air on hot days From skin surface via convection, radiation &
conduction
Intake of hot food and drinks Evaporation of sweat
Metabolic activities taking place in the body Expired air from lungs
release heat
During physical exertion or exercise Faeces & urine

 Thermoregulation
Hot Day

Vasodilation
 Dilation of blood vessels
 One of the major ways in which humans
lose heat
 More blood flows to capillaries when
shunt vessels constrict
 More heat is from skin via radiation
(via vacuum), convection
(flow/regulation) & conduction (touch)
 Sweat evaporates via convection
Fun Fact: Why is your face red when the
weather is hot?
 Skin at the face is very thin
 Blood vessels there expand when it’s
hot, more blood flows to those blood
vessels
 If your face is red but you’re not
sweating on a hot day, you have heat
stroke
Increased Production of Sweat
 Sweat glands become more active
 More sweat is produced
 More latent heat is removed when sweat
evaporates
 We would sweat in deserts and lose
water through sweat
Reduced Metabolic Rate
 Metabolic rate slows down
 Less heat is produced within body
Relaxation of Hair Erector Muscles (HEM)
 HEM relax when body temperature
increases
 Hairs lie flat to prevent the trapping of of
a layer of air as air is a bad conductor of
heat, allowing air to circulate over skin
which results in removal of heat

Cold Day

Vasoconstriction
 Constriction of blood vessels
 Less blood flows to capillaries when
shunt vessels dilate
 Less heat is lost from skin via radiation,
convection & conduction
Decreased Production of Sweat
 Sweat glands become less active
 Less sweat is produced
 Less latent heat is removed when sweat
evaporates
Increased Metabolic Rate
 Rate of metabolic activities increase
 More heat is produced within body
 Eating increases metabolism (produces
more heat)
Contraction of HEM
 HEM contract when body temperature
decreases
 Hairs “stand up”, trapping an insulating
layer of warm air over skin
Shivering (increases metabolic rate)
 Occurs when more heat production is
needed to prevent drop in
temperature
 Reflex contraction of body muscles
generates heat which increases body
temperature to normal

Structure of Human Skin


Epidermis
Component Structure/What it is made up of/What it is
Cornified layer - Outermost layer of skin
- Consists of dry cells with keratin deposits
- Deadly cells are continuously shed from skin surface
Granular layer - Middle layer of epidermis
- Consists of living cells that move upwards
- Cells eventually become dry and form the cornified layer
Malpighian - Innermost layer of epidermis
layer - Consists of actively dividing cells that contain melanin
- Sinks into dermis to form a hair follicle
Dermis
- Found directly below Malpighian layer
- Upper part thrown into ridges or papillae
- Has numerous blood capillaries supplying blood to skin
- Regulation of body temperature:
 Vasodilation: blood vessels dilate, more blood flows to skin surface
 Vasoconstriction: blood vessels constrict, less blood flows to skin surface
- Hairs are embedded within the dermis
- Hair papilla found at base of hair follicle and consists of blood capillaries and nerves
- HEM contract & cause hairs to stand, resulting in appearance of goose pimples
- Sebaceous glands open into each hair follicle
 Secrete sebum which lubricates hair, keeps skin soft & prevents microbial growth
- Sweat gland
 Coiled tube formed by the downgrowth of epidermis
 Richly surrounded by blood capillaries
 Secretes sweat which flows through sweat duct and sweat pore to the skin surface
Sub-cutaneous - Found beneath the dermis
fat - Consists of apidose cells which store fats
Applications & “Life-savers”
 Liver “burns” alcohol, releasing heat in the process and alcohol is absorbed
 Vasodilation cannot happen at temperatures above 39°C
o Optimal range of human body temperature is up to 39°C
o Human body can tolerate temperatures from 35°C to 39°C (tolerance level about 2°C)
o We cannot lose heat. Instead, we will absorb heat, enzymes denature, we die…
 Why do we feel cold during fever?
o Temperature lowers on the surface of skin
o There is vasodilation & sweating  receptors still working (which is a good thing)
 When you have a fever above 40°C, you’re soaked in an ice bath for not more than 30
minutes
o Will go into hypothermia if the body
temperature goes below 35°C

 During an avalanche, you will freeze to death first


instead of suffocating
o There is a pocket of air trapping you
 When trapped in cold places…
o Move around frequently & DON’T SLEEP
as the body will shut down and you will
freeze to death when you sleep
o Movement of hands (NOT FRICTION) when rubbing them together generate heat
o Physical movement keeps us warm
o Huddle together with friend & move around when trapped in a cold place
o When it snows, find leaves that fall off the trees in autumn & stuff inside your
clothes to keep warm (one of the practical methods to retain heat), but your face
must also be kept warm
o Eat roots (very nutritious & soft) when you are trapped in a cold forest and there is
no other sources of food
o Drink hot beverages first instead of eating to keep yourself warm in a cold place
 Liquid food is easier to digest as compared to solid food
 Best option is hot chocolate as its nutritional value is higher than any other
drink)
Hormones
What are Hormones?
 Biological molecules (carbon based – proteins) produced in minute quantities by
endocrine glands
 Transported by blood to target organs
 Influence growth, development & activity of an organism
 Destroyed in liver, excreted by kidneys after performing their functions
 How do they affect the body?
 Help in delivery of baby out of mother’s womb
 Result in increase in height of a child
 Adrenaline: prepare body for ‘fight’ or ‘flight’ in dangerous encounters
 Responsible for physical & emotional changes during puberty
 PMS: post menstrual syndrome
 Menopause: shortage of hormones
 Production of hormones must be carefully controlled, cannot be too much or too little
– organism will be adversely affected
 Too little thyroxine in a tadpole inhibits its growth into a frog
 Too much thyroxine turns tadpole into adult form too quickly, resulting in a
tiny frog
Adrenal
 How is production of hormones controlled & how are they
Gland
produced?
 Control:
 Nervous system (e.g. adrenal gland – brain)
 Hormones from other glands
 Produce:
 In endocrine glands where they are released directly into blood
 Endocrine glands have an extensive network of blood vessels to transport
hormones to their target organs

 Types of glands
Endocrine Exocrine
- Ductless glands that transport their - Ducts present to transport secretion
secretions via bloodstream to target organs
- Ductless: - Ducts
 No need to go through a tube  Meant for transportation
 Diffuse directly into blood
vessels
- Adrenal glands - Sweat glands
- Pituitary gland - Salivary glands
- Pancreas - Pancreas
Endocrine Glands & their Hormonal Secretion
Pituitary Gland - Controls functions of other endocrine glands
(in brain) - Secretes many hormones
 Growth hormone (GH)
 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Hypothalamus regulates secretion of some pituitary hormones
Thyroid Gland - Stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
(in neck) - Released by pituitary gland
- Secretes thyroxine
 Controls metabolism rate
 Influence physical development
 Exerts both short & long term effects in body
Adrenal Gland - Stimulated by nervous system
(above kidney) - Releases adrenaline
- Adrenaline has wide ranging effects on the body
Pancreas - Has both endocrine & exocrine functions
- Exocrine: secretes pancreatic juice via pancreatic ducts
- Endocrine: Islets of Langerhans (a group of tissues) secrete
insulin and glucagon to control blood glucose levels
Ovaries - Secrete oestrogen and progesterone
- Oestrogen
 Controls development of breast & broadening of pelvis
 Present in a female all the time
- Progesterone
 Helps maintain a healthy pregnancy
 Used to test of pregnancy on a pregnancy kit (when you
pee out)
 Only present when a female is pregnant
Testes - Secretes testosterone
- Testosterone causes deepening of voice & growth of facial hair

Effects of some Hormones


 Insulin
Normal - Decreases blood sugar concentration
 Increase permeability of cell membranes to glucose 
increase rate of glucose uptake by cells
- Stimulate liver & muscle cells to convert excess glucose into
glycogen for storage
- Increase oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Over-secretion - Abnormal decrease in blood glucose concentration
- Abnormally low levels of blood glucose concentration
- Results in shock, symptoms include hunger, rapid heartbeat &
irritability
- In severe cases, person may lapse into a coma and may even die
Lack of - Abnormally high levels of blood glucose concentration
secretion - Tissue cannot utilise or store glucose
- Leads to diabetes mellitus
- Symptoms (since muscle cells have no reserves of glycogen):
weak body, continual weight loss, glucose present in urine
- Body oxidises fats instead of glucose to produce energy 
production of ketones (poisonous) which are secreted in urine
(ketonuria)
Diabetes - Insufficient insulin secretion to regulate blood glucose
Mellitus (lack of concentration
secretion) - Leads to persistently high level of glucose in blood
- Kidneys are unable to completely reabsorb glucose in body,
causing glucose to be excreted in urine
- Symptoms:
 Constantly high blood glucose concentration
 Presence of glucose in urine after a meal
 Healing of wounds slow & difficult
Type I Diabetes Type II Diabetes (very common)
Early on-set/juvenile diabetes Late on-set diabetes
Insufficient or no insulin Insulin is produced but target
production (something wrong cells do not respond well to
with pancreas) insulin (modern day disease)
Treatment : Treatment:
- Insulin injection - Mild: control of dietary
intake & exercise
- Severe: medication
 Glucagon
 Increase blood glucose concentration
 Stimulates these conversions:
 Glycogen to glucose
 Fats & a-a into glucose
 Lactic acid into glucose
 Secretion of insulin & glucagon (antagonistic, they toggle – work opp. ways) are
controlled by negative feedback mechanisms (wider graduations if person is diabetic)
 Adrenaline
 Secreted in response to stress or excitement
 More of ‘flight’ than ‘fight’
 Allows body to respond quickly to sudden demands for energy
 Temporary responses arise & effects are short-lived
 Usually triggered by nervous impulse
1 Stimuli activate sensory neurones in
hypothalamus
2 Transmission of impulses down spinal
chord
3 Motor neurone transmits impulses to
adrenaline gland
4 Adrenal gland is stimulated to produce
and secrete adrenaline into bloodstream
5 Blood transports adrenaline to target
organs

Effects
1 Increases rate & depth of ventilation
2 Causes pupils to dilate (let more light in so that we can see better)
3 Increases rate of blood coagulation (healing is fastened with heightened adrenaline)
4 Constricts arteriole in skin (become more pale as capillaries don’t get much blood)
5 Contracts hair muscles, producing ‘goose pimples’
6 Increases blood glucose level (get us hyper/hyped up) – results in 7
7 Increases metabolic rate
8 Increases blood pressure & rate of heartbeat

Comparing Endocrine & Nervous Controls


Endocrine Control Nervous Control
Has a detector that detects stimulus (ALWAYS start with a detector)
Has a signal or message that is transmitted (mostly towards brain, some bypass brain)
Has an effector (target organ that carries out the response)
Involves hormones Involves neurones
Chemical transmission Electrical and chemical transmission
Hormones are transmitted by blood Nerve impulses are transmitted by nuerones
Slower transmission & relatively slow- Rapid transmission and response
acting
Can cause long-term or short-term effects Often causes short-term effects
Always involuntary (cannot be controlled) Voluntary or involuntary
Usually widespread effects (whole body) Usually localized response (area affected)

Extra Information
 Hormones are relatable to enzymes & biomolecules
 Dwarfism: thyroid glands do not produce enough growth hormones
 Gigantism: happens when growth hormones produced by thyroid gland are not
destroyed
 Brain cannot communicate with rest of the body fast enough
 Can cause death
 When you lapse into a coma due to over-secretion of insulin,
 Too much insulin  too much glucose converted to glycogen for storage 
too little energy present
 Brain needs energy, coma ‘conserves power of brain’ to ensure survival of
person with minimal damage
 If a person is induced in a long-term coma, very big damage can be done to the
person when he/she is trying to survive
Molecular Genetics
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• A cell contains a nucleus that has chromatin strands, which are made up of proteins &
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• How is DNA organised inside the cells?
➢ A small segment of DNA carries a gene that store information used to make a
single polypeptide. Polypeptides are used to make proteins, proteins are
responsible for determining the characteristics of an organism
➢ Each DNA molecule consists of 2 parallel strands twisted around each other to
form a double helix
➢ A molecule of DNA is wrapped around proteins to form a single chromatin
thread
➢ During cell division, the chromatin threads coil more tightly to form
chromosomes inside the cell nucleus
• Basic Units of DNA
➢ The molecule that carries genetic information
➢ Made up of nucleotides
✓ A deoxyribose (sugar) molecule
✓ A phosphate group
✓ A nitrogen-cotaining base
 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine (C)
➢ Nucleotides can be joined together to form polynucleotides
➢ DNA is made up of 2 anti-parallel polynucleotide strands (in the opposite
directions)
➢ The bases on one strand with the bases on the other strand according to the
rule of base pairing
• Rule of base pairing
➢ Complementary bases
✓ Adenine bonds with Thymine [ (A) - (T) ]
✓ Guanine bonds with Cytosine [ (G) - (C) ]
➢ 2 anti-parallel strands of the DNA molecule coil to form a double helix
structure
➢ Bases are joined together by hydrogen bonds
Genes
• A segment of DNA
• Nucleotide sequence in the gene determines the polypeptide formed
• Since there are 4 different nucleotides, for a gene made up of n nucleotides, ther are 4n
different combinations of nucleotides
• 3 nucleotides in a gene form a codon, each codon codes for 1 a-a
• The genetic code states which a-a each codon codes for
• What happenes when the nucleotide sequence in a gene is altered?
➢ Gene mutation: change in nucleotide sequence
➢ A mutation my or may not lead to a changer in the protein product
➢ A change in the protein product may or may not lead to an observable
phenotype
✓ Albinism: mutation in gene that causes an absence/defect in the
eenzyme that produces pigment
✓ Sickle-cell anaemia: mutation in gene that causes the protein product to
differ from the normal protein by a single a-a, causing RBC to be
sickle-shaped
• How are proteins made?
➢ Transcription: DNA template transcribed into a mRNA molecule
✓ Occurs in nucleus of cell
✓ DNA codons in the cell are converted into RNA codons
✓ Dna is packed b/w Histones
✓ Genes contain instructions for making proteins
✓ RNA polymerase (protein – enzyme)
 Moves along DNA
 Make strands of mRNA out of free bases
 DNA code determines the oder of attachment to the bases of
mRNA
➢ Translation: mRNA molecule translated into polypeptides
✓ Occurs in cytoplasm of cell
✓ MRNA used as a template for protein productions (needs to be
modified first)
✓ Ribosomes need to bind/attach to RNA
✓ Ribosomes read the code in mRNA to make a chain of a-a (20 different
types)
✓ mRNA is read 3 bases at a time
✓ Every triplet read the tRNA delivers a corresponding a-a (a-a attached
to tRNA depends on the tRNA's anticodon)
✓ The chain of a-a becomes longer as a result and falls into a complex
3D shape once the last a-a is added
DNA (double helix) RNA
Sugar unnit: deoxyribose Sugar unit: ribose
Nitrogen-containing bases: adenine(A), Nitrogen-containing bases: adenine(A),
thymine(T), guanine(G), cytosine(C) uracil(U), guanine(G), cytosine(C)
Ratio of A:T & G:C is 1:1 No fixed ratio b/w A and U & b/w G and C
Large insoluble molecule Small soluble molecule
Permanent molecule in the nucleus Temporary molecule that is made when
needed

Transferring Genes b/w Organisms


• Genetic engineering (CRISPR is one example)
➢ Manipulation of an organism's genetic material; the transfer of genes from one
organism to another
➢ A vector molecule is required for this process
➢ A vector molecule is a DNA molecule that is used to carry the gene(s) to be
transferred
➢ Plasmids (circular DNA) from bacteria are commonly used as vectors
1 Isolate the desired gene
- cut the gene using restriction enzyme
2 Insert the gene into the vector DNA
- Restriction enzymes that were used to cut the desired gene are used to cut the
vector DNA
- Both the cut vector DNA & gene are mixed together with DNA ligase, an
enzyme that will help join the 2 molecules together
3 Insert the recombinant plasmids into bacteria
- Mix recombinant plasmids with bacters and heat/electric-shock the cells

• Producing human insulin


➢ Type 1 diabetes is caused by the inability of the islets of Langerhans to
produce sufficient insulin. Insulin is needed to treat such patients. Insulin
used to be obtained from the pancreas of slaughtered animals, but it is not the
same as human insulin. People also tend to develop antibodies against animal
insulin after prolonged treatment, hence becoming allergic to it.
➢ Mass production of human insulin was made possible by genetic engineering
➢ The human insulin gene is transferred to bacterial cells that are able to express
the gene. The product can then be harvested.
➢ Advantages
✓ Does not include allergic respinse in the patienet as insulin produced is
identical to human insulin
✓ It is easier & cheaper to produce insulin in large quantitites
✓ Less risk of contamination by disease-causing microorganisms like
bacteria as compared to insulin obtained from the pancreases of
animals
✓ Ethical concerns of vegetarians/religious groups can be overcome
1 - Obtain the fragment of DNA un human chromosome that contains insulin
gene
- Cut the gene using restriction enzyme
- 'Sticky ends' produced as a result of cutting
- Each 'sticky end' is a single strand sequence of DNA bases
- These bases can pair with complimentary bases to form a double strand
2 - Obtain a plasmid from a bacterium
- Cut the plasmid with the same restriction enzymes
- 'sticky ends' produced are complementary to the ends of the insulin gene
3 - Mix the plasmid with the DNA fragment containing the human insulin gene
- Human insulin gene will bind to the plasmd by complementary base pairing
b/w their 'sticky ends'
- Add the enzyme DNA ligase to seal the human insulin gene to the plasmid
- Recombinant plasmid: plasmid containing DNA from 2 different organisms
4 - Mix the recombinant plasmid with Escherichia coli (E.coli) bacterium
- Apply temporary heat/electric shock
- This opens up pores in the cell surface membrane of the bacterium for the
plasmid to enter
5 - This transgenic bacterium will use the new gene to make insulin
- Such bacteria can be isolated and grown for mass production of humann
insulin
- The insulin protein has to be extracted & purified before use
➢ Transgenic bacteria need to be burst open in order to extract the human
insulin that is produced in the bacteria
➢ The transgenic bateria is cultured in fermenters (large sterile containers) for
the extraction of human insulin
➢ Other applications of genetic engineering
✓ Creation of transgenic plants that are resistant to herbicides
✓ Creation of transgenic plants that are pest-resistant
✓ Gene therapy – healthy genes can be transferred from one person to the
cells of another person with defective genes
➢ Genes can be transferred b/w organisms of different species & b/w organisms
of the same species
• Selective Breeding VS Genetic Engineering
Selective Breeding Genetic Engineering
Organisms involved must be closely Genes from an organism can be inserted
related/be of the same species into non-related/different speices
Possibility of defective genes being Selection of genes before transfer eliminates
transmitted to the offspring risk of transferring a defective gene
Slow process that involves several Process which uses individual cells that
generations reproduce rapidly in a small container in a
laboratory
Less efficient as organisms grow more More efficient as transgenic organisms grow
slowly & may require more food faster & may require less food

Effects of Genetic Engineering on Society


Applications of genetic engineering Benefits to society
Low cost production of medicines Drugs like human insulin become more
affordable
Production in crops that grow in extreme Farmers are able to grow crops in
conditions environmental conditions that are not
favourable for cultivating crops
Development of pesticide-resistant crops Use of costly pesticides that may damage
the environment is reduced
Development of foods designed to meet Nutritional quality of foods are improved
specific nutritional goals
• Disadvantages of genetic engineering
Environmental GM crop plants that produce insect toxins
may result in the deaths of insects that feed
on them & may result in loss of
biodiversit.y
Economic Prices of seeds of modified crops are not
regulated: poorer farmers may not have
financial capacity to benefit from this
technology. Richer farmers continue to get
richer through the technology.
Health Genes that code for antibiotic resistance
may be accidentally incorporated into
bacteria that cause human diseases
Social & thical Genetic engineering may lead to class
distinctions.
Some religons do not approve of genetic
engineering as it may not be appropriate to
alter the natural genetic make-up of
organisms.
Nutrition in Human
Nutrition & the Human Digestive System
• Nutrition: process by which organisms obtain food & energy for growth, repair &
maintenance of the body
• 5 aspects of nutrients
Ø Ingestion: feeding, taking in of food
Ø Digestion: breaking down of large insoluble food substances into smaller
soluble ones (involves enzymes)
Ø Absorption: digested food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream & into
the cells
Ø Assimilation: absorbed nutrients are converted into new protoplasm or used to
release energy
Ø Egestion: removal of undigested food from the body
• Mammalian digestive system
Ø Main alimentary canal (gut) and organs associated with it
Ø From the mouth to the anus (about 9m long)

Ø Epiglottis closes the entrance of the trachea so to prevent choking when


swallowing
Ø Liver (secretes bile), gall bladder (stores bile temporarily), pancreas (secretes
pancreatic juice): accessory organs connected to the main alimentary canal,
which produce enzyme/bile salts
Ø Mouth/buccal cavity: where food enters
Ø Oesophagus has 2 layers of antagonistic muscles along the walls
ü Longitudinal muscles on outer side (shorten & widen the lumen)
ü Circular muscles on inner side (constricts lumen)
ü Lumen: Constrict VS Dilate
ü Muscles: Contract VS Relax
Ø Stomach
ü Distensible muscular bag
ü Contains numerous pits that lead to gastric glands
ü Temporary storage
ü Churns for mixing & mechanical digestion
Ø Small intestine (about 6m long)
ü Duodenum (where gall bladder & pancreas are connected)
ü Jejunum
ü Ileum (most absorption of nutrients because it has villi and microvilli)
Ø Large intestine (about 1.5m long)
ü Colon
ü Rectum
• What is peristalsis?
Ø Rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the alimentary
canal
Ø Helps with movement along the gut
Ø Enables food to be mixed with digestive juices
• What are antagonistic muscles?
Ø A pair of muscles whose movements oppose each other i.e. when one muscle
contracts, the other relaxes and vice versa
Ø The circular and longitudinal muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal are
antagonistic muscles

Digestion in Humans
• What is digestion?
Ø Physical digestion [rock to stones]
ü Mechanical break-up of food into smaller pieces
ü Increases SA:V of ingested food so digestive enzymes can work on
food more efficiently
ü Mouth: chewing food
ü Peristalsis
ü Stomach: continuous contractions & relaxations of muscle walls lead to
churning actions. This breaks up food particles & mixes them with
digestive enzymes
Ø Chemical digestion [stones to mushy puddle]
ü Breaking down/hydrolysis of large molecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed
ü Involves hydrolytic reactions catalysed by digestive enzymes
• Digestion of food in the main alimentary canal
Organ/part How digestion takes place
Mouth ü Digestion begins with the teeth, tongue & salivary glands
ü Chewing action in teeth breaks down large pieces of food into smaller
pieces (mechanical digestion) à increases SA:V of food, enzymes are
able to act on food efficiently
ü Salivary glands secrete saliva into mouth, which flows into buccal cavity
via salivary ducts
F Saliva contains mucin, which moistens food for easy swallowing
F Saliva contains salivary amylase (enzyme) which digests starch
into maltose (chemical digestion)
ü Tongue helps mix food with saliva and roll it into boli (small round
masses), swallowing it into the oesophagus
Oesophagus ü Peristalsis in the walls & gravity push the bolus into the stomach
Stomach ü When the bolus enters the stomach, it stimulates the release of gastric
juice by the gastric glands
F Gastric juice: dilute solution of HCl (aq), mucus & pepsin
F HCl (aq)
v Denatures salivary amylase
v Converts pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin) to pepsin
v Provides an acidic medium for the action of pepsin
v Kills harmful microorganisms in food
F Pepsin digests proteins to polypeptide
ü Peristalsis in the walls of the stomach mixes the food with gastric juice
ü Food remains in the stomach for 3-4 hours
ü Partly digested food forms chyme

Small ü Chyme enters the duodenum & it stimulates the release of


intestine F Pancreatic juice by the pancreas
v Pancreatic amylase [starch à maltase]
v Trypsinogen (activated to trypsin in duodenum by
enterokinase secreted by the cells in the duodenum)
[proteins à polypeptides]
v Pancreatic lipase [fats à fatty acids + glycerol]
F Bile by the gall bladder [fats à fat globules/droplets]
v Bile passes through the bile duct into duodenum
v Speed by digestion of fats by emulsifying them
v Increases SA for lipase to act on fats
F Intestinal juice by the intestinal glands {jejunum & ileum}
v Maltase
v Peptidases
& Erepsin: polypeptides à a-a
v Lipase
ü These alkaline fluids neutralise the acidic chyme
ü The alkaline medium is needed for the action of intestinal & pancreatic
enzymes
• Digestion of different foods
Ø Carbohydrates: carbohydrases
Ø Proteins: proteases
Ø Fats: lipase

Absorption
• Small intestine (ileum) is the site of absorption of the products of digestion
• How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
Ø Large SA
ü Numerous folds
ü Finger-like projections: villi
1. Each villus is a lacteal/lymphatic capillary
2. Lymphatic capillary is surrounded by other blood capillaries
3. Lymphatic capillaries transport fats
4. Blood capillaries transport sugars & a-a away from the intestines
ü Microvilli found on epithelial cell of villus
ü Greater area of absorption of food substances
Ø Epithelium only one-cell thick: reduces distance for diffusion (shorter time)
Ø Steep concentration gradient: continuous transport of digested food substances
maintains concentration gradient for the absorption of digested food
substances
Ø Long (6m): provides sufficient time for absorption

• How does absorption take place in the intestines?


Ø Glucose & a-a are absorbed by active transport when there is a lower
concentration gradient of these digested food substances in the lumen of the
small intestine than in the blood capillaries
Ø Glucose & a-a are in the epithelial cells are transported into the blood
capillaries of the villi via facilitated diffusion
Ø Glycerol & fa diffuse into the epithelium and combine to form minute fat
globules which enter the lymphatic capillary
• Undigested & unabsorbed matter
Ø Faeces
Ø Colon: absorbs water & mineral salts from undigested food
Ø Rectum: temporary storage of wastes
Ø Anus: egestion/ defecation occurs. Wastes are expelled as faeces
Transport & Assimilation of Absorbed Nutrients
• Hepatic portal vein
Ø Blood capillaries that supply the small intestine
Ø Transport sugars & a-a into liver
• Absorbed glucose
Ø Hepatic portal vein carries absorbed sugars into the liver
Ø Most of the sugars are converted to glycogen and stored.
Ø Glucose is transported by the hepatic vein to the different parts of the body
Ø Glucose is a source of energy
Ø Insulin regulates the amount of glucose that enters the blood stream
Ø Insulin stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose to glycogen
Ø Glucagon stimulates the release of glucose into the bloodstream when needed
• Absorbed a-a
Ø Hepatic portal vein carries absorbed a-a into liver
Ø In the liver, excess a-a is converted to urea by deamination.
Ø A-a is transported by the hepatic vein to the different parts of the body to be
utilised.
1. Growth & repair in cells
2. To form enzymes & hormones

Functions of the Liver


• Regulation of blood glucose concentration
Ø Stimulated by insulin & glucagon to store & release glucose respectively
• Deamination of excess a-a [protein synthesis]
Ø Liver uses a-a to synthesise proteins (e.g. prothrombin & fibrinogen)
Ø Amino grp of a-a are deaminated & converted into urea in the liver
Ø Carbon residues of a-a are converted into glucose in the liver

• Fat metabolism

• Bile production (emulsifies fats)


• Iron storage
Ø RBC destroyed in the spleen when worn out
Ø Haemoglobin being “recycled”
Ø Haemoglobin is broken down in the liver, and this produces iron & bile
Ø Iron is stored in the liver & used in the synthesis of new RBC
• Detoxification (alcohol breakdown)
Ø Converting harmful substances into harmless products
Ø Alcohol dehydrogenase (enzyme) converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, which
is used as a source of energy in cells
Ø Harmful effects of excess alcohol consumption
1. Liver cirrhosis
2. Increases risk of gastric ulcers
3. Frequent intake à addiction
4. Reduced self control
5. Slows down some brain functions
Nutrition in Plants

Leaf Structure
 External Features of a Dicotyledonous Leaf
Feature Structure/Adaptation Function
Lamina  Large flat SA:V  Enables it to obtain max amt
of sunlight (large SA:V)
 Short diffusion distance for
gases (very fast, e.g. CO2)
Leaf  Organized in regular  Minimize blockage of
Arrangement pattern sunlight, each leaf receives
 Opp to each other/ in sufficient sunlight
alternate arrangement
Petiole -  Holds lamina away from
stem, so lamina can obtain
sufficient sunlight & air
Network of -  Carries water & mineral salts
Veins to lamina
 Carries manufactured food
from lamina to the other parts
of the plant
 Internal Features of a Dicotyledonous Leaf
Feature Structure/Adaptation Function
Upper - Single layer of closely -
Epidermis packed cells
- Covered on outside by
waxy cuticle (transparent)
Palisade - One or two layers of - Large amounts of chloroplast
Mesophyll closely packed, long and present for photosynthesis
(PMC) cylindrical cells (most exposed to sunlight)
Spongy - Irregular in shape - Contain fewer chloroplasts
Mesophyll - Numerous large than PMC thus carry out less
(SMC) intracellular spaces (loose photosynthesis
& open arrangement) - Allows diffusion of CO2
- Covered by thin layer of
moisture
Lowe - Single layer of closely -
Epidermis packed cells covered by
cuticle (reduces water loss
through epidermal cells) on
the outside
Stomata - - allow passage of air into plant
- Cuticle, upper & lower epidermis:
transparent
- Palisade Mesophyll, Spongy
Mesophyll & Guard Cells:
Chloroplasts present
- Xylem + Phloem = Vascular Bundle
*Specific for Dicot Leaves ONLY

 Control of size of stomata


In sunlight At night
- Guard cells photosynthesise; convert - K+ accumulated in guard cells
light energy to chemical energy diffuse out of guard cells
- Chemical energy used to pump K+ - WP in guard cells less –ve than
into guard cells from neighbouring surrounding cells
epidermal cells - Water leaves cells via osmosis
- WP of guard cells is more –ve than - Guard cells turn flaccid, stoma
surrounding cells closes
- Water from neighbouring epidermal
cells enters guard cells by osmosis
- Guard cells become turgid, causing
them to become swollen
- Guard cells have thicker cell wall on
one side  guard cells are more
curved, therefore it pulls stoma open
 Entrance of CO2 & H2O into leaf
CO2 H2O
1. Carbon dioxide diffuses from 1. Xylem transports water & dissolved
surrounding air into air spaces in mineral salts to leaf from roots
leaf 2. Water & mineral salts move from
2. Carbon dioxide diffuses into thin cell to cell through mesophyll of leaf
film of water cover mesophyll cells once they are out of the xylem
Photosynthesis
 Essential Conditions
- Sunlight
- Carbon Dioxide
- Chlorophyll
- Suitable Temperature
- Wter
 Overall Equation
6 CO2 + 12 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
 Simplified Equation
6 CO2 + 6 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbon Dioxide + Water  Glucose + Oxygen
 Light-Dependent Stage (Light Stage, in Thylakoid)
- Light energy (through chlorophyll)  chemical energy (used in Calvin
Cycle)
- 12 H2O (photolysis)  6 O2 (released into atmosphere)+ 24 H+ (used in
Calvin Cycle)
- Chlorophyll traps light energy & converts it into chemical energy for
formation of carbohydrates & their subsequent storage
 Light-Independent Stage (Dark Stage/Calvin Cycle, in Stroma)
- 6 CO2 (through enzyme-controlled rxns + ATP + H+)  C6H12O6 + 6 H2O
- H+ from light-dependent stage is used to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates,
through several enzyme-controlled rxns
 Chlorophyll
- Absorbs wavelengths of light while reflecting other wavelengths
- Spectrophotometer used to see how much light chlorophyll will absorb at
various wavelengths

 Absorption Spectrum
- Shows relative absorbance of different wavelengths of light by a
photosynthesis pigment
 Action Spectrum
- Shows relative photosynthetic rates at different wavelengths of light
- Obtained by measuring & plotting the rate of photosynthesis against various
wavelengths of light
- Close similarity with absorption spectrum
 Highest rates of photosynthesis when chlorophyll is exposed to blue &
red wavelengths (these wavelengths are absorbed most effectively by
chlorophyll)

 Limiting Factors of photosynthesis


- Light Intensity

- Temperature
- Carbon Dioxide Concentration

 Fate of Glucose
- Used immediately
 For cellular respiration
 From cellulose cell walls
- Stored
 Excess glucose formed during daylight is converted into starch and
stored in storage organs
 Photosynthesis slows down & stops in darkness; starch is converted back
into glucose by enzymes
- Converted into sucrose
 Transported to other parts of plant via phloem
 Converted to starch/other forms of storage compound (depends on plant)
 Might be converted back to glucose
- Reacts with nitrates/other mineral salts absorbed from soil
 Forms a-a in leaves
→ Used to from proteins (synthesis of protoplasm in leaves)
→ Excess a-a transported to other parts of plant for synthesis of
protoplasm/storage as proteins
 Forms fats
→ For storage
→ Used in cellular respiration synthesis of new protoplasm
 Importance of photosynthesis
- Makes ATP available to other organisms directly or indirectly
- Removes CO2, provides O2
- Energy stored in fossil fuels captured through photosynthesis
 E.g. coal, oil, gas
 Burning of fossil fuels releases energy stored
- Maintain Ecology
 Transfer of energy through various trophic levels
 Carbon cycle
Our Impact on the Ecosystem
How do we affect the ecosystem?
• Human beings use natural resources everyday
• The use of natural resources must be controlled and regulated because their
depletion will result in environmental damage that is largely irreversible
➢ Renewable: can be replaced via natural cycles as long as they are not
overused (e.g. air, water, soil, wildlife)
➢ Non-renewable: cannot be replaced once they are used (e.g. fossil fuels,
minerals)
• Deforestation
➢ Clearing of forests to make land available for urban and/or agricultural
development, for wood
➢ Forests are usually cleared at a faster rate than they can be replaced
➢ Effects
✓ Soil erosion
 Forests prevent soil erosion by providing a leafy canopy that
protects the topsoil from direct impact of rain & retaining water
in the forest through the absorption of water by plant roots
 In deforested areas, the soil is exposed to direct rainfall, and
the water is not absorbed and retained
 The topsoil would be easily washed away during heavy rain
✓ Flooding

✓ Desertification
 Without the leafy canopy, sunlight falls directly onto the
ground and causes water to evaporate from the ground
 This creates a desert-like condition that is not suitable for
plants to grow
✓ Climate changes
 Reduced plant life results in less carbon dioxide being
removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It traps heat within the
Earth's atmosphere and results in warmer climates
• Uncontrolled fishing practices
➢ Fish is an important food source for humans
➢ As the human population increases, the demand for fish increases
➢ Uncontrolled and unregulated fishing can result in reduced aquatic
biodiversity
✓ Involves the use of dredges: destroy coral reefs & organisms living on
the seabed
✓ Involves the use of drift nets & trawlers: catch marine life
indiscriminately
✓ Cyanide fishing: kills corals and other reef organisms
➢ Effects
✓ Destruction of marine habitat
✓ Decrease and extinction of certain fish population
• Pollution
➢ Harmful substances are being added to the environment
➢ Warer pollution: contamination of water bodies
➢ Can be caused by:
✓ Discarge of untreated sewage into water bodies
✓ Excessive use of fertilisers and insecticides
✓ Dumping of inorganic waste material into water bodies
• Sewage: waste materials from homes & industries
➢ Untreated sewage may contain disease-causing bacteria and that can result
in epidemics if discarded into water bodies
➢ Epidemic: outbreak of a disease that affects a large population of humans in a
given period of time
✓ e.g. cholera – bacteria found in untreated sewage
➢ Untreated sewage also contains phosphates and nitrates that can lead to
eutrophication
➢ Sewage is not directly used as fertilisers because of the disease-causing
bacteria, it is being processed before used as fertilisers
➢ Sewage causes growth of bacteria
• Chemical fertilisers
➢ Contain nitrates and phosphates, used to increase crop yield
➢ Fertilisers lead to algae bloom
➢ Enclosed water bodies are easier to pollute (e.g. ponds)
➢ Excessive use of fertilisers can lead to eutrophication
✓ Excess fertilisers are washed into a water body
✓ Nutrients in fertilisers increase the growth of algae (floats & blocks
sunlight) and water plants in the water body
✓ Submerged plants die due to the lack of sunlight. Bacteria grow
rapidly and use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose the dead
plants
✓ Other organisms die due to the lack of oxygen
• Inorganic waste
➢ Includes posionous metals (e.g. mercury, arsenic, cadmium) and some types of
pesticides
➢ Poisonous metals that are dumped into rivers or lakes are extremely harmful to
humans (mecury posoning in 1971 in Minamata, Japan)

• Insecticides
➢ Some insecticides are compounds that are non-biodegradable (e.g.
dichlorodiphenyltrichloethane, DDT)
➢ DDT cannot be excreted and it is stored in fatty tissues of organisms that
consume it
➢ This means that DDT can be passed along food chains
➢ The concentration of DDT increases as we move along the trophic level
➢ This results in the bioaccumulation of DDT in top consumers
• Bioaccumulation
➢ Chemicals that are not excreted accumulate in bodies of organisms that
consume them
➢ The chemical are then passed along the food chain and become concentrated
in the bodies of the final consumers
Conservation
• Human activities have depleted natural resources, polluted the environment and
destroyed wildlife
• This threatens the biodiversity on Earth
• Biodiversity: range of species that is present in a particular ecosystem
• Conservation: protection and preservation of natural resources in the environment
• Reasons for conservation
➢ Preservation of natural scenery and wildlife
➢ Scientific value: studies on wildlife give us insight on human beings
➢ Maintenance of a balanced ecosystem
➢ Maintenance of biodiversity
✓ Prevents extinction of animal and plant species
✓ Maintenance of a large pool
➢ Economic importance: rainforests are a source of raw materials for industries
➢ Food source: marine life are a major source of human food
• Conservation measures
➢ Envrionmental biotechnology: use of biological sciences to provide
environmentally friendly solutions in reducing pollution
✓ Used water (i.e. sewage) has to be trated before being removed
✓ The usage of microorganisms in sewage treatment helps to speed up
the water treatment process
➢ Conversation of forests: prevent adverse effects of deforestation
✓ Creation of laws to regulate the logging industry
✓ Reforestation: the planting of new trees/seedlings to replace trees that
have been destroyed
✓ Designation of lands as forests reserves
✓ Research to improve quality of forests and making them more
productive
➢ Conservation of fishing grounds: prevent over-fishing & indiscriminate
catches
✓ Banning the use of drift nets, trawlers & dredges
✓ Using nets with a certain mesh size
✓ Limiting the number of ships allowed in fishing grounds at any one
time
✓ Raising endangered species of fish in hatcheries for release into the
sea
Reproduction in Humans
The Male Reproductive System

Organ/part Function and/or Structure


Testis - Produces sperms & male sex hormones such as testosterone
Epididymis - Stores inactive sperms from the testis before they are released
into the sperm ducts
Spermatic cord - Supplies blood to testis
Scrotum (scrotal - Pouch-like sacs located outside the body cavity to help maintain
sac) a lower temperature for the development of sperms
- Also called scrotal sac
Sperm duct - Pathway travelled by sperms after they are released from the
testis
- Also called vas deference
Seminal vesicle - Stores sperms temporarily before they are released through the
urethra
Urethra - A tube that extends from the bladder, through the penis, to
outside the body
- Both urine & semen exit the body through the urethra, but never
at the same time
- Sphincter muscles at the base of the urinary bladder prevent
urine from exiting the body during ejaculation
Penis - Erectile organ that becomes erect and hard during sexual
intercourse in order to enter and deposit semen into the vagina
- Erection occurs when the spongy tissue in the penis is filled
with blood
- Seminal vesicle, prostate gland & Cowper’s gland activate sperms by secreting a
slippery fluid that contains nutrients & enzymes
- Semen: mixture of the slippery fluid & sperms
• Sperm (spermatozoa)
➢ Produced throughout the lifetime of a male human after he reaches physical
puberty
➢ Sperm is motile (able to move on its own)
➢ Head
✓ Nucleus that carries a haploid set of chromosomes
✓ Small amount of cytoplasm
✓ Acrosome that contains enzymes for breaking down part of the egg
membrane for penetration
➢ Middle piece
✓ Numerous mitochondria that provide energy for the sperm to swim to
the egg
➢ Tail (flagellum)
✓ Beats to enable the sperm to swim towards the egg

The Female Reproductive System

Organ/part Function and/or Structure


Ovary - Produces eggs and female sex hormones such as oestrogen and
progesterone
Oviduct - A narrow muscular tube with a funnel-like opening at the ovary
(fallopian - Mature eggs are released from the ovary into the oviduct to be
tube) fertilised
Uterus (womb) - Location where the foetus develops
- Has elastic muscular walls that enable contraction during birth
to expel the foetus
Uterine lining - Soft, smooth inner lining of the uterus that is important for
(endometrium) embryo implantation
Cervix - Circular ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus
Vagina (birth - Location where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse
canal) - Spans the area from the cervix to the vulva

• Ovum (egg)
➢ Present in the ovaries of a female at birth
➢ Eggs are released into the oviducts from the time a female reaches puberty
until she reaches 45-55 years of age (menopause)
➢ Large nucleus containing one haploid set of chromosomes
➢ Large amount of cytoplasm which may contain a small amount of yolk
➢ Cell surface membrane that is surrounded by an outer membrane

• Difference between male & female gametes


Feature Male gamete Female gamete
Structure - Has a head, a middle piece - Spherical in shape
& a tail - Nucleus has one X chromosome
- Nucleus contains either X - Diameter of 120 to 150 µm
orY chromosome
-
About 60 µm long with a
diameter of 2.5 µm for the
head
Motility - Motile - Non-motile
- Has a tail that enables it to - Passive movement of egg along
swim towards the oviduct the oviduct is due to the action
of the cilia on oviduct &
peristalsis of oviduct wall
Numbers - Numerous sperms are - Number of eggs is determined
produced throughout life at birth
from puberty onwards - Only one egg is released per
- Large number of sperms is month
released per ejaculation - Both ovaries together produce
about 500 mature eggs
Puberty
• Stage of human growth and development in which a person's body become capable of
reproduction
• During this period,
➢ Sex organs mature
➢ Sex organs secrete sex hormones
✓ Testosterone (male)
✓ Oestrogen and progesterone (female) [progesterone is only secreted
when one is pregnant]
➢ Sex hormomes cause secondary sexual charatcteristics to develop
In males In females
-
Hair starts to grow in the pubic - Hair starts to grow in the pubic
region, at the armpits & on the face region & at the armpits
- Penis & testicles increase in size - Breasts & uterus enlarge
- Larynx enlarges & vioce deepens - Hips broaden
- Production of sperm begins - Menstruation & ovulation begin
• The menstual cycle
➢ Cycle of events that takes place in the female reproductive organ every month
➢ Menstruation: monthly discharge of blood from the uterus via the vagina
➢ Average length of a menstrual cycle is 28 days in a female adult female
➢ Natural variation in the length of the menstrual cycle, ranging from 21 to 33
days
➢ Menstrual cycle can be affected by illness, stress, unbalanced diet and/or
malntrition, pregnancy
• Changes in a follicle during the menstrual cycle
➢ Ovaries contain developing follicles

Primary - Each primary (young) follicle contains a potential egg cell


follicles surrounded by a layer of follicle cells (smaller cells)
Graafian - A primary follicle may develop into a Graafian follicle
follicle - Graafian follicle contains a mature egg surrounded by follicle cells
& a fluid-filled space
- Egg has a haploid number of chromosomes
- Egg is now ready to be released into the oviduct. Generally, one
egg is released per month & ovaires take turns to release an egg
Ovulation - Occurs when the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the egg
into the oviduct funnel
- Typically occurs on the 14th day from the start of menstruation
Corpus - Ruptured Graafian follicle develops into a corpus luteum after
luteum ovulation
- Produces hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy
- If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum will eventually
break down
• Stages in the menstrual cycle

➢ Menstrual flow stage (day 1-5)


✓ 1st day of menstruation is the 1st day of the menstrual cycle
✓ Uterine lining breaks down & flows from the uterus out of the body
via the vagina
✓ The anterior pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) into the bloodstream
➢ Follicle stage (day 6-13)
✓ FSH stimulates
 Follcile development in the ovaries
 Oestrogen secretion by the follicles
✓ Effects of oestrogen
 Causes repair & growth of the uterine lining: uterine lining
becomes thick & spongy with blood vessels
 When present in high concentrations, it inhibits FSH
production, preventing the maturation & growth of more
follicles
 Stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinsing hormone
(LH) when present in high concentration
➢ Ovulation (day 14)
✓ Effects of LH
 Causes ovulation
 Causes formation of the corpus luteum
 Secretes progesterone & some oestrogen
➢ Corpus luteum stage (day 15-28)
✓ Effects of progesterone
 Thickens uterine lining & supplies it with more blood
capillaries to prepare it for embryo implantation
 Inhibits ovulation
 Inhibits FSH production

No fertilisation Fertilisation
- Egg breaks down - Fertilised egg becomes a zygote,
- High concentration of progesterone which develops into an embryo
inhibits LH production. Lowered LH - Embryo embeds itself into the
levels result in the corpus luteum uterine liining
breaking down - Embryo secretes a hormone that
- Preogesterone is no longer secreted prevents the corpus luteum from
- Uterine lining breaks down breaking down
- Uterine lining - Corpus luteum continues to secrete
- is discharges together with blood oestrogen & progesterone until the
through vagina (start of placenta forms & is able to take over
menstruation) the production of bothe hormones
- FSH is produced by pituitary gland
and menstrual cycle repeats

• Fertile & infertile periods of menstrual cycle


➢ Fertile period
✓ Ovulaation occurs on day 14
✓ Egg can be fertilised up to 48 hours after its release from the ovary
✓ Sperms can live up to 2/3 days in the female reproductive system
✓ If sexual intercourse takes place from days 11 to 16, there is a higher
chance of fertilisation
➢ Infertile period: rest of the days in the menstrual cycle
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
• Sexual intercourse (copulation – for a functional penis only)
➢ Secual arousal
➢ Penis becomes erect as blood is pumped into the spongy erectile
➢ Semen containing millions of sperms is ejaculated into the vagina
➢ Sperms swim up the oviduct to meet the egg
• Fertilisation
➢ Occurs when the sperm (n) fuses with an ovum (n) to from a zygote (2n)
➢ Acrosome (at the head of the sperm) releases an enzyme that
✓ Disperses follicle cells
✓ Breaks down part of the egg membrane to allow the sperm to enter
➢ Only one sperm enters the nucleus
➢ Haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus to form a zygote
(fertilised egg)
➢ As soon as a sperm enterms the egg, the membrane of the egg changes such
that no other sperms can enter
➢ Sperms that were unable to fertilise the egg eventually die

• Development of the embryo

Implantation - Cilia lining in oviduct sweeps the fertislised egg towards the uterus
- As zygote travels towards the oviduct, it undergoes mitosis to from
an embryo
- It takes the embryo 5 days to reach the uterus
- The embryo may float freely in the uterus for 2 days before it gets
implanted into the uterine lining
- Occurs about 7 days after fertilisation
Development - After implantation, villi (finger-like projections) grow from the
of the embryo into the uterine lining
placenta - Embryonic villi & uterine lining make up the placenta
- Umbilical cord attaches embryo to the placenta
Development - Amniotic sac is the membrane that encloses the embryo in the
of amniotic amniotic cavity (fluid-filled space)
sac - Amniotic fluid: fluid in amniotic cavity
- Embryo continues to develop, once all major organs are formed,
foetus forms

• The fetal blood system

➢ Fetal blood capillaries are not connected to the maternal blood capillaries
➢ Fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by the maternal blood spaces
➢ Diffusion of dissolved substances can occur across the maternal blood spaces
➢ The fetal blood system is separated from the maternal blood system
✓ Mother's blood pressure is too high for the foetus
✓ Foetus's and mother's blood type may be different
 If both blood systems were allowed to mix, the maternal
antibodies would cause the foetus's blood to agglutinate
➢ Functions of placenta
✓ Allows oxygen & food substances to diffuse from the mother's blood
to the foetus's blood
✓ Allows excretory products to diffuse from the foetus's blood into the
mother's blood
✓ Produces progesterone to maintain the uterine lining
✓ Allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother's blood into the foetus's
blood to protect the foetus against diseases
➢ Functions of umbilical cord
✓ 1 umbilical vein: transports oxygenated blood & food substances
from placenta to foetus
✓ 2 umbilical arteries: transport deoxygenated blood & metabolic waste
products from the foetus to the placenta
➢ Functions of amniotic fluid
✓ Allows foetus to move freely during growth
✓ Lubricates the vagina during birth
✓ Supports & cushions the foetus
✓ Protects the foetus against physical injury by absorbing shock
Sexually Transmitted Infection
• Disease that is spread through sexual intercourse
• Caused by bacteria/viruses
• Can be transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person via
➢ Semen
➢ Fluid in vagina
➢ Blood
• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
➢ Caused by Human Imumunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
➢ HIV destroys the body's immune system
➢ Person infected with AIDS is unable to produc sufficient antibodies to preotct
him or herself from other infections
➢ Infections that are normally mild may become fatal for a person with AIDS
➢ Symptoms:
✓ Sever diarrhoea that lasts fro months
✓ Chronic fever
✓ Widespread tuberculosis
✓ Brain infection
✓ Pneumonia
✓ Kaposi's sacroma (cancer of blood vessels)
➢ Modes of transmission
✓ Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
✓ Passed from mother to foetus during pregnancy
✓ Blood transfusion with blood from an infected person
✓ Sharing of hypodermic needles with an infected person
➢ How to prevent HIV infection
✓ Keep to one sex partner/do not have sex
✓ Use a condom when having sexual intercourse
✓ Do not abuse drugs as drug addicts tend to share needles
✓ Do not share instruments that can break skin & get contaminated with
blood (e.g. razors, toothbrushes)
✓ Make sure that needles used for acupuncture, ear-piercing and/or
tattooing are sterilised
Extra Infromation
- Erectile dysfunction: Viagra is prescribed
➢ Viagra increases heart rate
➢ Heart may overwork & this can lead to death)
- Brain grows first during the development of the baby
- Production/concentrations of oestrogen & progesterone are antagonistic
Reproduction in Plants
 Reproduction
o Process of producing new organisms
o Continuation of species
o Organisms can reproduce via asexual & sexual reproduction
o Asexual Reproduction
 Genetically identical offspring from one parent, without
fusion of gametes is produced
 Cell divides to produce 2 identical daughter cells through
mitosis
 Each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell
 Daughter cells have the same type & amount of genes as
parent cell
 Clones: offspring produced
 Disadvantages:
 No genetic variation in the offspring. Hence species are
not well adapted to changes in the environment
 Advantages:
 Only one parent required
 Fusion of gametes not required
 All beneficial qualities are passed on to the offspring
 Faster method of producing offspring as compared to
sexual reproduction
 Since organisms are already in suitable habitat, they can
colonise the area rapidly
o Sexual Reproduction
 Dissimilar offspring produced after fusion of 2 gametes to
form the zygote
 Gametes from when a cell divide to produce 4 daughter cells
through meiosis
 Each daughter cell had ½ the no. of chromosomes as the
parent cell
 Fertilisation: male & female gametes fuse together
 Nuclei of the 2 gametes fuse to form a zygote which have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
 Disadvantages:
 2 parents are required (except in plants with bisexual
flowers)
 Fusion of gametes required
 Slower method of producing offspring as compared
with sexual reproduction
 Advantages:
 Offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both
parents
 There is greater genetic variation in the offspring,
leading to species that are better adapted to changes in
the environment
 Parts of a flower

o Flowers may occur singly or in inflorescences (clusters)


Part Structure and/or Function
Sepal Modified leaf that protects flower in the bud stage
Calyx Made up of all the sepals
Epicalyx Another layer of floral leaves outside the sepals (for some flowers only)
Petal Modified leaf that forms the most obvious part of a flower; all petals
together make up the corolla. In insect-pollinated flowers, petals
 Are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination
 Provide a landing platform for insects
Receptacle Enlarged end of the flower stalk that bears parts of the flower
Pedicel Flower stalk
 Sessile flowers have no pedicel & are attached to the plant
directly at the base
Stamen (male): make up androecium
Anther  Produces pollen grains
 Made up of 2 lobes, each containing 2 pollen sacs (splits open
when mature to release pollen grains)
 Contains a vascular bundle
 Pollen grains have a haploid set of chromosomes
 Each pollen grain has 2 nuclei: generative nucleus & pollen
tube/vegetative nucleus
Filament Holds anther in a suitable position to disperse the pollen grains
 Long filament: dangle outside, for wind pollination as it is soft
and easier for wind to disperse pollen
 Short filament: stays inside, for insect/animal pollination as it
is stiff, short &stout, allowing insects/animals to brush against
pollen
Carpel/Pistil (female): make up gynoecium
Stigma  Swollen structure that receives pollen grains
 Mature stigma secretes sugary fluid to stimulate the
germination of pollen grains
Style  Connects stigma to ovary
 Hold stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen grains
Ovary  Contain 1/more ovules
 Ovule contains ovum and the definitive nucleus
 Ovum has a set of haploid chromosomes
 Ovule is attached to the placenta by a funicle (a stalk)

 Pollination
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma
o Brings the male and female gametes together to enable fertilisation
o Self-pollination
 Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same
flower/a different flower on the same plant
 Flowers are bisexual with anthers & stigmas maturing at the
same time
 Stigma is situated directly below anther
 Certain flowers in bisexual plants never open (cleistogomas) &
only self-pollination can happen
 Advantages
 Only 1 parent is required
 Beneficial qualities are passed down from parent plant
to offspring
 Not dependent on external factors fro pollination
 Higher probability of pollination as stigmas are closer
to anthers
 Less pollen & energy is wasted
 Disadvantages
 Less genetic variation in offspring. Species is less well
adapted to changes in the environment
 Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed
in offspring is higher
o Cross-pollination
 Transfer of pollen grains to the flower of another plant of the
be same species
 Dioecious plants bear either male/female flowers, making self-
fertilisation impossible
 In bisexual plants, cross-pollination can happen when stigmas
and anthers mature at different times and the stigmas of the
plants are situated a distance away from the anthers
 Advantages
 Offspring can inherit beneficial qualities from both
parents
 More varieties of offspring are produced which leads to
greater genetic variation (increases chance of survival
of how people want to change an environment)
 Increase probability of offspring being heterozygous
 Seeds produced are capable of surviving longer before
germination
 Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed
in offspring is lower as compared with cross-pollination
 Disadvantages
 2 different plants of the same species are required
 Dependent on external factors for pollination
 More energy & pollen wasted
 Less likely to occur as compared to self-pollination
 Differences between insect-pollinated & wind-pollinated
flowers
Feature Insect Wind
Petals Large with brightly-coloured Small, dull-coloured & w/o petals
petals
Nectar Nectar is present Nectar is absent
Scent Fragrant & sweet-smelling Scent is absent in flowers
flowers
Stigmas Small, compact & do not protrude Large, feather & protrude out of
out of flowers flowers
Stamen Not pendulous & do not protrude Long & pendulous filaments with
out of flowers protruding anthers
Pollen Fairly abundant. Pollen grains are More abundant. Pollen grains are
larger with rough surfaces tiny with smooth surfaces
Nectar Nectar guides are present Nectar guides are absent
guides
 Fertilisation
1 Pollen grain germinates in response to sugary fluid secreted by mature stigma
after pollination
2 Pollen tube grows out of pollen grain. Growth of pollen tube is controlled by
pollen tube nucleus
3 Cytoplasm & 2 nuclei pass into the pollen tube
4 Pollen tube secretes enzymes to digest the surrounding tissue of stigma & style
5 Pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle (place where gametes meet)
6 Generative nucleus divides into 2 male gametes while the pollen tube nucleus
disintegrates
7 When the pollen tube reaches the ovule, its tip absorbs sap & bursts, releasing
the 2 male gametes
8 One male gamete fuses with the ovum to form a zygote. The other male
gamete fuses with the definitive nucleus to form the endosperm nucleus.
9 Zygote divides & develops into embryo, and the endosperm nucleus will give
rise to an endosperm (food source for the seed)

o After fertilisation,
 Ovule develops into a seed
 Ovary develops into a fruit
 Zygote develops into an embryo
 When the seed germinates, the embryo will develop into the
new plant
Clitoria: insect-pollinated flower
 Calyx has 5 green sepals
 Base of calyx is enclosed by epicalyx consisting of 2 leaves
 Corolla has 5 brightly-coloured petals that help to attract insects
 Standard petal has lines (nectar guides) that guide insects to where nectar is
located
 2 deep blue wing petals are enclosed by standard petal
 2 yellowish-green keel petals enclose reproductive organs of flower

 Androecium consists of 10 stamens with long filaments


 Filaments of 9 stamens are fused to form a trough that encloses pistil
 Nectar of flower collects at the bottom of the stamen trough. Hence, they can
be reached only by insects with long tubular mouth (proboscis)

 Pistil only has a single carpel


 Stigma is small & compact
 Style is a long, curved, hairy structure
 Ovary is long & narrow with a single row of ovules

 Insect lands on the standard petal.


 It follows nectar guide into the flower.
 In order to collect nectar, the insect forces its way in b/w the 2 wing petals.
 The insect’s back forces keel petal upwards to expose anthers & stigma.
 Pollen grains from anther stick onto the back of the insect & get transferred to
a stigma.
 When insect leaves the flower, the keel petals spring back to its original
position.

Ischaemum Muticum: wind-pollinated flower (grass flower)

 Flowers come in pairs.


 Each flower is enclosed by 2 transparent flowering bracts.
 The upper bisexual flower has 1 ovary, 2 long feathery stigmas, 3 stamens &
2 lodicules.
 When ready to reproduce, lodicules swell & force the 2 flowering bracts apart.
 The lower male flower only has 3 stamens with long filaments & 2 lodicules
 Spikelet: Each pair of flowers together with a short stalk.
 Non-flowering bracts protect the 2 flowers in the spikelet.
 Spikelet occurs in pairs & a few pairs of spikelet make up an inflorescence.
 Mature stamens have long filaments that hang downwards & can swing freely
(pendulous).
 When filaments sway, the pollen is shaken free & carried away by wind.
 Mature stigma is large, extended & feathery to provide a large SA for
capture of pollen floating in the air.
Respiration in Humans
Why do living things respire?
 Living organisms need energy to sustain life
 Energy that is needed for organisms to move, grow, excrete & reproduce, is obtained
through the consumption of food
 To use the energy available in food, living need to break down the food molecules
through oxidation
 Respiration: oxidation of food molecules to produce energy

 Aerobic respiration
 Breakdown of food molecules in the presence of oxygen
 Results in the production of a large amount of energy & it gives off carbon
dioxide & water as waste products
 Chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
 Occurs in mitochondria of all cells

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): main energy currency used in all living cells
 Energy is released when a phosphate bond is broken
 ATP is the converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
 Anaerobic respiration
 Breakdown of food molecules in the absence of oxygen
 Releases less energy than aerobic respiration
 Chemical equation (in humans only): C6H12O6  2C3H6O3 + energy
 Alcoholic fermentation in yeasts & plants
 Glucose  alcohol + carbon dioxide + small amount of energy
 Lactate fermentation in muscle cells of animals
 Glucose  lactic acid + small amount of energy
 What happens during exercise?
 Muscles contract vigorously to enable movement
 Respiratory rate & heart rate increase to enable more oxygen to reach the
muscles
 If the increased oxygen intake is not able to meet the oxygen demand, an
oxygen debt results & anaerobic respiration takes place to provide the
energy required
 Anaerobic respiration results in the accumulation in lactic acid in the muscle
cells
 Lactic acid accumulation can cause fatigue & muscular pains
 During the period of rest
 Breathing rate continues to be fast  provide sufficient oxygen to repay
oxygen debt
 Lactic acid is removed from the muscles & transported to the liver where it is
oxidised to produce energy/converted to glucose  glucose will be
transported back to the muscles
 Uses of energy
 Muscle contraction
 Protein synthesis
 Cell division
 Active transport
 Building up of protoplasm for growth
 Transmission of nerve impulses
 Maintenance of constant body temperature
Studying Respiration
 Carbon dioxide is a product of respiration
 KOH in flask A removes carbon dioxide from the air entering flask B
 Limewater (CaO) in flask B should not turn chalky
 The air entering flask C does not contain carbon dioxide. Hence any carbon
dioxide detected in flask D would be due to aerobic respiration by the snails

 The glucose solution that is used was first boiled and cooled to remove
dissolved oxygen from the solution
 Due to the limited oxygen available to the yeast, the yeast undergoes anaerobic
respiration
 If carbon dioxide is released during the anaerobic respiration of the yeast, the
limewater will turn chalky
 Heat is a product of respiration
 The vacuum flask prevents heat from escaping &
entering the area where the seeds are germinating
 The cotton wool plug allows gaseous exchange b/w
the seeds & the environment
 The antiseptic solution prevents the growth of
microorganisms like bacteria
 If heat is produced during respiration, the
thermometer would register a temperature higher
than the surrounding temperature
Gas exchange in Humans
 Why the need for a respiratory system?
 Humans are large organisms that are made up of millions of cells
 We have a small SA:V, unlike unicellular organisms
 Therefore, we need a special system of organs for gaseous exchange b/w the
environment & cells in our bodies
 External respiration: mechanism of exchange, involves breathing
 Pathway of air through the respiratory system

 Human gas exchange system


 The fringe of hair and the mucous layer on the walls of the nasal passage trap
dust and foreign particles
 As the air passes through the air passage, it is warmed & moistened
 The trachea is supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage that ensure that the
trachea is always open
 On the inner walls of the trachea & bronchi are
 Gland cells: secrete mucus that trap dust particles & bacteria in
the air that is channelled to the lungs
 Ciliated cells: have cilia that sweep the trapped particles &
bacteria up the bronchi & trachea, into the pharynx
 The lungs lie in the pleural cavity
 Within the lungs, the bronchial
tubes divide repeatedly to form
bronchioles
 Bronchioles end in a cluster of air
sacs (alveoli)
 The alveoli
 Site of gaseous exchange
 Numerous alveoli in the lungs increase the
SA for gaseous exchange
 The alveoli are well-supplied with blood
capillaries to enable the efficient exchange
of gases
 The alveolar surface is coated with a thin film of water. This allows gases to
dissolve in it
 The wall of each alveolus is only one cell thick. It is supplied by capillaries
that are also only one cell thick
 Gas exchange in the alveolus

 How oxygen is transported


 Oxygen molecules bind to haemoglobin in RBC cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin

 How carbon dioxide is transported


 Carbon dioxide molecules from respiring cells enter the RBC in the blood
stream
 There, the carbon dioxide molecules react with water to form carbonic acid
 This rxn is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase
 The carbonic acid is then converted into HCO3- ions which will diffuse out of
the RBC and into the blood plasma
 Most of the carbon dioxide is transported as HCO3- ions in the blood plasma
Breathing Mechanisms in Humans
 The ribs support the chest wall
 External intercostal muscles & internal intercostal muscles can be found b/w the
ribs
 The intercostal muscles move the rib cage up & down during breathing
 The diaphragm is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle & elastic tissue that contracts &
relaxes to change the volume of the thoracic cavity
Inspiration (Inhale) Expiration (Exhale)

 Model showing the movement of ribs during breathing

 The jar is sealed tight to create a vacuum, like the chest cavity
 When the rubber sheet is pulled downwards, the balloons expand & suck in air
from the difference in pressure
Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Humans
 Nicotine
 Addictive
 Makes blood clot more easily
 Increases the risk of heart diseases
 Carbon monoxide
 Decreases the ability of RBC to transport oxygen
 Increases the rate at which fats are deposited on the inner arterial walls
 Increases the risk of artherosclerosis
 Irritants (e.g. formaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide)
 Paralyse the cilia lining in air passages
 Increase the risk of chronic bronchitis & emphysema
 Tar
 Carcinogenic
 Paralyses the cilia lining in air passages
 Reduces the efficiency of gaseous exchange
 Chronic bronchitis
 The epithelium lining the airways is inflamed
 There is excessive mucus secretion
 The cilia lining in the airways are paralysed
 Symptoms
 Breathing difficulties due to blocked airways
 Persistent cough (body’s response to clear the blocked airways)
 Emphysema
 The partition walls of alveoli break down due to violent coughs  reduces SA
available for gaseous exchange
 Lungs lose their elasticity & become inflated with air
 Symptoms
 Breathing difficulties
 Wheezing
The Human Eye
 A receptor (sensory organ) that receives stimuli from the environment
 Highly-specialised structure, responsible for sight
 Structure

External Structure
Components Function and/or Structure
Cornea  Dome-shaped transparent layer
 Refracts light rays into the eyes
Conjunctiva  Mucus membrane that covers sclera
 Secretes mucus to keep the front of eyeball moist
Pupil  A hole in the centre of iris, allowing light to enter the eye
Iris  Circular sheet of muscles, consisting of circular and radial
muscles (involuntary muscles)
 Contains pigment that gives eye its colour
Eyelid  Protects cornea from mechanical damage
 Squinting prevents excessive entry of light
 Blinking spreads tears over the eyes so that dust can be wiped
off
 They close to squish the tear ducts and clean the eye
Eyelash  Shields eye from dust particles
Tear gland/duct  Secretes tears to:
 Wash away dust particles
 Keep cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve
 Lubricate conjunctiva, reducing friction when eyelids
move
 Tears secreted flow at the side of the eye, not the centre
Internal Structure
Components Function and/or Structure
Sclera (sclerotic  Outermost layer
coat)  Tough, white outer covering of eyeball
 Continuous with cornea
 Eye muscles attached to the sclera facilitates movement of
eyeball
Choroid  Black pigmented middle layer
 Prevents internal reflection of light
 Contains blood vessels that carry oxygen & nutrients to eyeball
 Remove metabolic waste products from eyeball
Retina  Innermost layer
 Retina delamination (bad conditions of detached layers of tissue)
 Contains photoreceptors
 Rods (night vision)
 Thinner in shape
 Stimulated even by very dim light
 Enable us to see in dim light, but only in black
and white
 Contains visual purple (pigment that contains
Vitamin A)
 Visual purple is bleached when exposed to
bright light & impulses cannot be sent to brain
 Cones (day vision)
 Fatter in shape
 Three types: red, blue green (white when
together)
 Each type contains different pigment, which
absorbs light of different wavelengths
 Work together to enable us to see colours in
bright light
 Connected to nerve fibres from optic nerve
Fovea  Yellow spot (small depression) where images are focused
 Contains cones, but not rods
 Enables a person to have a detailed colour vision in bright light
Blind Spot  Directly at the optic nerve
 Region where optic nerve leaves the eye
 Does not contain photoreceptors, therefore not sensitive to light
Optic Nerve  Transmits impulses to brain when photoreceptors are stimulated
 The only nerve that is directly connected to the brain
Lens  Transparent, circular and biconvex structure
 Shape or thickness can be changed in order to refract light into
the retina
 Cannot be perfectly spherical
 Flexible (can be compressed & stretched)
 Made up of organic matter (needs oxygen)
 When it loses elasticity, the lens cannot repair itself (no longer
flexible, becomes harder)
Suspensory  Attaches the edge of the lens to the ciliary body
Ligament
Ciliary Body  Changes the shape of lens
 Contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature and
thickness of the lens
 Ciliary muscles control the iris & lens at the same time
Aqueous  Space between lens and cornea
Chamber  Filled with aqueous humour, a transparent, watery fluid
 Aqueous humour keeps front of eyeball firm and refracts light
into the pupil
Vitreous  Space behind the lens
Chamber  Filled with vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance
 Vitreous humour keeps eyeball firm and refracts light onto the
retina

The Pupil Reflex


 Iris is controlled by circular and radial muscles (involuntary muscles)
 The muscles are antagonistic
 Work together to control the size of the pupil
In Bright Light In Dim Light
 Circular muscles contract  Circular muscles relax
 Radial muscles relax  Radial muscles contract
 Pupil constricts, reducing the  Pupil dilates, increasing the amount
amount of light that enters the eye of light that enters the eye
 A reflex action
 A response to changes in light intensity
 Protects eye from excessive light exposure which could damage the retina
 Reflex arc of the pupil:

How Do We See?
 Formation of image on retina

1 Light rays are refracted when it passes through the cornea and aqueous
humour
2 Light rays are further refracted when they pass through the lens
3 Image on the retina either stimulates the rods or the cones, depending on the
intensity of light
Nature if image formed:
 Vertically inverted
 Laterally inverted
 Smaller than the object
 The role of brain in vision
 The brain has a corrective function
 The image is upside down within
the retina, but the brain makes it
upright

 Can integrate information from the


overlapping visual fields of both eyes
 Interprets them as one image
1 Inverted image is formed on the retina
2 Light-sensitive cells (rods & cones) are stimulated
3 Nerve impulses generated are transmitted through the optic nerve
4 Nerve impulses reach the optic centre of the brain
5 The brain interprets the information and forms and upright image
 Focusing
 Lens of the eye is adjusted so that clear images of objects at different
distances are formed on the retina
 Known as accommodation (how you see images that are far & near)
 When curvature or thickness of lens is adjusted, light rays can then be
focused on the retina
Near Vision Far Vision
- Shorter light rays - Longer light rays
- Light rays from a near object are - Light rays from a distant object are
divergent parallel
- Greater angle of refraction is - Smaller angle of refraction is
required to bring them into focus required to bring them into focus

Focusing on Nearby Objects Focusing on Distant Objects


1. Ciliary muscles contract, relaxing 1. Ciliary muscles relax, pulling on the
their pull on suspensory ligaments suspensory ligaments
2. Suspensory ligaments slacken, 2. Suspensory ligaments become taut,
relaxing their pull on the lens pulling on the edge of the lens
3. Lens become thicker and more 3. Lens become thinner and less
convex, decreasing the focal length convex, increasing the focal length
4. Light rays are sharply focused on the 4. Light rays are sharply focused on the
retina stimulating the retina stimulating the photoreceptors
photoreceptors 5. Nerve impulses produced are
5. Nerve impulses produced are transmitted to the brain via the optic
transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve
nerve 6. Brain interprets the impulses and the
6. Brain interprets the impulses and the person sees the distant object
person sees the nearby object

Fun Facts
 The eye is the first thing to decay when you die (easy to decompose)
 ¾ of the eye sits inside the skull
 The eye is very fragile (just one punch can break the eyeball)
 The eye accounts for 75% of the information that you know of the world
 The human eye’s resolution is about 100m away
 Eagle’s eyes have the best resolution
 Eagle’s eye are in the same spherical shape as human’s eye
 There is a “third eyelid” at the eye – it collects dirt and dried tears
 Our irises close around the pupil from all around, but a cat’s irises close around the
pupil sideways
 The colour of the iris does not affect our eyesight (no scientific proof)
 Blood vessels in the eye expand, but if they are permanently expanded for too long,
you get blood-shot eyes
 Capillaries burst and damages the eyeball
 Capillaries will show if you’re tired too
 Close your eyes to rest them, so that the eyeball does not burst
 If the eyeball bursts, it will affect your eyesight
 Amount of rods and cones in the retina determine the nature of animals
 Nocturnal: more rods than cones
 Day: more cones than rods
 A dog’s vision is colourless
 The can only see black & white
 Cats are able to resolve colour
 The more coloured the organism is, the more dangerous it is
 Colour blindness only occur for certain colours
 Person is unable to perceive red, blue or green as one/more of those cones are
missing
 Colour deficiency is milder than colour blindness
 The eyeball constantly moves to focus all the images at the fovea
 The fish’s lens is fixed
 Has a wider range, but the images obtained will be blur
 If the suspensory ligaments break off, lens will return back to being perfectly round
 Squinting squishes your eyeballs: if you squint too much, you will get myopia
 Why do people get short-sighted?
 Image falls in front of retina
 Our eyeball is longer than the normal spherical shape
 There is a silver lining/shear for night animals, just in front of the retina
 Reflective surface (reflects light)
The Nervous System
Sensitivity
 Living things respond to their surroundings
 Stimulus: a change in environment that causes a reaction
 Response: an organism’s reaction to the stimulus
 Sensitivity: ability of an organism to detect & respond to the changes in
environment; one of the characteristics of life
 Typical responses to stimuli
 Withdrawal of your hand when it is in contact with something hot
 Plants need light for photosynthesis, so they grow towards the light
 Bacteria move towards food sources
 Grabbing a note when you see it drop in front of your face
 Role of nervous system in humans
 Allow organisms to detect changes in their surroundings & respond to it
 Enables coordination of different parts of the body
 Involuntary actions:
 Automatic activities that are not controlled consciously
 Heart beating
 Digesting food
 Breathing
 Voluntary actions:
 Activities that are controlled consciously
 Throwing a ball
 Waking up in the morning
The Human Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS): brain & spinal cord
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): cranial (brain) nerves & spinal nerves
 Nervous tissues
 Consists of neurones
 Sensory neurones
 Motor neurone
 Relay/intermediate nerounes
 Sensory Neurone Basic Structure
 Cell body: contains nucleus & cytoplasm (can be anywhere)
 Axon (back)
 Dendron (front)
 Receptor  Dendron  Cell Body  Axon
 Basic Structure of a Motor Neurone

Dendron

Dendron - Very small nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses towards the
cell body
Axon - Nerve fibres that carry impulses away from the cell body
Dendrites - On the Dendron: Receive nerve impulses from other neurones
- On the Axon: Transmit nerve impulses to the effector
Cell body - Irregular in shape
Myelin sheath - Layer of fatty substance: shields & insulates nerve fibre
- Surrounded by neurilemma (thin membrane) – made up of
lipids/fats
- Damaged myelin sheath affects signal transmission
Nodes of - Regions where myelin sheath is absent
Ranvier - Speed up transmission by allowing impulses to jump from node
to node
- The longer the nerve, the more Nodes of Ranvier it has
Motor end - Junction between dendrite and muscle fibre
plate - Triggers muscles to worrk
 Relationship b/w the 3 types of nerves
 The 3 neurones are not connected
 Synapses b/w the neurones
 Junction or connection b/w 2 or more
neurones
 Impulses are transmitted from an axon
to a dendron across a synapse: Synaptic
Vesicle (in axon)  Exocytosis into
Synapse  Diffusion across (to
dendron through neurotransmitters) 
Endocytosis into dendron  Vesicles
formed in dendron
 Transmission across a synapse is by
chemical means (through
neurotransmitters)
 Allows one signal to be transmitted to
many other neurones
Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone Relay Neurone
Fibre Long dendron Short dendron Short dendron
Short axon Long axon Long axon
Has myelin sheath Has myelin sheath No myelin sheath
Function Transmits nerve Transmits nerve Transmits nerve
impulses from sense impulses from CNS from sensory to
organs to CNS to nerve effectors motor neurone
 Nerves
 Bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a
sheath of connective tissue
 Cranial nerves – from brain
 Spinal nerves – from spine
 Contains both sensory and
motor nerve fibres (mixed
fibres)

 Grey & White Matter


Region Composition Location
Grey Cell bodies of neurones - Outer layers of
matter (relay & neurones) the brain
*sensory cell bodies are - Central parts of
outside GM the spinal cord
White Mainly nerve fibres of - Central parts of
matter neurones the brain
- Outer layers of
the spinal cord
 Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves
 Spinal cord is encased in the vertebral column
 Spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord
 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge at the intervals
along length of spinal
 Grey matter of spinal cord is roughly in the Buldge at dorsal root
shape of a letter ‘H’ is because the cell
 A narrow central canal, containing bodies of sensory
cerebrospinal fluid, runs through the middle of neurones occupy
the middle of the spinal cord space. (how you
 Each spinal nerve divides into 2 roots – dorsal & identify a SN)
ventral root, before it
joins the spinal cord

 Nerve Impulse Transmission


 Relay neurones lie withing the grey matter of the spinal cord
 Relay transmit nerve
impulses from:
 Sensory neurone 
brain
 Brain  motor
neurones
 Sensory neurones 
motor neurones
 Relay neurones form
synapses with sensory &
motor neurones
 How does the nervous system process information?
1 Information is gathered by receptors
2 Information is converted into nerve impulses (electrical signals)
3 Nerve impulses are transmitted by the peripheral nerves to CNS
4 Brain processes information based on the pattern of nerve impulses
5 Brain sends nerve impulses to the effectors
6 Intended action is carried out

Voluntary Actions & Reflex Actions


 An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control
 Involuntary actions – are not under the control of a person’s will
 Reflex arc: shortest pathway of nerve impulses from the receptor to the effector
 Example of a reflex action: touching a hot object
1 Heat stimulates receptors in skin
2 Nerve impulses are produced and they are
transmitted along sensory neurone to the spinal
cord
3 In the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted to
the relay neurone, and then to the motor neurone
At the same time, nerve impulses are sent to the
brain
4 Upon receiving the nerve impulses from the relay
neurone, motor neurone transmits nerve impulses
to the effector
5 The effector muscle contracts, resulting in the
withdrawal of the hand from the hot object
 Types of reflex actions
 Spinal reflexes
 Reflexes that are
controlled by spinal
cord
 E.g.: withdrawal
reflexes, knee-jerk
reflexes
 Cranial reflexes (head)
 Reflexes that are
controlled by the brain,
but occur without a
person’s consciousness
 E.g.: pupil reflex,
salivation, blinking
Reflex arc: shortest pathway which nerve
impulses travel from the receptor to the
effector in a reflex action

 Voluntary Action
Transport Across Membranes
 Diffusion (passive process)
- The movement of substances (not only molecules) from the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration, down a concentration
gradient
- For small hydrophobic substances that can pass through directly
- Does not require a protein
- Does not matter whether a membrane is present
- Factors affecting rate of diffusion
 Concentration gradient
 Temperature
 Size of molecule
 Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)
 Presence of specific carriers
- Stores excess Examples of diffusion
 Gas exchange at alveoli
 Gas exchange for respiration
 Gas exchange for photosynthesis
 Facilitated Diffusion (passive process)
- For polar molecules that are unable to diffuse through membrane
- Transported across membrane by specific channel or carrier proteins,
down a concentration gradient
 Each carrier has a specific shape that allows only one specific
molecule/group of related molecules to pass through
 Channel protein: transports ions/very small molecules through a channel
that can open or close
 Carrier protein: transport molecules by changing shape. When molecule
attaches to the binding site of protein, it changes configuration and
release the molecule to the other side of the cell membrane
- No energy required
- Examples of facilitated diffusion
 Liver cells – control of concentration of glucose in blood
 Stores excess glucose as glycogen when blood sugar levels are high
 Breaks down glycogen to glucose during glycogenolysis
 Carrier proteins allow for glucose to enter and leave cell, depending on
concentration of glucose
 Osmosis (passive process)
- Movement of water molecule from a region of less –ve water potential to a
region of more –ve water potential, through a partially permeable
membrane
- Water potential – a measure of the tendency of water to move g=from one
place to another
- When a partially permeable membrane separates two solutions of different
water potentials , a water potential gradient is established
- Effects of osmosis on plant cells
Less –ve Water Potential Equal –ve Water Potential More –ve Water Potential
(hypotonic solution) (isotonic solution) (hypertonic solution)
- Water enters cell via - No net movement of - Water leaves cell via
osmosis water osmosis
- Cell contents press - Cell volume remains - Cell membrane
against cell wall unchanged shrinks away from
- Cell increases in - Cell is flaccid cell wall
volume, and is turgid - Cell decreases in
volume, cell is
plasmolysed
- Effects of osmosis on animal cells
Less –ve Water Potential Equal –ve Water Potential More –ve Water Potential
(hypotonic solution) (isotonic solution) (hypertonic solution)
- Water enters cell via - No net movement of - Water leaves cell via
osmosis water osmosis
- Cell increases in - Cell volume remains - Cell decreases in
volume unchanged volume
- Cell lyses - Cell crenates

- Examples of osmosis
 Absorption of water by root hair cells
 Vacuole in root hair cell has more –ve water potential that water in
soil
 Water potential gradient established
 Water enters root hair cell via osmosis
 Vacuole in root hair cell has less –ve water potential that vacuoles of
neighbouring cells
 Water moves from cells with less –ve water potential to those with
more –ve water potential via osmosis
 Water eventually reaches xylem, to be passed on to other cells
 Absorption of water by main alimentary canal
 Re-absorption of water by proximal & distal convoluted tubes of
nephron
 Active transport (active process)
- A process in which energy is used to move the particle of a substance against
a concentration gradient
- Specific carrier proteins needed
- Examples of active transport
 Ion uptake by root hairs
 Re-absorption of glucose, amino acids and mineral salts by proximal
convoluted tubule of nephron
 Glucose uptake by cells in villi
 Food in lumen has a lower concentration of glucose than epithelial
cells in the villi
 Glucose enters epithelial cells via active transport against the
concentration
 Glucose then enters blood capillaries of villi via facilitated diffusion
 Endocytosis (active process)
- Incorporation of extracellular substances through invagination (infolding)
of cell membrane
- Examples of exocytosis
 Amoeba – feed on microscopic organism such as single-celled algae and
bacteria
 Paramecium
 Exocytosis (active process)
- Export of intracellular substances into surroundings through pinching off
the cell membrane to from vesicles
 Comparison of Diffusion & Osmosis
Similarities
Both are passive processes
l involved move down a concentration gradient
Differences
Diffusion Osmosis
Random movement of any substance Random movement of water molecules
Does not require partially permeable Requires a partially permeable
membrane membrane
 Comparison of Facilitated Diffusion & Active Transport
Similarities
Transport solutes across cell membranes
Involve carrier proteins
Differences
Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport
Solutes move from a region of higher Solutes move from a region of lower
concentration to a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration, down a concentration concentration, against a concentration
gradient gradient
Passive process Active process
Energy (ATP) is not needed Energy (ATP) is required
 Turgor
- Pressure resulting from the pushing of swollen cell contents against the cell
wall when external solution has a less –ve water potential than cell sap in
vacuole
- Provides support for non-woody tissues
- Changes shape of guard cells, allows formation of stomatal opening
- Helps in enlargement of cells
Transport in Man
The Need for a Transport System
 Unicellular organisms do not need a transport system for exchange or distribution of
materials
 No part of the cell is far away from the environment outside
 Exchange of materials occurs easily by diffusion
 Diffusion is inadequate for transport in multicellular organisms
 Larger body, reduced SA:V
 Cells are located deeper in the body, further away from external environment
 Thus a transport system is required
Function of Blood
 Transport medium carrying various substances:
 Digested food substances from small intestine to all parts of body
 Excretory products from tissues to excretory organs
- Nitrogenous waste products (e.g. urea, uric acid, creatinine) –
removed through kidneys
- CO2 binds to haemoglobin / carried as hydrogencarbonate ions in
blood/ ~5% dissolved in blood
 Hormones from glands to parts that need them
 Distributes heat from respiring tissues to all parts of body
 Oxygen (haemoglobin in RBC)
 Plasma
 Transport of oxygen to body cells
1 Blood passes through lungs, oxygen
diffuses from the air sacs in the lungs
into the blood
2 Haemoglobin combines with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin
3 Blood transports oxygen to the rest
of the body
4 At the tissue cells, oxyhaemoglobin
releases the oxygen
 Acclimatisation
 People living at high altitudes have an increased number of RBC
 Percentage O2 at high altitudes still 21%
 Air pressure 30% lower – O2 molecules further apart; [O2] lower
 The increased number of RBC increases the amt of haemoglobin in the
blood
 More oxygen can be transported to the body cells per unit time
 Protective function
 Blood clotting
- Platelets - coagulation (fibrinogen to fibrin, causing clotting)
- Plasma – Transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substance
glucose and amino acids, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins,
plasma proteins
- Blood clots when exposed to air
- This seals the wound, prevents the entry of bacteria & further loss of
blood
- Damaged tissues & platelets release thrombokinase
- Thrombokinase, together with calcium ions, converts prothrombin to
thrombin
- Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of prothrombin
- Thrombin catalyses soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads
which entangle blood cells and form a blood clot

 Phagocytosis
- Process of engulfing & ingesting foreign particles e.g. bacteria by
phagocytes (type of WBC)
- Causes inflammation at site of infection/injury
- Pus is formed as a result of dead phagocytes and dead bacteria

 Production of antibodies
- Chemical substances produced by lymphocytes that help to destroy
pathogens
- Produced by lymphocytes
- Antibodies bind to bacteria & cause their surface membranes to
rupture
- Bacterial cells clump together in the presence of antibodies for easy
ingestion by pphagocytes
- Toxins produced by bacteria are neutralised by antibodies
- Virus attachment to host cells are blocked when lymphocytes bind to
them
- Lymphocytes recruit phagocytes to engulf foreign particle
 Organ Transplant and Tissue Rejection
 Involves replacing damaged or diseased tissue/organ with healthy tissue/organ
from a donor or the person himself
 Donor & recipient should be as genetically identical as possible (immediate
family/relatives)
 Recipient may produce antibodies to destroy the transplant
 Ways to reduce a tissue rejection includes a tissue match and the use of
immunosuppressive drugs (inhibits recipient’s immune response)
- Disadvantages of immunosuppressive drugs
 Lowers recipient’s resistance against other infections
 Recipient must continue to take the drugs for the rest of their
lives
 Regulation
 Blood regulates pH and electrolyte composition of the interstitial fluids.
 Blood regulates body temperature
Structure and Composition of Blood
 Components of blood
Erythrocyte - Most dense component of blood
(RBC) - 40% of total blood volume
- Produced in bone marrow, destroyed at spleen
- Limited lifespan of 120 days
- Contains haemoglobin – binds reversibly to O2
- Biconcave (increase SA:V for increased rate of diffusion of gases)
- Elastic (squeeze through capillaries)
- No nucleus (more haemoglobin packed in)
- Most numerous component of blood (~40% of total blood volume)
Leucocyte - Larger than RBC
(WBC) - Produced in bone marrow, destroyed at spleen
- Limited lifespan of a few days even though they have a nucleus
- Colourless as they do not contain haemoglobin
- Irregular in shape and contain a nucleus each
- Mobile – able to move, change shape & squeeze through walls of
capillaries
Types of Agranular WBC:
- Lymphocytes
 Large rounded nucleus
 Small amount of non-granular cytoplasm
 Produce antibodies to fight against pathogens
 B-cell:
 Produced & mature in bone marrow
 secretes antibodies which destroys bacteria and
deactivate toxins
 T-cell:
 Produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus gland
 attack viruses, fungi, transplanted tissues & cancer
cells
 T-helper cells: Produce opsonins to activate
phagocytosis/ activate B-lymphocytes
 T-cytotoxic cells: Kill host cells invaded by viruses,
stopping virus multiplication
 T-suppressor cells: Suppress lymphocyte activity
once infection has been eliminated
- Phagocytes
 Lobed nucleus
 Granular cytoplasm
 Able to ingest foreign particles (phagocytosis)
Types of Granular WBC:
- Neutrophils: first responders to invasion, phagocytic, release
enzymes (chemotaxis)
- Basophils: release substance involved in combating inflammation
and allergies
- Eosinophils: release enzymes that combat inflammation and
parasitic infections
Thrombocyte - Not true cells
(platelet) - Colourless
- ~ 20% of RBC
- Fragments of cytoplasm which are membrane bound
- Important for blood clot
- Disc shape (inactive)  Irregular shape (active)
Plasma - Least dense component in blood
- 55% of total blood volume
- 90% water
- Transport these dissolved substances:
 Proteins such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies
 Mineral salts such as NaCl, CaCl2, Na2SO4 & CaSO4
 Food substances such as glucose, a-a & fats
 Waste products such as urea, uric acid and creatinine
 Hormones
Blood Groups
 Plasma contains natural antibodies (a & b) which recognizes & bind to specific
antigens on RBCs
 RBCs have antigens (proteins) on their surfaces
 What happens when different blood groups are mixed?

 Antibody a in plasma of recipient binds to antigen A on RBCs of donor’s


blood
 Agglutination (or clumping) of RBCs occur

 Blood transfusion

Haemophilia – The Royal Disease


 Hereditary disease
 Clotting mechanism impaired (level of some clotting factors greatly
decreased/missing)
 Fibrin threads not formed – blood unable to coagulate
 Caused by defective gene on X chromosome (X-linked recessive disorder)
 Males more likely to portray symptoms
 Females are more likely to be carriers
 Treatment:
 depends on the which clotting factor is deficient
 Haemophilia A (Classical Haemophilia)- clotting factor VIII
deficiency; most common
 Haemophilia B (Christmas disease) - factor IX deficiency
 symptoms are very similar
 Usually treated by:
 injection of missing clotting factor (as both treatment and preventive
measure)
 Ca supplements/ food
 Platelet transfusion
 Lithium carbonate and folate to stimulate platelet production
The Circulatory System

 Types of Blood Vessels


Artery - Carries blood away from heart
- Aorta: large artery leaving left side of heart
- Arterioles
 Tiny vessels branching from
arteries
 Muscles along wall regulate
diameter of lumen (provides
resistance)
 Plays role in blood pressure
regulation
 Mostly oxygenated blood
- Thick: to withstand the high pressure of blood being forced out of
heart (in spurts)
- Muscular:
 Contraction  constricts artery  lumen narrows  less
blood flows through per unit time
 Relaxation  dilates artery  lumen widens  more blood
flows through per unit time
- Elastic: to withstand high blood pressure & allow walls to stretch &
recoil. Helps push blood along artery (pulse)
Capillary - Allows exchange of materials
b/w blood & tissue
- Tiniest blood vessels in the body
- Found between cells of almost all
tissues
- Exchange of water, O2, CO2,
nutrients, waste products b/w
blood and tissue
- Connects arterioles with venules
- Endothelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells and the walls
are partially permeable
- Repeated branching of capillaries:
 large SA for exchange of substances b/w blood & tissues
 Total cross-sectional area of arteriole increases (further
increases friction, blood slows down, more time for exchange of
substances)
Vein - Carries blood towards the heart
- Vena Cava: large vein returning blood
to right side of the heart
- Venules:
 Capillaries unite to form venules
before leaving tissue/organ
 Mostly deoxygenated blood
- Thinner, less muscular than arteries:
blood pressure much lower than arteries
(flow slower & smoother); flow aided
by skeletal muscle contraction
- Less elastic tissue than artery
- Semi-lunar valves:
 Internal valves along the veins that prevent backflow of blood
 Lumen size to diameter ratio larger

- Alteration in lumen size (muscular wall) determines capacity of venous


circulation

 How are substances exchanged b/w capillaries & tissue cells?


 Tissue fluid: colourless fluid found in the tiny spaces between cells
 Useful materials & O2 move from blood in capillaries  into tissue fluid 
into cells by diffusion
 Waste products released by cells move into tissue fluid via diffusion 
through capillary walls  into blood  carried to excretory organs for
removal

Double Circulation in Mammals

 Blood passes through the heart twice as it moves from the pulmonary circulation
into the systematic circulation
 Pulmonary circulation:
 Circulation linking lungs to heart
 Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated
blood from heart to lungs
 Pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood
from lungs back to heart
 Systematic circulation:
 Circulation of blood around body
 Oxygenated blood leaves left side of heart
via aorta; distributed to rest of body by
arteries & arterioles
 Deoxygenated blood from body carried by
veins; returns to right side of heart via vena cava
 Advantages of having double circulation:
 Allows pulmonary circulation to operate at low pressure and systemic
circulation at high pressure
 Pulmonary: Blood entering lungs at low pressure – flow of blood
through lungs slows, more time for exchange of gases (O2 & CO2)
 Systemic: Blood leaving heart to rest of body at high pressure – faster
distribution of oxygenated blood to tissues (maintains high metabolic
rate)

 Structure of heart
 Roughly conical shape
 Lies between lungs & behind chest-bone
 Surrounded by pericardium
 2 layers of pericardial membrane
 Inner membrane: in contact with heart tissues
 Pericardial cavity: filled with fluid (between the 2 membranes - reduces
friction)
 4 chambers
 Lower: Left & right ventricles
 Upper: Left & right atria (s: atrium)
 Medium Septum
 completely separates right side from left
 prevents deoxygenated blood on right from mixing with oxygenated
blood on left – increases amount of O2 carried to tissues
 Muscular walls of ventricles thicker than that of atria
 Ventricles: force blood out of heart (higher pressure)
 Atria: force blood into ventricles (low pressure)
 Muscular walls of left ventricle thicker than right ventricle
 Left V: pumps blood to rest of body (at high pressure – systematic)
 Right V: pumps blood to lungs (low pressure – pulmonary)
 Coronary artery:
 Left & right – 2 small arteries that emerge
from aortic arch
 Bring O2 & nutrients to heart
 Valves:
 Prevents backflow of blood; ensures one
way flow of blood from atrium  ventricle
- Right side: tricuspid valves (3 cup-shaped flaps)
- Left side: bicuspid/mitral valves (2 cup-shaped flaps)
 Prevents backflow of blood; ensures one way flow of blood from
ventricle to aortic/pulmonary arch
- Semi-lunar valves
 Chordae Tendineae:
 Cord-like tendons attaching valves to
ventricular wall
 Prevents valves from inverting under
pressure
 Cardiac muscle: specialized tissue; able to
contract & relax in a rhythmic fashion over a long period of time without
fatigue
 Pathway of Blood through Heart
1 - Deoxygenated blood from body returns
to right atrium via vena cava:
 From head, neck, arms – by
anterior (superior) vena cava
 From other parts – by posterior
(inferior) vena cava

2 - Right atrium contracts and blood flows


into right ventricle
 Tricuspid valve (b/w right
atrium & ventricle) opens when
pressure in right ventricle is
lower than pressure in right
atrium
 Chordae tendineae prevents
flaps from reverting into atrium:
prevents backflow of blood from
ventricle into atrium
3 - Right ventricle contracts  blood
leaves through pulmonary arch to
lungs
- Blood leaves the heart and enters the
lungs via the pulmonary arteries
 Pressure in right ventricle
increases – flaps tricuspid valve
forced to close
 Pulmonary arch leaves heart &
divides into 2 pulmonary
arteries – 1 to each lung
 Semi-lunar valve in pulmonary
arch prevent backflow of
blood into ventricle
4 - Oxygenated blood returns from lungs
to left atrium via pulmonary veins
- Left atrium contracts and blood flows
into left ventricle
 Bicuspid valve (b/w left atrium
& ventricle) opens when
pressure in left atrium is higher
than pressure in left ventricle
 Chordae tendineae prevents
flaps from reverting into atrium:
prevents backflow of blood from
ventricle into atrium
5 - Left ventricle contracts  Blood
leaves through aortic arch to all parts
of body (except lungs)
 Pressure in right ventricle
increase, flaps of bicuspid valve
forced to close
 Aortic arch curves upward from
ventricle (U-shape)
 Semi-lunar valve in aortic arch
prevent backflow of blood into
ventricle
 Blood enters aorta at very high
pressure

 The Cardiac Cycle


1 Both atria & ventricles are relaxed
2 Right & left atria are filled with blood from vena cava & pulmonary artery
respectively
3 Both atria contract, forcing blood into ventricles
4 After a short pause, ventricles contract (ventricular systole) & pressure in the
ventricles rises
5 As a result, bicuspid & tricuspid valves close to prevent the backflow of blood
into the atria
6 A ‘lub’ sound is produced by the closure of these valves
7 When the pressure in the ventricles is higher than the aorta, the semi-lunar valves
in the aortic and pulmonary arches open
8 Blood enters the pulmonary and systematic circulation via the pulmonary &
aortic arch respectively
9 As the ventricles contract, the atria relax
10 When ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), the pressure in the ventricles falls
11 As a result, the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary & aortic arches close to
prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles
12 A ‘dub’ sound is produced by the closure of these valves
13 Due to the decrease in ventricular pressure, the bicuspid & tricuspid valves
open, allowing blood to enter the ventricles and the whole cycle repeats again
 Blood pressure
 Force that blood exerts on walls of blood vessels
 Varies in different parts of body
 Highest near aortic arch; weakens as it gets further away from the heart
 B.P low in veins; almost 0 mmHg in vena cavae just before it opens up into
right atrium
 Sphygmomanometer consists of:
 Inflatable cuff
 Pump
 Mercury level gauge
- Level of mercury indicates blood pressure in arteries
- Millimetres of mercury (mmHg)
 B.P highest in arteries during ventricular systole (blood forced into arteries)
 B.P decreases during ventricular diastole
 Systolic pressure: 120-140 mmHg
 Diastolic pressure: 75-90 mmHg
 B.P given as Systolic/Diastolic: e.g 120/80
 B.P may increase after exercise or when you get angry/excited
 Persistent high B.P is dangerous (puts stress on heart)
 Pulse: rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat

Coronary Heart Disease


 Narrowing/blockage of coronary arteries
 Heart attacks
 Narrowing/Complete blockage (Occlusion) of coronary arteries
 (Formation of fatty plaques along walls of arteries; plaque wall ruptures
 triggers blood clot in order to close wound  blood clot blocks
flow)
 Heart unable to receive necessary oxygen/nutrients
 Affected region of heart muscle dies
 Extensive damage = fatal (heart unable to pump)
 Angina
 Greek origin: “to choke”
 Narrowing of coronary arteries/ blood vessels to other parts of body
 Several types: may lead to chest pains/abdominal pains etc.
 Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
 Formation of a thrombus in a vein
 Mostly affects legs/pelvis
 If blood clot dislodges: embolism
 Increases B.P in vein/decreases rate of blood flow
 Blood vessel wall damaged
 Can be lethal
 Flight related DVT
 Stasis:
- cramped coach position: leads to compression of vein
- immobility causes decreased amount of activity - reduction in
the muscle pump function
 Dry atmosphere+decreased fluid intake = haemoconcentration
- Made worse with alcohol + caffeine consumption (diuresis)
 Decreased air pressure + cabin hypoxia ([oxygen] in blood decreases)
 Reduced fibrin lytic activity, an increased release of vein wall relaxing
factors, promoting venous stasis
 leads to an increased stimulation of the coagulation cascade
 Causes
 A high-fat rich diet in cholesterol & saturated animal fats
 Emotional stress
 Smoking
 Sedentary lifestyle

1 Atherosclerosis: build up of fatty substances (cholesterol, polysaturated fats) on


inner surfaces of coronary arteries
2 Lumen of arteries is narrowed
3 Thrombosis: blood clot forms in artery
4 Reduced blood flow to heart
5 Heart muscle cells receive reduced oxygen supply
6 May lead to heart attack

 Preventive measures
 A healthy diet
 With reduced intake of animal fats which can be replaced with
polyunsaturated plant fats
 Rich in fruits and vegetables
 Manage stress in an appropriate way
 Avoid smoking
 Nicotine increases B.P and risk of blood clotting
 CO increases risk of fatty deposits in arteries
 Exercise regularly
 Strengthens heart
 Maintains elasticity of arterial walls
 Reduces risk of high blood pressure
 Treatment
 Balloon angioplasty
 Mechanical widening of narrowed/obstructed blood vessel
 An empty and collapsed balloon on a guide wire (balloon catheter) is
passed into the narrowed locations
 Balloon inflated to a fixed size using water pressure.
 Balloon crushes the fatty deposits - opens up the blood vessel
 Balloon is collapsed and withdrawn.
 [Use of stents to prevent post-operation closure of blood vessel]
 Coronary bypass
 Arteries or veins from elsewhere in the patient's body are grafted to the
coronary arteries to bypass the narrowed blood vessel(s)
 Improves blood supply to the heart
Extra Information & Fun Facts
Haemoglobin • Why do you need Haemoglobin? Why not simply carry oxygen in your
plasma?
- Solubility of O2 is low, ~1.5%
- - Hb combines with and releases oxygen readily, thus
increasing oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
• High affinity for oxygen – forms oxyhaemoglobin
• Affinity for oxygen increases as [oxygen] increases
• [Oxygen] measured by partial pressure
• Oxygen-dissociation curve
Oxygen- • Sigmoidal curve
dissociation • conformation of Hb depends on the
curve for no. of O2 bound
normal Hb - Hb affinity for O2
increases as more O2 binds
- up to 4 O2 molecules
• curve levels out as Hb becomes
saturated
• up to ~98.5% O2 bound.
• Binding of CO2 to Hb facilitates O2
release
Hb & • Myoglobin:
myoglobin - 1 haem
oxygen- - In muscle
dissociation - Stores O2
curve - Higher affinity for oxygen than
Hb

Carbon • ~200x higher affinity to Hb as compared to O2


Monoxide • Hb binds CO preferentially over O2
Poisoning • Same binding site as O2
• Hb, once bound to CO, does not give up CO easily
• Forms carboxyhaemoglobin
Anaemia • Lower RBC count
• Causes of anaemia:
- nutritional deficiencies (iron, Vitamin B12, folic aicd)
- excess blood loss from menstruation or chronic illness (cancer)
and infection (malaria)
- ingestion of toxic substances (lead)
- genetic abnormalities (thalassemia)
- prevention: food rich in iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, take
vitamin tablets
• Symptoms: Easily tired, looks pale, breathless
Scarlet fever • Bacteria infection (streptococcus pyogenes)
• Toxins produced by bacteria
• Leads to increased production of WBC, antibodies, C-creative proteins
(to reduce inflammation)
• Symptoms: rashes, inflammation, fever, sore throat
• Treated with antibiotics
Structure of
antibodies

Dengue • T cells produced cytokines to attack the virus


• B cells produced antibodies to cover virus particle.
• Monocytes will engulf the virus particle via phagocytosis
• Chemoattractants: Chemicals produced by bacteria + Plasma proteins
(opsonins) that bind to bacteria surface
• Proteins on surface of phagocyte (receptors) recognise these
chemoattractants
• Phagocytes move towards bacteria
• Receptors on phagocytes bind tot chemoattractants
• Stimulates the engulfment of bacteria
Blood type
determining
personality

Blood • SG: 100 000 units of blood needed annually


donation in • Increasing demand for blood donors. Why?
SG - Aging population
- Medical procedures more complex
• Blood donor criteria:
- 16 – 60 yrs old
- At least 45kg, in general good health
- No HIV or other infectious diseases
- No symptoms of infection in past 1 week
- No fever in last 3 weeks
- haemoglobin level of at least 12.5 g/dl;
Bone marrow • People with fatal bone marrow diseases, like Leukaemia, lymphoma
transplant and other blood related disorders – only hope of survival is a blood
stem cell transplant from a donor who shares the same ‘tissue type’.
• Bone marrow register (17 to 49 yrs old, good health)
• Small sample of blood for HLA testing
• HLA - Human Leukocyte Antigens
- Like RBC, WBCs have antigens (at least 6 HLA types. There
can be thousands of other variations under these 6 types.)
• HLA matching required for successful transplant
Types of • Autograft – Transplant of tissue within the same person
transplant • Isograft – Transplant between 2 genetically identical members
(identical twins)
• Allograft – Transplant between 2 genetically non-identical members of
the same species
• Xenograft – Transplant between 2 different species (high risk)
Transgenic • Engineered to carry genes from other species (e.g. cows that produce
animals insulin in their milk)
• 3 methods:
- DNA microinjection: transfer of a desired gene construct from
another animal into the nucleus of a reproductive cell, then
transferred to recipient female
- Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer: used as vectors to transfer
genetic material into the host cell
- Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer: isolation of
totipotent stem cells from embryos; desired gene inserted into
them, then incorporated into the host’s embryo
Xenotranspl- • Xenograft – transplant between 2 different species
antion • Transgenic pigs (heart/kidneys – about same size as humans; not
endangered)
• Currently, xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can
cause donor rejection
• Research underway to remove this pig protein and replace it with a
human protein
• Advantages
- no organ shortages
- all transplantations can be performed promptly and death on the
waiting list will be avoided
- transplant procedure can be prescheduled, allowing for the
pretreatment of the recipient with immunosuppressants
- Less legal issues with regards to organ donations
• Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Risk of animal to human transmission of viruses (even more so
between primates and humans)
- High risk of rejection: e.g. Pigs’ life-span, heart rate, blood
pressure, metabolism, immunology, and regulatory hormones
vastly different from humans
Heparin • Anti-clotting substance
• Produced in liver
• Prevents clotting in undamaged vessels
• Neutralised by thrombokinase
• After blood clots, it leaves behind a yellow liquid called serum, which
is basically plasma without clotting factors.
Transport in Plants
Transport Structure
 Xylem Vessel
 Function
- Conduct water & dissolved mineral salts from roots to stems & leaves
- Provide mechanical support to stems
 Structure
- Made up dead cells fused together at the end to form a hollow tube
- Has a continuous lumen with no cross-walls/protoplasm
- Inner walls of vessels strengthened by lignin deposits
 Adaptations for function
- Long cells joined end to end that allows for water to flow in a
continuous manner
- Empty lumen w/o protoplasm/cell walls reduces resistance to water
flow
- Lignified walls are hard & rigid: prevents vessel from collapsing
- Pits at certain points in the lignifies wall permits lateral flow of water
when necessary

 Phloem
 Function
- Transports sucrose & a-a manufactured during photosynthesis to
other parts of the plant for growth/storage
 Structure
- Sieve tubes cells: elongated cells that lack nuclei, central vacuole
ribosomes & Golgi Apparatus (degenerate protoplasm) and have a
thin layers of cytoplasm
- Sieve tube elements: sieve tube cells that are joint end to end to form a
column with sieve plates in between
- Sieve plates: cross-walls with many small sieve pores
- Companion cells: narrow, thin-walled cells with cytoplasm, nucleus
& numerous mitochondria; provides nutrients & aids sieve tube cells
in transporting sucrose & a-a
 Adaptations for function
- Pores within sieve plates allow rapid flow of sucrose & a-a
(manufactured food substances)
- Arrangement of sieve tube
elements in a continuous
column & little protoplasm
present in sieve tube elements
help to reduce the resistance to
the flow of substances within
phloem
- Companion cells have
numerous mitochondria that
produces energy for them to
load sugars from mesophyll
cells into the phloem sieve tubes
via active transport
- Every phloem sieve tube cell
has an associated companion
cell to ensure its survival
 Vascular Bundle







 Root
 Endodermis
- Helps filter out water
- Acts like a wall: prevent unwanted substances from entering
 Casparian strip
- Waterproof
- Creates “wall”/blocking
- Forces water & other substances to go through cell membrane & cytoplasm
- Blocks unwanted substances from passing through the cell wall into
apoplast pathway
Movement of Substances
 Translocation (pathway of manufactured food)
 Transport of manufactured food substances such as sucrose & a-a in plants
(bi-directional)
 Active transport of sucrose into sieve tube at source  Osmosis generates
hydrostatic pressure due to inward movement of water into phloem
 Experiments to test characteristics
- Aphids
 Anaesthetise the aphid with CO2 while it is feeding on a stem
 Cut off its body such that its proboscis remains in the plant
tissue
 Analyse the liquid that exudes from cut end of proboscis
 Section the portion of the stem that contains the proboscis and
examine it under a microscope
 Liquids exuded contains sucrose & a-a
 Show that sucrose & a-a are translocated in phloem
 Supports idea that sucrose & a-a move from source to sink
(hydrostatic pressure)
 Anaesthetising aphid: To enable the body of the aphid to be cut
off while the aphid is feeding. This ensures that the proboscis
remains in the phloem sieve tube
 Sectioning stem at where proboscis is: determine which tissue
proboscis was inserted into
- Ringing
 Phloem removed, xylem intact
 Tissue above ring swells, tissue below ring wilts
 Solute accumulated above ring contains sugars & a-a
 The removal of phloem prevents the translocation of sugars
to the region below the ring. The accumulation of sugars in the
region just above the ring lowers W.P. of the cells in that
region. Water enters the region and this results in swelling.
 Water transport not affected
- Radioisotopes
 Supply radioactive carbon (14C) to an intact leaf enclosed in a
sealed chamber
 Allow photosynthesis to take place
 Cut a section of the stem and expose it onto an X-ray
photographic film
 Manufactured carbohydrates contain 14C
 Only phloem shows radioactivity
 Pathway of water
 Allow a young plant to stand in a dilute red ink solution
 After a few hours, cut a transverse section of the stem and a transverse
section of a portion of the root that was not immersed in ink
 Xylem is the tissue stained with the dilute red ink solution
Entry of Water into Plant
1 Root hairs grow between the soil particles. They are in close contact with the
surrounding soil particles
2 Each soil particle has a thin film of liquid surrounding it. The soil solution is a dilute
solution of mineral salts
3 The sap in the root hair cell is more concentrated due to the presence of sugars and
mineral salts; it has a lower W.P. than the soil solution. Hence, water enters the root
hair by osmosis
4 The entry of water dilutes the root hair’s cell sap. The sap of the root hair cell now has
a higher W.P. than that of the next cell (cell B). Hence, water passes by osmosis from
the root hair cell into the inner cell.
5 Similarly, water passes from cell B into the next cell (cell C). This process continues
until the water enters the xylem vessels.

 Apoplast pathway
 Water & other substances enter & pass through cell walls
 Once water reaches Casparian strip, it is forced through the cell membrane
of endodermis cell  enters symplast pathway
 Symplast pathway
 Through interconnecting cytoplasm
 Fastest way of water entering the plant
 W.P. more –ve nearer the xylem (high concentration of mineral salts in root
hair cells), thus water moves inwards from endodermis to xylem
 Transcellular/vacuolar pathway
 Through cell & vacuolar membranes (via osmosis)
 Slowest way as water needs to go through a lot of membranes
 Water form root hair cells must enter cells with Casparian strip to reach xylem
 Prevent water loss by passive transport into/out of the xylem
- Regulates flow of water & mineral salts into xylem
 Blocks water from entering readily into xylem, thus a slow process
 More water enters xylem via symplast pathway

 Root
 Xylem & phloem not bundled together
 Root cortex serves as a storage organ
 Epidermis/piliferous layer bears root hairs
 Adaptations of root hair cell for its functions
- Root hair cells have large SA:V  increases rate of absorption
- Presence of cell membrane prevents leakage of cell sap and allows
water to enter the cell by osmosis down the W.P. gradient
 Absorption of water via root hair cell
- More –ve W.P. in root hair cell as compared to soil
- Partially permeable cell surface membrane
- W.P. gradient establishes need for osmosis
 Absorption of mineral salts via root hair cell
- Diffusion: When the concentration of ions is higher in soil solution
than in root hair cell, ions diffuse into the root hair cell
-Active transport: When the concentration
of ions is higher in root hair cell than
soil solution, ions are taken into the cell
with the use of energy.
 Cork cambium
- Responsible for secondary growth that
replaces epidermis in roots
- Produces cork – tough protective material

Movement of Water against Gravity


 Root pressure
 +ve pressure: pressure resulting from constant entry of water into roots via
osmosis – pushing of water molecules
 Approximately up to 1 metre
 Upward push of xylem sap (water & mineral salts) resulting from +ve
pressure created by active transport of ions (mineral salts) into stele region
of root, followed by osmosis
 Leads to movement of water upwards from roots to leaves
 More significant when transpiration is low & ions are not carried upwards to
leaves  more –ve W.P. in xylem  osmosis
 Difference in W.P. created by active transport of mineral salts  water
entering via osmosis  influx of water creates +ve pressure that pushes
xylem sap upwards
 Capillary action
 Tendency of water (polar molecules that have slight differences in charges
causing interactions) to move up in xylem (narrow tubes)
 Depends on forces of cohesion & adhesion
- Cohesive nature of water molecules b/w themselves (H-bonding)
- Adhesive nature b/w water molecules & xylem
 Insignificant in tall trees, more significant in small plants
 Transpiration
 loss of water vapour (evaporation of water) from the aerial parts of the plant,
especially through the stomata of the leaves
 -ve pressure (suction force): main process of water moving up the plant
 Transpiration pull: resulting suction force caused by transpiration (-ve
pressure in xylem) which results in a transpiration stream
 Transpiration stream: stream of water that moves up in the plant
 95% water lost through transpiration
 Importance
- Transpiration pull is a major suction force for moving water and
mineral salts up the xylem.
- Water is required at the leaves for photosynthesis
- Turgidity is maintained as water that is lost in the aerial portions of the
plant is replaced
- Evaporation of water helps to cool the plant
 Movement of water through leaves
1 Water that moves out of the mesophyll cells
form a thin film of moisture around the
cells.
2 Water from the thin film of moisture
evaporates to form water vapour in the air
spaces.
The water vapour accumulates in the air
spaces near the stomata.
3 Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata
into the environment. This is transpiration.
4 Movement of water out of the cells to
replace the thin film of moisture that has
evaporated decreases the cell sap’s W.P.
5 The mesophyll cells absorb water via
osmosis from the cells deeper in the leaf.
6 These cells, in turn, absorb water from the
xylem vessels.
7 This results in the production of a suction
force that pulls the column of water in the
xylem vessels up.
 Pathway of water from roots to leaves
1 The sap in the root hair cell has lower W.P. than the soil solution. Water enters the root
hair by osmosis.
2 Water flows across the root cortex, down a W.P. gradient.
3 Xylem conducts water upwards.
4 Water evaporates from surface of mesophyll cells into the intercellular air space.
5 Water vapour diffuses out of leaf through stomata.
 Measuring rate of transpiration
 Photometer
- Assume that water is not taken in by plant at all, & 100% of water is
transpired
- In reality: 95% water lost through transpiration, 5% used up by plant
- Transpiration shown goes from right to left in syringe (volume)
 Spring balance
Rate of transpiration = Loss in mass (g)
(g/h) Time taken (h)
Rate of transpiration = Loss in volume (cm3)
(cm3/h) Time taken (h)
 Factors affecting rate of transpiration
External Factors
Factor What it affects
Temperature Rate of evaporation
Light Intensity Size of stomata (day VS night)
Humidity Concentration gradient of water vapour
Wind Concentration gradient of water vapour
Internal Factors
Factor What it affects
Leaf Area No. of stomata, amount of water loss through
leaf cuticle
Thickness of cuticle Rate of cuticle transpiration (i.e. thick 
slow)
Stomata density Transpiration (more  higher rate)
Stomata distribution No. of stomata on upper & lower surface of
leaf due to temperature

Wilting

 Rate of transpiration > rate of water absorption


 Cells lose turgidity
 Advantages
 Reduces rate of transpiration
 Prevents excessive water loss
 Cools plant
 Disadvantages
 Stomata close  decrease intake of CO2  decreases rate of photosynthesis
 Leaves droop  decrease absorption of sunlight  decreases rate of
photosynthesis
Extra Information
 Why is water and mineral ions absorption decreased in water-logged soil?
 Water-logged soil has a much diluted soil solution. This lowers the
concentration of ions and the root hair cell is unable to absorb mineral ions by
diffusion. So it has to expend energy to absorb mineral ions. This affects the
absorption of water as the cell sap would not have as much mineral ions.
Hence, the water potential gradient would be less steep. This means that less
water will be absorbed by osmosis.
 Environments with little water
 Xerophytic plants (plants living in extreme environments)
 Enclosed air spaces: still air reduces transpiration

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