CHAPTER 2  

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 

MATTER

➔ is anything that has ​mass​ and ​occupies space​.

➔ consists of ​three​ types of particles

● Atoms e.g : iron atom, oxygen atom, lead atom.

● Molecules e.g : oxygen molecule, water molecule, ammonia molecule.
● Ions e.g : oxide ion, chloride ion, hydroxide ion, magnesium ion.

➔ ​Element​ : A substance which is made up of ​only one type of atom

I.e : Sodium, Iron, Aluminium, Oxygen, Chlorine.

➔​ Mixture​ :​ Two or more​ elements which are ​physically combined​.

I.e : Salt and water, sugar and salt, iron and sulphur.

➔ ​Compound​ : ​Two or more​ elements which are​ chemically combined​.

I.e : Sodium chloride, Aluminium oxide, Methane, Ethanol.

Differences Between Mixture and Compound

Mixture Compound

No ​new substance formed New substance is formed

Smaller ​heat change upon formation Bigger ​heat change upon formation

Properties ​similar​ to the elements present Different​ properties from the elements present

No​ fixed composition of elements Has a fixed composition of elements

Elements can be separated easily Requires a ​chemical reaction​ to separate the

elements

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Comparisons between the three states of matter

States of Matter Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of -very closely packed -closely packed -random arrangement

particles -orderly arranged - not orderly arranged -very far apart

Movement of particles -vibrate & rotate in -move slowly in all -move faster in all
fixed position directions. directions.

Forces of attraction -strongest -moderate -weakest

between particles

Energy of Particles -lowest -moderate -highest

Space between particles -very little space -more than in solid -more than the rest

Compressibility -not compressible -very difficult to -easily compressed

compress

Density High Moderate Low

Volume & Shape -fixed volume -fixed volume -no fixed volume
-fixed shape -shape of container -fill the container

Fluidity -cannot flow -can flow -can flow

Rate of diffusion -very low -moderate -very high

-Diffuse into liquids

Brownian Motion
➔​ ​is the random motion of ​particles​ suspended in a ​fluid​ resulting from their collision with the
fast-moving ​molecules​ in the fluid.

Diffusion
➔ Definition : Random movement of particles from a higher concentration region to a lower
concentration region.

➔ Factors affecting diffusion :

● Temperature
● Molecular mass of diffusing particle

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Changes in State of Matter

Differences between ​boiling and evaporation​ :

- Evaporation can happen at ​any temperature​. Boiling only occurs at the ​boiling point​.
- Evaporation occurs only at the ​surface​. Boiling occurs​ throughout​ the liquid.

Examples of substances which can undergo​ SUBLIMATION​ :

1. Solid carbon dioxide ( dry ice )

2. Naphthalene
3. Ammonium chloride
4. Iodine

Is a substance​ pure​?

Every substance has its own melting point and boiling point. This ​physical property​ helps us to
determine if a substance is pure.

Melting Point​ ➔ The temperature where a solid substance turns into liquid.

Boiling Point ​➔ The temperature where a liquid substance turns into gas.

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Apparatus set-up for heating of naphthalene.

1. The uses of ​thermometer​ :

- Stir​ the naphthalene

- Measure​ temperature

2. Why a ​water bath​ is used to heat the naphthalene? / Why the naphthalene has to be​ constantly stirred
throughout the experiment?

- To ensure​ even heating​ of naphthalene molecules.

3. What is the use of ​wire gauze​ placed between the heat source and the beaker?

- To ​spread​ the flame evenly on the beaker.

4. The melting point of naphthalene is 80 ℃. If the naphthalene is replaced by a substance with a melting
point of 120 ℃, what change(s) should be done?

- The water bath should be replaced by either ​oil bath​ or ​sand bath​.

Precautions ​:

- The naphthalene must be ​stirred throughout​ the experiment.

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Heating Curve of Naphthalene

Changes in the naphthalene particles during heating

Region A

Region B

Region C

Why does the temperature between t1 and t2 remains constant ?

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Apparatus set-up for cooling of naphthalene.

1. Thermometer has 2 uses :

- Measure​ temperature
- Stir​ the naphthalene

2. What is the role of​ conical flask​ in this experiment?

- To ensure even heat loss from the naphthalene, thus ensuring​ even cooling

3. The​ initial ​state of matter of naphthalene in this cooling process is ​liquid​. Upon cooling, naphthalene
turns into solid.

4. The thermometer has to be ​stirred throughout​ the experiment to make sure the cooling is even.

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Cooling Curve of Naphthalene

Changes in the naphthalene particles during cooling

Region A

Region B

Region C

Why does the temperature between t1 and t2 remains constant ?

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2.2 The Atomic Structure

5 Scientists​ who contributed to the atomic structure.

1. John Dalton
- Atoms​ are ​smallest​ particle in an element.
- All atoms are ​alike​.

2. Ernest Rutherford
- Discovered ​protons​.

3. John Joseph Thomson

- Discovered ​electrons​.

4. Neils Bohr
- Discovered ​shells/orbitals​.

5. James Chadwick
- Discovered ​neutrons​.

S​ubatomic particles​ in an atom

1. Protons
2. Neutrons
3. Electrons

ISOTOPES
Definition : Atoms of an element with the ​same number of protons​ but ​different ( number of neutrons
/ nucleon number )​.

Examples & Uses

1. Carbon-14​ : To detect the​ age​ of fossil fuels/artifacts.

2. Cobalt-60​ : To kill ​cancer​ cells(Chemotherapy)/ To kill microorganisms in ​food​(Preservation)
3. Sodium-24​ : To detect​ leakages​ in underground pipes/ To detect ​clot​ in blood vessels.
4. Phosphorus-32​ : To study the absorption of ​fertilisers​ by plants.
5. Iodine-131​ : To detect sickness in the​ thyroid​ gland.
6. Uranium-235​ : To generate energy through ​nuclear​ reactions.

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Electron Arrangement of an Atom

1. Electrons are arranged in ​shells​ around the nucleus of an atom.

2. Shells are also known as orbitals or energy levels.
3. The​ first shell​ is the one which is ​closest​ to the nucleus of the atom.
4. The ​outermost​ shell of an atom is known as the ​valence shell​.
5. The electrons found in the valence shell are known as ​valence electrons​.
6. Electrons are arranged according to the following rules.
- The​ first shell​ can occupy a maximum of ​2 electrons​.
- The ​second shell onwards​ can occupy a maximum of ​8 electrons​.
- The ​third shell​ can hold 8​ or 18 electrons​.
- If the total number of electrons is ​less than 20​, third shell can hold ​8​ electrons.
- If the total number of electrons is ​more than 20​, third shell can hold​ 18​ electrons.

7. An atom achieves ​stability​ when the valence shell is fully occupied with electrons.
8. Two types of stability :
- Stable​ duplet​ electron arrangement. An atom with ​only one​ shell which holds ​2​ electrons.
E.g : 2
- Stable ​octet​ electron arrangement. The​ valence shell​ of an atom filled with ​8 ​electrons.
E.g : 2.8, 2.8.8, 2.8.18.8
9. ​Group 18​ elements are naturally stable.
10. Therefore, stable electron arrangements are also referred to as​ Group 18 electron arrangements​.

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