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The first application systems for manufacturing another large batch. Other companies continu-
companies in the 1960s were systems for mate- ously produced the goods in mass production
rial requirements planning (MRP). Even though and sold them to the customers.
the roots of MRP are fairly old, most of the MRP In business terms, this means that the frame-
functionality is still available in today’s ERP work for production planning, and in particular
systems. In this chapter, the master data for for material requirements planning, was charac-
MRP are described, followed by an explanation terized by:
of the main functional areas supported by MRP. • A standard production program (on the
Some of the vendors of MRP systems were product group or individual product level)
computer manufacturers such as IBM, Honeywell • Well-defined product structures
Bull, Digital Equipment, and Siemens. These • Uniform or otherwise known demand curves
companies tried to penetrate the business sector • Mass or large-series production
with computers, which they would otherwise only It is also worth noting that these characteristics
be able to sell to military and scientific institu- are no longer typical of today’s market and
tions. A well-known MRP system dating back to manufacturing environment, nor have they been
1968 was IBM’s PICS (Production Information for smaller economies outside North America. In
and Control System), later extended to COPICS the USA, the customer did not play any significant
(Communication-Oriented Production Informa- role in the production planning of the 1960s and
tion and Control System). 1970s. However, the situation has dramatically
Systems like PICS primarily supported mate- changed since then. Today, it is the customer
rial requirements planning and inventory control who influences many aspects of material require-
for manufacturing companies doing business in ments and manufacturing resource planning. In
the US market. This is worth mentioning because the Sects. 2.2 and 2.3, some implications of
many assumptions underlying conventional MRP customer orientation on material requirements
systems are derived from the circumstances parti- planning will be discussed.
cular to this market in the 1960s and 1970s. The The main task of a conventional MRP system
market was a sellers’ market. Most manufacturing is to support the planning of material require-
companies produced large quantities of identical ments on all manufacturing levels, starting with
goods in batch production, stored these goods in a the production program for end products and
warehouse, sold them to customers as long as they including inventory management and procure-
could satisfy the demand, and then produced ment. However, most dedicated MRP systems
have ceased to exist. They eventually evolved The most important master data for produc-
into MRP II systems and later into ERP systems tion planning and control are data concerning:
where the core MRP functionality is still avail- • Parts
able. • Product structures
• Operations
• Routings
2.1 Master Data for MRP • Operating facilities or work centers
• Manufacturing structures
The data structures used in business information These as well as other types of master data
systems can be divided into two categories: will be discussed in more detail below. Entity-
master data and transaction data. Master data relationship diagrams will at times be used for
are data that exist independent of specific the purpose of illustration. The notation of these
orders (customer, production, purchase, transport diagrams is explained in Appendix A.1.
orders, etc.). Master data constitute the frame in
which the planning and controlling of orders
takes place. 2.1.1 Parts and Product Structures
Transaction data are created during business
operations, for example, when a customer places Part master data play a central role in every
an order, procurement initiates a purchase from a manufacturing application system. The generic
supplier, production planning releases a produc- term “part” comprises assemblies, component
tion order, or dispatching prepares a shipment to parts, raw materials, end products, and more. It
the customer. refers to all parts of the end product, including
Master data are the foundation of any business the end product itself and all other components
information system. Without reliable and robust needed to produce the end product. In addition
master data, planning and controlling of an enter- to “part,” the terms “material,” “article,” and
prise are not possible. Henning Kagermann, the “product” are also in use. In SAP ERP, for
former CEO of SAP, and Hubert Österle, a pro- example, the parts are called materials.
fessor of business informatics at the University Considering the number of parts and the
of Sankt Gallen, stressed the importance of number of attributes, part master data are usually
master data management in their book on mod- quite substantial. Important attributes (or fields)
ern business concepts: of part master data include the following:
“Master data identify and describe all the • Part number
important business objects, for example business • Variant code
partners, employees, articles, bills of materials, • Part name
equipment and accounts. Since all business activ- • Part description
ities such as quotes, orders, postings, payment • Part type (e.g., finished product, assembly,
receipts and transport orders refer to the master and additional material)
data, these data are the basis of any coordination • Measuring unit (e.g., piece, kg, and m)
effort. However, the high expenditures for the • Form identification
construction and maintenance of the master data • Drawing number
exhibit their benefits only indirectly – via the • Basic material
processes that use the data. Therefore master • Planning type (e.g., in-house production and
data projects have a much lower priority than consumption-driven MRP)
they should have. Master data management • Replenishment time
needs support from the management and endur- • Scrap factor for quantity-dependent scrap
ance. New tools for master data management can • Scrap factor for setup-dependent scrap
noticeably reduce the effort for the cleaning up • Date from which the master record is valid
and maintaining of master data” (Kagermann and • Date up to which the master record is valid
Österle 2006, pp. 231–232, author’s translation). • Date of the last modification
2.1 Master Data for MRP 21
2 1 2 2
A B C D
1 4 1 2 2 1
E F G C E D
2 1
E D
• Date of the first creation values are just calculated or taken from other
• Person in charge tables. For example, the warehouse stock as it
Often, many more attributes are used to appears in a part master-data form is, as a rule,
describe parts. For example, the part master retrieved and aggregated from several database
data managed by SAP ERP (called material tables, which are maintained for different inven-
master data) exhibit more than 400 attributes. tory locations.
The number of attributes and the degree to
which the attributes are differentiated depend Product Structures Product structures show
on, among other things, which business areas what parts make up a product. This composition
are covered by the ERP solution, whether or not is often depicted as a tree. The edges of the tree
related application systems (e.g., CAD for con- represent either “consists of” or “goes into”
struction, CAM for manufacturing, and SCM for relationships, depending on the perspective.
delivery) are available, and whether or not inter- Figure 2.1 shows two simplified product structure
faces for these systems exist. trees for the end products Y and Z. The numbers
The various attributes are sometimes categor- on the edges are quantity coefficients. Y consists
ized in data groups such as: of two units of A and one unit of B. Conversely,
• Identification data (part number, etc.) A and B go into Y with 2 and 1 units, respectively.
• Classification data (technical classification) Reversing the perspective, so that the leaves
• Design data (measurements, etc.) of one or more product structure trees become
• Planning data (procurement type, lot size, the roots and the end products are the leaves
etc.) (“goes into” relationship), creates trees like
• Demand data (accumulated demand, etc.) those in Fig. 2.2. The figure directly shows
• Inventory data (warehouse stock, etc.) where a given part is needed. For example, part
• Distribution data (selling price, etc.) E goes directly into part A with one unit and into
• Procurement data (buying price, etc.) part C with two units, as well as indirectly into
• Manufacturing data (throughput time, etc.) parts Z, B, and twice (through parts A and B)
• Costing data (machine cost, inventory cost, etc.) into part Y.
In SAP ERP, for example, attributes are The two different perspectives can be com-
divided into 28 categories called “views” bined into a so-called Gozinto graph. The name
(because they reflect the user’s “view” of the “Gozinto” is supposedly derived from the words
data, i.e., the various forms in which the data is “goes into.” A Gozinto graph allows for network
presented to the user). structures that avoid redundant branches and
Not all fields shown in a part master-data form nodes. For example, in Fig. 2.1, part C is shown
are necessarily attributes of a database table with twice, and part D is shown three times. In a
the name “part.” In fact, many of the shown Gozinto graph, as in Fig. 2.3, parts C and D
22 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
E F G D
1 2 4 1 1 2
A C A A C Z
2 2 2 2 2
Y Z B Y Y B Z
1 1
Y Y
A B C D
1 4 1 2 2 1
E F G C E D
2 1
E D
Quantity
levels and not the multilevel structures that were structure, exhibits two tables—one with the
shown in the earlier figures. However, multilevel parts and the other with the relationships between
structures can be easily generated through appro- parts—according to the E10 product structure.
priate database queries. For this purpose, the The part table shows, along with the part
part-ids of related subordinate and superordinate number (“part-id”), three additional attributes.
parts are employed to link single-level structures The “part type” attribute has values that are
into a multilevel structure. abbreviations of in-house production (I), external
The ER model of Fig. 2.5 can be mapped to a procurement (E), end product (P), assembly (A),
relational database with the help of two tables, raw material (R), consumables (C), etc. For
“part” and “structure.” In relational notation (see example, ER stands for external procurement/
Appendix A.2), these two tables are defined as raw material.
follows: In the “structure” table, the first line uniquely
Part (part-id, part name, part type, unit of identifies the edge between the end product
measurement. . .) “electric motor” (upper-part-id “E10”) and the
Structure (upper-part-id, lower-part-id, quantity, assembly “complete casing” (lower-part-id
valid-from. . .) “901”). The most important attribute of the struc-
The “structure” table has a composite key, ture relationship, in addition to the keys, is the
indicating the two part entities to be linked. quantity.
Graphically speaking, the “upper-part-id” attribute A number of other attributes may also appear
identifies the parent node in the product structure, in a “structure” table. Just as with the part master
while the “lower-part-id” identifies the child node. data, the type and number of attributes are depen-
Figure 2.6 exemplifies a product structure tree dent upon the level of detail and the application
of an electric motor with part number “E10.” environment. Typical fields of a structure table
Figure 2.7, which is based on this product include:
24 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
E10
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 4 1 1
901 860 830 750 470 490 510 420 440 410 450 460
1 1 1 250 2 1 1
1 1 38 0.3 34 0.2
0.5 34 6 0.02
0.02
110
Part Structure
Part-id Part name Part type Unit … Upper part-id Lower-part-id Quantity …
E10 Electric motor IP pc E10 901 1
901 Case (complete) IA pc E10 860 2
891 Case with laminations II pc E10 830 1
880 Bearing cap (aluminum) II pc E10 750 1
870 Housing block (aluminum) II pc E10 510 1
860 Bearing cap with breakout IA pc E10 490 1
830 Arbor (complete) IA pc E10 470 1
E10 460 1
790 Plate packet (complete) IA pc
E10 450 1
780 Muller plate II pc
E10 440 4
770 Base plate 30×40 cm IA pc
E10 420 2
750 Muller plate packet (complete) IA pc
E10 410 4
740 Stator winding II pc 901 891 1
700 Stator plate muller II pc 901 740 1
510 Junction plate box cap EA pc 891 870 1
500 Roller bearing EA pc 891 790 1
490 Junction plate 3-pin EA pc 880 130 0.3
470 Nut M 4 EC pc 870 130 0.5
460 Rigid coupling ∅ 14 mm EA pc 860 880 1
450 Capacitor 16 µF EA pc 830 770 1
440 Hex nut M 4×200 EC pc 830 500 2
830 101 250
420 Hex nut M 4×10 EC pc
790 700 34
410 Hex nut M 8×30 EC pc
790 400 6
400 Rivet 4×150 mm EC pc
780 110 0.02
140 Sheet metal board St 37 ER pc
770 780 34
130 Aluminum bar ER kg 770 130 0.2
120 Copper wire ∅ 0.5 mm EC m 750 140 1
110 Electrical sheet coil 200 mm EC m 740 120 38
101 Round bar 37×30 mm ER pc 700 110 0.02
– Date to which the master record is valid a number of similar problems also occur in
– Date of the last modification continuous manufacturing.
– Date of the first creation Bills of materials are employed for various
– Person in charge purposes: requirements planning, assembly, com-
Important uses of product structures include puter-aided design, etc. The content, structure,
(1) compiling bills of materials and where-used and format of a bill of materials depend on the
lists and (2) determining dependent requirements intended use. Hence, a number of labels exist, for
for material planning. example, planning BOM, assembly BOM, manu-
Dependent material requirements, that is, the facturing BOM etc.
quantities of lower-level parts needed to produce Different types of bills of materials exhibit
the planned end products (or other higher-level different structures, depending on how much
parts), are calculated with the help of the quantity structural information is mapped to the bill.
coefficients, which are stored in the “quantity” Relating to this, three types can be determined:
column of the “structure” table. Sect. 2.3.2 will 1. Single-level bills of materials are used to
discuss the calculation process in more detail. define the immediate components of a
higher-level part, that is, what lower-level
Bills of Materials A bill of materials (BOM) parts go directly into the higher-level part.
represents a product structure together with A single-level bill of materials typically
essential information about the nodes (i.e., part shows the assemblies (plus other parts) an
master data) in the form of a list. Each row shows end product is made of. However, it can be
one subordinate part. The parts are described by used for any part, depicting the next-level
part number, part name, quantity needed for the decomposition of the part.
upper part, etc. In this way, a bill of materials Figure 2.8 gives an example using the elec-
describes the composition of an end product or an tric motor with part number E10 (cf. Fig. 2.6).
intermediate product (assembly). A bill like this is easily created from the tables
Bills of materials are especially relevant in “part” and “structure” in Fig. 2.7 with the help
discrete manufacturing, that is, in manufacturing of a simple database query. It should be noted
processes in which the quantities are mostly that the rows of this bill of materials corre-
measured in discrete units (pieces). This is typi- spond to the level 2 nodes of a binary tree
cally the case when assembly plays a dominant created as the one in Fig. 2.4.
role, for example, in the production of machines, 2. Multilevel bills of materials, unlike single-
bicycles, or furniture. level, expand the higher-level part down all
The opposite of discrete manufacturing is con- levels of the product structure. This type of bill
tinuous manufacturing, which occurs particularly displays the entire product structure tree in
in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry. the form of a list. The upper-part/lower-part
There, the equivalent of a bill of materials is a relationships are indicated with level numbers.
formulation. The main difference between a bill of Figure 2.9 shows the product structure of
materials and a formulation is that the quantities the electric motor E10 as a multilevel bill of
are measured in continuous units (kilogram, ton, materials. (Such a list can be created from the
liter, etc.) and that the product structure graphs “part” and “structure” tables using nested
are not necessarily trees but may contain cycles. database queries.)
A cycle means that in order to manufacture a 3. Summarized bills of materials indicate all
product, the product itself is needed. parts that go into a product, but do not reflect
In this book, we will focus on discrete the structure of the product. This means that
manufacturing using bills of materials, although the tree is “compressed” into one level. When
26 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
a part appears more than once in the product lated by multiplying the quantity coefficients on
structure, its quantities are added. Conse- the edges
quently, the bill shows only the total quantity
needed for one unit of the top part (e.g., the 870–130 (0.5) and 880–130 (0.3) and 770–130 (0.2)
end product). Figure 2.10 illustrates this, 891–870 (1) 860–880 (1) 830–770 (1)
901–891 (1) E10–860 (2) E10–830 (1)
again using the electric motor example.
E10–901 (1)
The part numbers 880, 130, and 110 are exam-
ples showing how several quantities are summar- and adding up the products
ized into one. Because one piece of 880 (bearing 0.5 1 1 1 + 0.3 1 2 + 0.2 1 1
cap) is needed for one 860 (bearing cap with to 1.3 kg. (This total is shown in the fourth to
breakout) and two pieces of 860 are needed for the last line in the summarized bill of materials in
one E10 (electric motor), the result is that two Fig. 2.10).
pieces of 880 are needed for one E10.
How many units of 130 (aluminum bar) are Where-Used Lists While bills of materials
needed for one electric motor E10 can be calcu- reflect “consists of” relationships between parts,
28 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
where-used lists (part-usage lists) represent with level numbers. Figure 2.11 illustrates the
“goes into” relationships. Let us take another basic idea using part 130 as an example.
look at Fig. 2.2. This figure shows that reverse • Summarized where-used lists include all parts
product structure trees can be constructed based of the “goes into” tree, but the tree is com-
on the “goes into” relationships. pressed to one level, as in a summarized bill
As for bills of materials, different types of of materials. This means that the quantities
where-used lists can be identified, according to are added up. The where-used list that corres-
the degree to which the multilevel structure of ponds to Fig. 2.11 is shown in Fig. 2.12.
the trees is reflected:
• Single-level where-used lists comprise all
parts into which the given part goes directly.
For example, the list for part 130 (aluminum 2.1.2 Product Variants
bar, cf. Fig. 2.6) would display parts 870 (with
0.5 units), 880 (with 0.3 units), and 770 (with The term product variant is used to describe
0.2 units). parts, especially end products, that differ from a
• Multilevel where-used lists show all parts into basic model. Nowadays, many products are
which the given part goes directly or indirectly available in multiple versions. This means that
(through other parts). The hierarchical struc- the products are not 100 % identical, but vary in
ture of the tree is preserved and is expressed some features.
2.1 Master Data for MRP 29
Automobiles are an obvious example of a prod- • An internal variant is a variant that is only
uct produced in variants. They are based on a certain relevant in-house and does not have an
model but are available with a variety of options. explicit effect on the end product (e.g.,
Different engines, transmissions, seats, colors, batteries from different manufacturers built
wheels, with or without fog lamps, cruise control, into the vehicles, depending on internal pro-
tow bar, navigation system, etc. are just some of the curement and inventory policies).
many options the customer can choose from. The terms obviously overlap. Mandatory var-
Because of the emphasis on the customer, iants are structure variants. Optional variants are
variant production has become very popular in structure (additional tow bar) or quantity (addi-
many industries. This is true both for the con- tional loudspeakers) variants. Internal variants
sumer market (e.g., automobiles, furniture, and are usually structure variants but are not apparent
clothing) and the market for investment goods (e. to the client. In practice, structure and quantity
g., machinery). Since customer orientation is an variants often appear together.
important success factor, companies attempt to There are different ways to represent variant
serve the individual wishes of their customers as product structures: static and dynamic. Static
well as possible. Product variants are one means means that all possible versions of the product
to take individual requirements into account. are defined and stored in the database. Each
The number of possible variants of an end variant is an entity in the master data and can be
product can be very large. An automobile, for retrieved from the database when needed. When a
example, can easily have hundreds of thousands product has only a few variants (i.e., not too many
or even millions of variants, because there are combinations of variant features), the variants are
many ways to combine the customizable features. usually stored statically in the database.
Assemblies and intermediate parts may also come Dynamic variants, on the other hand, are only
in many different variants. For example, the cable created when they are explicitly requested, for
harness that connects the electric and electronic example, when a customer orders that particular
parts of a VW Passat has approximately 1,000 combinations of features. When there are many
variants. In other cases, there are only a few possible combinations, dynamic creation of
possible variants. An electric motor, for example, variants is preferred.
may be available with 40, 60, or 80 W. Static variants are stored in a conventional
In practice and in the literature, variants are way, that is, in database tables such as “part”
divided into several categories, including struc- and “structure.” The part master records will
ture, quantity, mandatory, optional, and internal indicate whether a part has variants or not. In
variants: the “structure” table, the variants are basically
• A structure variant is when several different treated as if they were separate parts.
versions of a part are possible and one of these As an example, consider the Figs. 2.13 and
versions goes into the end product (e.g., a 2.14. The end product X comes in two variants,
110-, 140-, or 180-hp engine) or when a sub- X1 and X2. They differ in that X1 needs an
part is optional (e.g., a tow bar). assembly A1, whereas X2 needs A2. A1 is
• A quantity variant is when different quantities similar to A2 but uses a part E1, whereas A2
of one part can be built into the end product uses E2. Consequently, the “structure” table
(e.g., two or four loudspeakers). shown in Fig. 2.15 has rows connecting “upper
• A mandatory variant is when several different parts” and “lower parts” as follows:
versions of a part are possible, one of which
must go into the end product (e.g., either a X1–A1 X2–A2
110-, 140-, or 180-hp engine). X1–B X2–B
X1–C X2–C
• An optional variant is when a part can be
A1–E1 A2–E2
added to the basic model of a product (e.g.,
A1–D A2–D
fog lights and mobile phone mounting).
30 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
A1 B C A2 B C
2 1 4 2 1 2 1 4 2 1
D E1 F G H D E2 F G H
2 4 2 4
I J I J
2 1 2
2 1
A1 A2 B C
2 1 2 1 4 2 1
D E1 E2 F G H
2 4
I J
While a lot of information is doubled in the part D are duplicated. This might not look like a
product structure trees for X1 and X2 big problem, but only because our example is
(cf. Fig. 2.13), the Gozinto graph (cf. Fig. 2.14) very small. In more realistic product structures,
exhibits less redundancy. Since the database the number of redundant links can be quite large.
schema for product structures is based on Therefore, various formats to store static
Gozinto graphs and not on trees, there is not variants have been proposed and implemented
much redundancy in the database either. in the past. For example, one format uses
Figure 2.15 shows that in the “structure” table, fictitious common assemblies (combining all
redundant branches of the trees appear as rows of invariant parts into one fictitious group); another
the table only once. For example, the subtree for format indicates where a variant differs from the
part C occurs twice in the product structures of basic version with plus (additional part) and
X1 and X2 but only once in the Gozinto graph minus (part to be omitted) indicators.
and hence only once in the database table. A popular format for static variants is a vari-
Nevertheless, some redundancy remains. For ant family. In a variant family, the links connect-
example, links from the end product to the ing a variant part with another part are not
assemblies B and C and from the assembly A to handled as individual entities in the “structure”
2.1 Master Data for MRP 31
table but together as a group. For our example, Dynamic variants are often used when pro-
this means that the structure table has several ducts can be customized. Suppose an end product
columns that contain quantity coefficients. has 50 customizable features, each one coming in
Figure 2.16 shows the structure table for a 4 different variations. The number of possible
variant family X, which contains the variants feature combinations, and hence the number of
X1 and X2. The product structures of X1 and variants, is 450. Storing all variants statically
X2 are now defined by those links between does not make sense, seeing that many of the
“upper parts” and “lower parts” that have an potential combinations will never occur. Instead,
entry in the respective row. a variant is only created when it is actually
Variant families are also known as “multiple,” requested for a particular order.
“complex,” or “type” bills of materials. They are Practical solutions often implement an attribute-
used both for structure and quantity variants. In value-based approach. This means that variants
any case, the number of possible variants should are defined with the help of the attributes in which
be small because each variant will add a column the variants differ. Links in the “structure” table
to the structure table. are then uniquely identified by the part numbers
32 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
of the upper and the lower parts, plus a variant code Figure 2.17 shows the structure table includ-
that defines the attributes of the specific variant ing variant codes. Because the variant parts are
under consideration. (In relational terminology, not listed as independent entities in the part
this means that the variant code is also a key attri- master data, variant-specific part numbers such
bute.) In this way, variant-specific parts can be as X1, A1, and E1 do not no longer appear.
marked and tracked down the product structure The variant problem is very complex. More
any number of manufacturing levels. advanced solutions employ rule-based approaches,
As an example, let us assume that variant X2 especially for automatically generating variant bills
differs from X1 in that the color of assembly of materials. Decision tables and knowledge-based
group A2 is green (instead of red in A1 or white solutions for this purpose have been integrated into
in another variant) and the power of E2 is 80 kW ERP systems. For example, Infor ERP COM uses
(instead of 40 kW in E1 or 60 in another variant): a knowledge base in which manufacturing and
cost-related knowledge (including plausibilities)
Attribute Value are stored. When a bill of materials is to be created,
Color Green the knowledge base is processed, deriving feasible,
Red
cost-effective connections between the parts in
White
question.
Power 40
The next stage in on-the-fly creation of
60
product structures, beyond dynamic variants, is
80
product configuration. In electronic commerce,
where customers may put the desired product
The variant code describing specific variants together online, electronic configurators are
can be constructed from the attribute name (e.g., especially common. Configuration will be
“C” for color and “P” for power) and the desired discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.2.2.
value (e.g., “gr” for green and “40” for 40 kW).
The product structure for this variant is gener-
ated only when an order for a particular variant, 2.1.3 More Master Data
say “C ¼ gr/P ¼ 80,” is placed. This happens in
such a way that all rows exhibiting the variant code While part data and product structure data are at
“C ¼ gr” or “P ¼ 80” are considered plus all rows the core of material requirements planning, many
that have no entries in the variant-code columns. additional data structures are needed. These
Parts without a variant code go into all variants. include supplier, customer, and warehouse data.
2.1 Master Data for MRP 33
or
Conditions
(0, ) (0, )
Assigned to
(0, )
St-form-id,
Storage form
description
(1, )
Assigned to
(1, )
St-place-id,capac-
Storage place
ity,meas-unit
(1, 1)
Assigned to
(1, )
needed to create the data. This assumption is standard parts, master data exist, but for
usually satisfied when the organization is similar customer-specific parts, this is not the case.
to the type described in the beginning of the Normally, an ERP system will require the
chapter: producing a standard production pro- company to create complete master data before
gram in mass or large-series production based any planning based on these data can be done.
on well-defined product structures and well- However, many make-to-order manufacturers are
known demand curves and stocking the products. reluctant to make the effort of establishing new
Whenever customers are directly involved, parts and product structures because their organi-
the situation can be very different. In make-to- zation requires elaborate administrative processes
order production, the end products are often not for introducing (and approving) new parts.
predefined, but specified by the customer. For On the other hand, an ERP system cannot do
these products, the company will usually not any planning without the underlying data
have master data, unless the product has been structures. Therefore, at least some of the data
built in the same way before. In individual have to be entered in one way or another. The
make-to-order production, and especially in ERP system can support this work effectively by
individual one-time production, the part and providing adequate assisting features, including:
product structure data often have to be created • Powerful copying and editing functions allow-
just for the specific customer order. ing existing part or product structure data to be
This does not necessarily mean that every copied and modified to suit the present needs
single part going into a customer-specific end • Temporary parts and product structures which
product has to be designed from scratch. Make- do not have to meet the same requirements as
to-order manufacturers also strive to use standard other database objects
parts as much as possible, because it is more • Product structures which reference incomplete
economical. A typical situation is therefore that part master data
the higher levels of a product structure exhibit • Planning features that exploit similarity (i.e.,
new (i.e., customer-specific) parts, whereas on planning in analogy to previous similar
the lower levels, standard parts are found. For orders)
2.1 Master Data for MRP 35
M 1 2 2 4 0 3 0 1 7
Master: carriage
Product: crane 17
across all parts, not only within a group. of the system so that it can cope with changing
Figure 2.21 shows an example in which the requirements over the years.
identifying number is a five-digit serial
number and the rest is a classification number.
Instead of a classification number, we some-
2.2 Master Production Planning
times find a compound number. This is due to
the fact that numbering systems evolve.
Demand for end products can originate from an
Often, companies that have been using
abstract sales plan or from concrete customer
compound numbers for years and are now
orders. Therefore, we distinguish between planning
going to a parallel numbering system prefer
for anonymous demand (make-to-stock produc-
to keep the old numbers and just extend them.
tion) and planning for customer orders (make-to-
Establishing a numbering system across an
order production).
entire company is a comprehensive project involv-
ing all departments. Part numbers, for example, are
needed for production planning, sales, product
design, shop-floor control, procurement, cost 2.2.1 Planning for Anonymous
calculation, invoicing, and many more business Demand
areas. These areas have different requirements as
to what exactly the part number should express. When a company produces goods to be sold on
Since different interests and opinions on what the market to customers who are not known at the
the numbers should be like collide, it usually time the production is planned, we speak of
takes many years to implement a new system. anonymous demand. The quantities to be manu-
This is one reason why numbering systems factured depend on a sales plan or on expecta-
remain in place for a long time. Another reason tions as to what the company will be able to sell
for this is that the entire organization depends on in the future.
the system. Experienced consultants recommend There are basically two approaches to draw
keeping a numbering system, once it is installed, up a master production plan: optimization and
for at least 15 or 20 years because of the cost forecasting. While optimization is the preferred
involved with switching. It is very important to approach in management science, forecasting is
build flexibility and adaptability into the design the approach mostly taken in practice.
2.2 Master Production Planning 37
X
n
1 Xk1
rim xi am ; Vk ¼ mj :
i¼1 n j¼kn
38 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
This method is called “moving” because one immediately follows demand fluctuations. The
period later, the average of actual demands now opposite is true for a small a. This can be seen
includes period k, but not kn, that is, it goes by setting a to 0. In this case, demand changes
from kn+1 to k. Two periods later, the average have no effect at all. The next forecast is the
refers to periods kn+2 to k+1, etc. same as the previous one.
Even though the moving averages method is Between the two extremes, there is a range
extremely simple, it allows for slower or faster of possibilities to take recent demand values
adaption to changing demand. If the parameter n into account with great or with little weight
is stipulated with a small value, then demand (0 < a < 1). In this way, the demand curve is
variations are quickly reflected in the forecast. smoothed to reflect demand variations either
If n is large, fluctuations are leveled, and outliers more or less quickly.
do not much affect the forecast. The table below illustrates the effect of different
In the following example, actual demand values a values. Starting with period 6 (v5 ¼ 100), v6 is
from 6 past periods are given. Suppose n is 5 and 98 if a ¼ 0.2 but only 92 if a ¼ 0.8. Obviously,
we want to predict the demand for period 10. the drop in actual demand—forecast v5 is 100 but
actual demand m5 is only 90—is reflected more
immediately when a is larger.
Period j . . . 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Exponential smoothing as described above
Demand . . . 100 90 118 110 105 97 – causes the forecasts to follow demand variations,
mj but not all extreme movements (except if a ¼ 1),
with a time lag. This is acceptable if there are ups
Computing the forecast for this period yields and downs in the actual demand, but if all
v10 ¼ 104. If one period later we know that the demand changes go in one direction, it may be
actual demand in period 10 was 100, we can preferable to catch up with the trend faster.
compute the forecast for the next period, This can be achieved by smoothing not
resulting in v11 ¼ 106. only the demand variations but also the forecast
Exponential smoothing is a method that can variations. Let
be configured to give recent demand fluctuations
more weight than earlier ones. The forecast value 2
vk ¼ second-order forecast
vk is easily calculated: It is equal to the previous
forecast vk1 plus the weighted deviation of the
1
vk ¼ first-order forecast:
actual demand mk1 from this forecast:
The forecast from second-order exponential
vk ¼ vk1 þ aðmk1 vk1 Þ: smoothing is obtained by first computing the
first-order forecast 1vk as before, then computing
The weighting factor a is the parameter to the weighted deviation of the previous period’s
influence the method’s behavior. a can be stipu- second-order forecast 2vk1 from 1vk and adding
lated with a value between 0 and 1. If a is close to this deviation to 2vk1:
1, the forecast will be close to the actual demand
in period k1. This means that the forecasting
2
vk ¼ 2 vk1 þ a 1 vk 2 vk1 :
Period j ... 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Actual demand mj ... 100 90 118 110 105 97 –
Forecast vk
For a ¼ 0.2 – 100 98 102.0 103.6 103.9 102.5
For a ¼ 0.8 – 100 92 112.8 110.6 106.1 98.8
2.2 Master Production Planning 39
In this way, the demand variations are These options differ in the degree to which the
smoothed twice. As a consequence, the forecasts planning, execution, and controlling actually
are adapting faster to the actual demand curve, depend on the customer order or are independent
provided that the trend goes in one direction (i.e., of the order.
continuously increasing or decreasing). For example, a customer may request an end
product that needs to be designed in a specific
way. This does not necessarily mean, however,
2.2.2 Planning for Customer Orders that all parts going into that end product must be
designed from scratch. Instead, the company will
Many companies today produce goods according try to use as many standard parts as possible to
to specific customer orders instead of according cut costs. In another company, the situation may
to an abstract production program. The previous be different, requiring the company to manufac-
section showed how a master production plan ture not only the end product but also assemblies
based on anonymous demand can be created. and individual parts specifically for the customer.
Now we will discuss what a customer-oriented Thus, the spectrum of make-to-order produc-
manufacturing company has to do to determine tion ranges from production types close to make-
their primary requirements. to-stock to one-time individual production,
Companies relying in their planning on cus- including the following levels:
tomer orders are said to pursue make-to-order • Variant production—customers can order
production. The majority of small and medium- variants of a basic product as discussed in
sized manufacturing companies work in a Sect. 2.1.2.
make-to-order style. These companies, unlike • Assemble-to-order—customer-specific products
make-to-stock manufacturers who produce stan- are assembled from standard parts and subas-
dard goods to be stocked and sold from the ware- semblies.
house, produce their goods when customers order • Subassemble-to-order—customer-specific
them. This often implies that the customer end products as well as customer-specific
specifies what the goods should be like (i.e., the assemblies are made from standard subassem-
product specification is provided by the customer). blies and parts.
Make-to-order production is common in the • Individual make-to-order—in principle, all
investment goods sector (e.g., machine tools, in-house-production parts of a customer-
production facilities, cranes, and elevators). specific product are manufactured to the cus-
Typical make-to-stock manufacturers are found tomer order.
in the consumer goods sector (e.g., television • Individual-purchase-and-make-to-order—all
sets, washing machines, and lamps). However, parts needed for a customer-specific product
many consumer goods nowadays are made to (both in-house production and procured parts)
order as well (e.g., cars and personal computers). are manufactured and purchased to the
Primary requirements planning in make-to- customer order.
order production is quite different from make- • Individual one-time production—this is a
to-stock production. Instead of optimizing or special case of the two previous variants,
forecasting a standard production program, all meaning that the product is only produced
activities are related to specific customer orders. once in this form as now specified by the
Typical tasks include scheduling the customer customer (e.g., a ship).
order to obtain a delivery date, designing the
product the customer wants, calculating the cost Requirements for Make-to-Order Produc-
of the product, making a quotation, etc. tion Make-to-order production gives the customer
Make-to-order production is not a uniform a prominent role, in contrast to make-to-stock pro-
approach but includes a wide range of options. duction where customers are not directly involved.
40 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
An important objective for the company is to satisfy requirements planning, lead-time scheduling,
the customer. Happy customers will return in the and capacity planning, even though some of the
future and place more orders, which pays more for underlying data structures (e.g., bills of materials
the company in the long term than minimizing and routings) are not complete or even missing.
production cost or maximizing capacity utilization. Obviously, the planning results will not be of the
Consequently, the goals of make-to-order pro- same quality and certainty as if they were based
duction focus on customer satisfaction. Essential on complete data, which is the case in make-to-
subgoals for production planning are short lead stock production.
times, strict adherence to deadlines and delivery Nevertheless, a make-to-order manufacturer
dates, high product quality, and flexibility regard- also needs to plan the production, but the condi-
ing customer wishes. Pursuing these subgoals tions under which the planning takes place are
often increases the cost (e.g., overtime work, different from those a make-to-stock manufac-
machine idle times, and air freight). A make-to- turer is exposed to. Three crucial planning steps
order manufacturer will normally accept this are:
increase because the consequences of losing or • Order calculation
disappointing the customer are considered to be • Order scheduling
more severe. • Rough-cut planning
Another requirement in make-to-order pro- In contrast to make-to-stock production, most
duction is that the status of all manufacturing make-to-order manufacturers do not have a reli-
orders connected with the customer order is able, cost or profit-based production program
available at all times. When the customer from which they can derive the primary require-
inquires about their orders, the sales employee ments. Therefore, they have to go other ways to
must be able to find out on click what the current determine favorable primary requirements that are
status is. Whenever problems in the plant occur in line with the company’s cost or profit goals.
that affect the customer order (e.g., a bottleneck Two important decisions to make in this
machine breaks down), the sales employee must process are whether a customer order should be
be immediately informed. accepted and for what price. In order to be able to
A precondition for employees to be well negotiate a reasonable selling price, the company
informed at any time is transparency of the needs to know the cost of the order.
manufacturing processes. This requires, for exam- Accordingly, order calculation (precalcula-
ple, that all connections between manufacturing tion of a customer order) is of utmost importance.
and purchase orders related to a customer order Cost calculation is normally based on master data
are explicitly stored. Likewise, all operating facil- such as parts, bills of materials, routings, and
ities involved must be identified. When all con- operating facilities (cf. Sect. 3.7.1). If these data
nections are available, it is possible to track the are not available, it is difficult or impossible to
consequences of a problem occurring anywhere in reliably calculate the cost of a prospective order.
the order network and to find out whether the Nonconventional approaches have to be applied
problem will have an impact on the customer to obtain even rough cost data (cf. Sect. 3.7.2).
order. In other words, an ERP system suitable A problem similar to order calculation is
for make-to-order manufacturers has to create order scheduling. Scheduling is necessary to
and maintain all connections between the relevant be able to agree on a delivery date with the
manufacturing entities. customer. Normally, orders are scheduled using
The ERP system should also be able to work bills of materials and routings, with feasibility of
with incomplete master data. This problem has the schedule being established based on capacity
already been addressed in Sect. 2.1.4 above. data (cf. Sects. 3.3 and 3.4). When these data are
Working with incomplete master data means not available, other procedures to arrive at a
that the ERP system can still perform material plausible delivery date must be in place.
2.2 Master Production Planning 41
An important prerequisite for smooth manu- combinations of assemblies, individual parts, and
facturing conditions in make-to-order production possibly raw materials are permitted and may
is a good rough-cut planning. Since many factors recommend especially beneficial combinations.
are still unknown, it is not possible to plan the When complex products are involved, there
customer orders in detail. Therefore, it is impor- may be many rules and regulations that have to
tant to at least balance the overall material and be considered. Human experts configuring these
capacity situation. If this balance can be estab- products are aware of the rules and regulations
lished, it is possible later to schedule customer that may apply. A good product configurator
orders without (or with fewer) problems. This is, produces results that come close to those of the
by the way, one of the fundamental ideas of human experts or in some cases even exceed
manufacturing resource planning (MRP II, cf. them.
Sect. 3.2), even though MRP II is targeted more Product configuration was one of the first
toward make-to-stock than make-to-order pro- domains in which knowledge-based systems,
duction. especially expert systems, were successfully
applied. The first configuration systems were
Product Specification End products in make- developed in the 1980s for putting together
to-order production are typically not standard computer systems, such as Digital Equipment’s
products but new or at least different products. XCON [also known as R1 (McDermott 1981)].
Because the decisions mentioned above con- These were followed by a large number of
cerning price and time can only be made once configurators for a variety of products (turbines,
the product is “known,” one of the initial steps in elevators, roller blinds, etc.).
the order fulfillment process (cf. Sect. 4.3.2) is Today, configuration systems are very com-
to create a specification of the product in the mon in electronic commerce, allowing customers
ERP system. This may be done by adopting to select which features of the product they prefer.
the customer’s product specification (if they The configuration program in the background
already have one), by creating a specification checks whether the selected combination of
from scratch and/or by interacting with the cus- features is feasible or allows the customer to select
tomer, in order to derive the specification to- only those features that may be combined.
gether. Product configurators can appear as separate
A product specification is necessary to check systems or be integrated in an ERP system.
the feasibility of the customer’s product idea Typical functionality of an interactive configura-
against the company’s technological capabilities tion module includes (Hüllenkremer 2003):
before the customer order is accepted. It is also • Configuration on the basis of rules
needed to create order-specific master data such • Immediate notification whether a selection
as bills of materials and routings, based on which option is permissible
material and capacity planning can be performed. • Automatic explanation of configuration errors
One relatively easy way to specify a customer- • Suggesting permissible or beneficial alterna-
dependent product is to employ product variants tives
as discussed in Sect. 2.1.2. This method, how- • Graphic display of the product configuration,
ever, is only applicable when the product ordered allowing the user to directly manipulate the
by the customer is within the given spectrum of graphic
variants. • Integrated technical computations
Product configuration goes one step farther • Simultaneous price calculation
than variant management. A product configura- • Automatic generation of a quotation (includ-
tor is a program that allows a knowledgeable user ing terms and conditions)
to put together a product interactively from a set • Internationalization and localization (multi-
of given components. The program checks which lingual settings, different currencies)
42 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
• Checking availability and delivery dates with end products, but other sellable goods (such as
the help of ERP functions spare parts and assemblies) can also be involved.
• Automatic preparation and transmission of They are the starting point of material require-
order data to the ERP system, in case a ments planning.
stand-alone configuration system is used The core of MRP is planning the secondary
A product configurator embedded in an ERP requirements. Secondary requirements refer to
system or with interfaces to the ERP system has the intermediate products, raw materials, and
many advantages. For example, while in the field consumables needed to produce the primary
a sales representative can create and check a requirements.
product specification together with the customer. The main task of secondary requirements
Connecting her laptop to the ERP system in planning is to compute the quantities of these
the headquarters, she can check immediately materials. This task is closely related with a
whether the configuration is reasonable, how number of other areas such as procurement and
much it costs and when the product will be inventory management.
available. In order to do so, she does not even Procurement is relevant because a good deal
need specific expertise, because the required of the parts needed for the end products have to
knowledge is available in the expert system on be purchased from suppliers. Procurement takes
her laptop. Based on the configuration result, she time, just as in-house production does. This must
can immediately give the customer a quotation be taken into account in scheduling the secon-
and confirm the delivery date. dary requirements. Procurement will be dis-
Product configurators are often connected cussed in Sects. 4.3.1 and 5.3.2.
with electronic product catalogs. An electronic
product catalog is a digital form of a printed Inventory Management Inventory manage-
catalog, containing information about products ment goes hand in hand with requirements
and prices. Today’s electronic catalogs offer a planning because quantities available on stock
wide spectrum of additional functions, for exam- obviously do not have to be manufactured. Com-
ple, advanced searching options. Often the puting the available stock depends on what types
catalog is part of a web shop, which again is of stock are kept and how refined the inventory
connected with an ERP system. In this way, the management system is. Typical categories of
customer can select products from the product inventory to be considered include the following:
catalog, put them in a shopping cart, and com- • Physical inventory—the quantity of a part that
plete the transaction by paying for the products. is actually in the warehouse today
If the products are not standard but configur- • Shop-floor stock—the quantity of a part wait-
able, the customer is redirected to the product ing to be processed in the workshop(s)
configurator. The product configurator will not • Reserved stock—the quantity of a part that is
only help the customer to put the product reserved for a customer/manufacturing order
together but also calculate the product price and thus not available for planning
depending on the selected options. Afterward, • Open order quantity—the quantity of a part
the customer can place the configured product that has already been ordered from the factory
in the shopping cart and proceed to checkout. (production orders) or from suppliers
(purchase orders)
• Reorder level—the quantity of a part that
causes a new order to be issued when the
2.3 Planning Primary and stock falls below this quantity (taking into
Secondary Requirements account that the reordering takes time)
• Safety stock—the minimum quantity of a part
Primary requirements are derived from the the stock should not fall short of for safety
master production plan. Usually, they refer to reasons
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 43
80
70 A B C parts
60
50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Cumulated number
of parts (%)
ABC Analysis The number of parts materials the total inventory value (e.g., 65 %)—these
management has to deal with can be very large. are the A parts.
The examples given in Sect. 1.5 exhibited figures • Another ca. 20 % of the parts account for
up to 350,000 parts. approximately 25 % of the value—these are
Not all parts are equally important. Some the B parts.
parts represent high values, causing substantial • The largest percentage of parts (e.g., 70 %)
inventory and capital costs. Other parts are accounts for only a small share of the total
cheap, leading to rather insignificant inventory value (e.g., 10 %)—these are the C parts.
cost. From a business point of view, this means Since the A parts are expensive, causing
that excess inventory should be avoided as far high cost, it is essential that the requirements of
as expensive parts are concerned but could be these parts are carefully planned, using precise
tolerated when the parts are cheap. methods in order to avoid unnecessary inventory
An approach to discriminate between impor- and shortage costs. Shortage cost would occur
tant and less important parts is called ABC anal- when not enough parts are available, leading to
ysis. This name indicates that categories A, B, a disruption of the production process.
and C are used to classify all parts managed in On the other hand, the C parts are less critical.
the company, depending on their value. In order Additional inventory to provide for safety buffers
to do so, the inventory value of each part within a is acceptable because the additional inventory
given period has to be determined. Then the parts cost is low. Therefore, C parts can be planned
can be arranged according to their value. with less precision using simpler methods.
The result of arranging the parts is often For secondary requirements planning, two
plotted in the form of a so-called Lorenz curve basic approaches exist, differing with regard to
as shown in Fig. 2.22. When doing an ABC computation time and accuracy of the results.
analysis, many organizations realize that: These approaches are:
• A small percentage of their total part numbers • Consumption-driven (stochastic) planning
(e.g., 10 %) account for a substantial share of • Demand-driven (deterministic) planning
44 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
Consumption-driven planning is fairly simple two numbers, s and S, are used. When the
but not exact, whereas requirements-driven inventory is less than or equal to s, the difference
planning is exact, but requires a lot of computing between a predefined maximum order quantity S
effort. Taking these characteristics into account, and the inventory on hand is ordered (Nahmias
many companies choose to employ the two 2008, p. 263).
approaches as follows: When using an (R, Q) policy, it is important to
• A parts are planned in a requirements-driven set the reorder point high enough so that the
way. safety stock is preserved until the new order
• B parts are also planned requirements driven arrives. The most important factor in determining
or partly requirements and partly consumption the reorder point is the replenishment time. It
driven. includes (Mertens 2009, p. 76):
• C parts are planned consumption driven. • Preparation time (preparation of a purchase
order or production order)
• Delivery time (for purchased parts) or lead
2.3.1 Consumption-Driven Planning time (for in-house production)
• Storing time (time from goods received to
Consumption-driven planning involves estimat- goods available for consumption)
ing the secondary requirements based on past The relationship between these times is
consumption rates, whereas requirements-driven depicted in Fig. 2.23, assuming a linear decrease
planning calculates the exact amounts using the in inventory. If tw represents the replenishment
bills of materials. time, then an order must be placed when the
The same methods used to forecast end- stock level reaches R. The period of time tz
product sales can be used to predict future mate- serves as a buffer. Assuming the same constant
rial requirements: moving averages, exponential withdrawal rate, the production process will not
smoothing, etc. If the forecast value applies to an be affected by delivery delays shorter than tz.
entire period (e.g., a quarter) and consumption is The reorder point can be saved with the parts’
constant per unit of time, a consumption rate can inventory or master data in the database, as long
be calculated by dividing the forecast value by as the withdrawal rate is more or less constant.
the length of the period. This quotient is also When a withdrawal is booked, the remaining
known as the withdrawal rate. stock is compared with the reorder level. If the
After the forecasted requirements have been remaining stock is below the reorder level, an
determined, two other issues need to be addressed: order is initiated. When there is a great deal of
1. When should a purchase order be placed fluctuation in the consumption, the reorder
(for purchased parts) or a production order level should not be maintained as a constant but
be initiated (for in-house production)? determined period by period to avoid unneces-
2. How much should be ordered or produced? sary stock or shortages.
Both questions are interrelated. Shorter time The risk of running short of inventory can to
intervals between orders lead to smaller order some extent be countered with safety stock. It is
sizes and vice versa. In practice, the order date important to set the safety stock at an appropriate
is often determined by using the reorder point R. level. A large safety stock means better protec-
When the inventory falls below this level, an tion from risk but leads to high inventory cost.
order for a certain quantity (usually named Q) A small safety stock means less inventory cost
is initiated. In inventory theory, this is referred to but a higher risk that missing material will
as an (R, Q) policy (“reorder point/order-quantity disrupt the manufacturing process. How much
policy”). safety stock is appropriate must therefore be
Another order policy is the (s, S) policy, also determined by balancing the cost of inventory
known as periodic review policy. In this policy, and the willingness to take risks.
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 45
R
Z
tW tZ Time
is to minimize the sum of the fixed and variable x is the optimal order quantity (or “optimal lot
(i.e., quantity dependent) costs within the size,” “economic order quantity,” and “economic
planning period. Variable cost is the cost depend- lot size”). In order to meet the demand, x must be
ing on the size of the order, most of which is ordered a times within the planning period. From
inventory cost. Fixed cost is independent from a ¼ y/x follows
the order quantity. For in-house production, this
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
is primarily the setup cost. yk1 T
Under the preconditions of this model, the a¼ :
2kr
optimal order quantity is computed by minimiz-
ing a cost function. Let
Kl ¼ the total quantity dependent cost Although x is called an “optimal” order quan-
Kr ¼ the total fixed cost in the planning tity, this optimum can be achieved only under
period restrictive premises, including the following:
kl ¼ variable (quantity dependent) cost per • No capacity restrictions are in place regarding
unit and period the delivery (of externally procured parts),
kr ¼ fixed cost per order production (of in-house produced parts), and
a ¼ frequency of placing an order within the inventory capacities.
planning period • The demand for the entire planning period is
T ¼ length of the planning period known.
y ¼ total demand in the planning period • The demand is the same for all periods. The
x ¼ order quantity withdrawal rate is constant for all periods.
Then the total fixed cost is • The cost price (or the production cost, resp.)
per unit is given and independent of the quan-
Kr ¼ akr tity.
• In the case of in-house production, the product
or, because a ¼ y/x, is not connected with other parts on higher or
lower manufacturing levels, or if so, these
Kr ¼ y=xkr : connections can be disregarded.
Although in practice these premises are sel-
Assuming a constant stock withdrawal rate, dom met, the root formula is still acknowledged
the average stock is x/2, and thus, the total vari- in inventory theory and remains one of the
able cost amounts to options available in most ERP systems.
Combining the demands of the periods i to seen by setting the first derivative of the cost
t (i t) into one order results in inventory cost of function
X
t KðxÞ ¼ y=x kr þ x=2 k1 T
k1 yj ðj iÞ:
j¼i
to zero, resulting in
The total cost of periods i to t, Kit, is then
y=x kr ¼ x=2 k1 T:
X
t
kit ¼ kr þ k1 yj ðj iÞ: The left side of the equation has the fixed cost
j¼i Kr, while the right side has the inventory cost K1.
The part-period algorithm applies this
and the cost per unit is property to a situation where the demand is not
continuous, as in the economic lot-size model,
kit but discrete (i.e., individual period demands).
kit ¼ :
P
t In the part-period algorithm, the optimum is
yj approximately reached when an order’s inven-
j¼i
tory cost equals its fixed cost:
The moving reorder-quantity method pro-
X
t
ceeds step by step, adding up period demands k1 yj ðj iÞ ¼ kr
one by one until kit has reached its minimum. In j¼i
other words, we are looking for that value of t for
which A transformation of this equation to
kit <kitþ1 X
t
kr
yj ðj iÞ ¼
j¼i
k1
if one more demand (yt + 1) were added. Once the
value of t has been determined, the optimal order
quantity is shows that both sides have the dimension “quan-
tity multiplied by periods” (or “number of parts
X
t multiplied by number of periods”), hence the
x¼ yj : name of this method.
j¼i Just as in the moving reorder-quantity
method, the algorithm proceeds by successively
The moving reorder-quantity method is suit- adding period demands yt and examining
able in practice when the demands of all periods whether or not the left side is still less than the
and the cost coefficients kr and k1 are known. It right. Once
does, however, have the disadvantage that mini-
mizing the cost per unit is not necessarily the X
tþ1
same as minimizing the total cost of a planning k1 yj ðj iÞ>kr ;
period. j¼i
Part-Period Algorithm The part-period algo- the optimum has been passed. Hence, the optimal
rithm attempts to minimize the cost per order order quantity is
(DeMatteis 1968). It builds on a property of the
classical economic order-quantity model, nam- X
t
x¼ yj :
ely, that in the optimum, the inventory cost j¼i
K1 and the fixed cost Kr are equal. This can be
48 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
Buffer store
Manufacturing Manufacturing
stage n-1 (source) stage n (sink)
Material flow
Information flow
To conclude this subsection on optimal order replenishment of inventory from the source that
quantities, it is worth noting that the “optimum” provides the material.
is not very sensitive to changes. For example, it Applied to production planning and control, the
does not make much difference whether the fixed Kanban principle is used to harmonize the flow of
and quantity-dependent costs are exactly the parts between two subsequent manufacturing
same or not. Specifically, increasing the quantity stages and the production of parts. When demand
has less effect on the cost than decreasing it. In is recognized in stage n, supply from stage n1 is
the economic order-quantity model, the cost requested. This is accomplished by using Kanban
increases only by 8 % when the order size cards.
increases by 50 % or decreases by one third. Figure 2.24 illustrates the basic idea with the
For the iterative methods (moving reorder- help of two manufacturing stages communicat-
quantity and part-period methods), this means ing through Kanban cards and transport bins.
that it may be acceptable to just add another Two types of cards are used in this system:
demand in order to reduce the risk of shortages. production Kanbans and transport Kanbans.
In many companies, optimization of the order A production Kanban is attached to a bin
sizes is not of central importance, because the containing material that is brought from stage
costs that can be influenced make up only a n1 to the buffer store located in front of stage
relatively small percent of the total production n. The transporter leaves the production Kanban
cost. behind in the buffer store.
When stage n needs material for its operations, a
Excursus: Kanban A special form of consump- bin with a transport Kanban attached is taken from
tion-driven requirements planning is based on the buffer store and brought to the manufacturing
the Kanban principle. Kanban is a Japanese site. When the buffer is depleted or when a certain
word for a signboard or a card used to indicate number of production Kanbans have accumulated
something. The Kanban principle stands for a in the buffer store, the Kanbans are returned to
just-in-time form of decentralized control stage n1, thereby initiating the production of
where the consumption of material drives the more parts to eventually fill up the buffer store.
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 49
In case stage n1 runs short of parts needed been reported from supply chains of the Japanese
for the production, demand is communicated to automotive industry.
stage n2, using the production Kanbans in the
buffer store in the front of stage n1. This
continues all the way to the raw-material stage. 2.3.2 Requirements-Driven Planning
In this fashion, the entire manufacturing chain,
from the last stage to the first, is organized While consumption-driven planning focuses on
according to the “pull principle,” demanding assumptions and estimates, requirements-driven
supply when it is actually needed. planning is based on certainty. Therefore, it is
Conventional MRP and MRP II planning, on also called deterministic planning. As long as
the other hand, relies on the “push principle,” the primary requirements are as expected, the
meaning that supply is provided to stage n by secondary requirements can be calculated
stage n-1 according to previously planned exactly. For this purpose, product structures
demand and not to actual demand. (bills of materials) are employed to determine
Kanban was originally developed by Toyota as the quantities of subordinate parts needed to
a manual approach to lean production (Ohno and produce the primary requirements.
Bodek 1988). Meanwhile, electronic versions Using bills of materials to determine the second-
have been implemented in a number of ERP ary requirements is also known as bill of materials
systems, sometimes called “e-Kanban.” Instead explosion. Programs exploding bills of materials
of paper cards, they employ electronic media are called bill of materials processors (BOM
using barcodes or RFID tags (cf. Sect. 11.4.1). processors). A BOM processor is a core compo-
Kanban works best when the flow of produc- nent of any MRP system.
tion is smooth and uninterrupted, as can be the Whereas consumption-driven planning treats
case in series or mass production. Kanban is each part separately, requirements-driven planning
actually a means of fine-tuning smooth produc- must take into account how the parts are related
tion. Conditions under which the Kanban with each other. Because of the hierarchical rela-
approach has proved to be beneficial include the tionships within the product structures, decisions
following (Takeda 2006, pp. 185–189): made on a higher level affect the lower levels as
• Standardized production program, using well.
standard parts as much as possible in order When in Fig. 2.25, for example, the lot size of
to realize continuous consumption assembly A is doubled, the secondary require-
• Production organization according to the ments for parts that go into this assembly
material flow (D and E) are also doubled. On the other hand,
• Effective transportation system, short trans- if assembly C is still stocked, less of C needs to
port times be produced and also less of all other parts
• Small lots (lot size is in fact the amount of that go directly or indirectly into C (i.e., G, H,
parts that fit into one or more bins) I, and J).
• High availability of operating facilities, short This example clearly shows that in require-
changeover times ments-driven planning, calculating gross and net
• Low defect rate through immediate quality requirements and building lot sizes are closely
assurance at the workplace connected. Principally, each of the following
Kanban systems exist in different versions and tasks must be completed for every part, before
are used for different purposes. Some applica- the next part is dealt with:
tions utilize more or fewer types of Kanbans 1. Gross requirements planning
instead of the two described above. This is the 2. Net requirements planning
case when external suppliers are included. The 3. Order-size planning
most successful applications of Kanban have 4. Dependent requirements planning
50 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
of Fig. 2.25. Figure 2.27 continues the planning would basically require a complete lead-time
process, illustrating the dependent requirements and capacity-scheduling run. Therefore, many
for parts G and H. manufacturing companies use the same time
span as lead-time offset for all parts of the
Forward Shifting Although the focus of MRP same manufacturing level or even across all
is on planning quantities, the temporal structure levels. The schema of Fig. 2.27 showed an
of the production process is not completely dis- example of a standard lead-time offset of
regarded. Taking into account that executing a one period.
production order takes a certain amount of time, When all steps of requirements-driven
the derived requirements needed for the order planning for the part under consideration have
must be completed earlier by just that amount been completed, the same steps are applied to
of time. This time is called a forward shift or the next part, as long as the part is not a leaf of a
lead-time offset. If, for example, the size of lot C product structure tree. In this way, roughly sched-
is such that it takes 14 days to manufacture the uled derived requirements are created for all
lot, then all parts that go into C (H and G) must be parts. In one of the next rounds, for example, the
available 14 days earlier than C, that is, the lead- tasks of gross and net requirements planning,
time offset is 14 days. lot-size planning, dependent requirements
The purpose of forward shifting is to give the planning, and forward shifting will be executed
material requirements plan a rough temporal for assembly G.
structure. This, however, is not straightfor-
ward, because the actual manufacturing dates Impact of Lot-Size Planning When individual
depend on decisions that are made later in the requirements on a higher level are bundled into
planning process. Therefore, rough estimates lots, this changes the requirements and time
based on experience have to be used instead, planning of all lower parts, directly or indirectly.
depending on what information is available, To demonstrate the effect of lot sizing, we will
how certain the expectations are, and how much take up the planning scheme shown in Fig. 2.26.
computational effort is reasonable. Typical If each period’s requirement is produced as a
approaches are: separate lot (i.e., no specific lot sizing), the
• The lead time is actually calculated, using the derived quantities and dates for parts G and H
setup, transition, and processing times are as in Fig. 2.28, assuming a forward shift of one
stored in the routing and operating facility period. If, however, lots are planned, require-
data. This time is then used to shift the ments for lower-level parts going into the current
derived requirements forward (i.e., toward part move up in time. The required quantities are
the present). higher in some periods and nonexistent in others.
• The same forward shift is applied across the This effect was illustrated in Fig. 2.27.
board for all parts of one manufacturing level. Another effect of lot-size planning is that
The lead-time offset can be determined, for assumptions are made regarding the availability
example, from the average offset that was of the operating facilities at the implied manu-
actually observed in the past. facturing dates. Not only the facilities needed
• The same forward shift (e.g., one or two for the current part but also those needed for the
periods) is applied to all parts and all subordinate parts have to be available on the
manufacturing levels. right dates so that the production can be
The first approach is without question the completed on time.
most accurate, provided that the lead-time To illustrate this effect, let us assume that part
components can be predicted with sufficient H needs only one machine and the capacity
certainty. Unfortunately, calculating a for- requirements are approximately proportional to
ward shift is often not feasible, because it the quantity. In this case, the allocation of
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 53
Period
1 2 3 4 5 6
Capacity
requirements
Capacity requirements
when lots are created
Period
1 2 3 4 5 6
capacity requirements is as shown in Fig. 2.29. and the midterm available capacity is about equal
On the other hand, when lot sizes are planned, the to the required capacity.
capacity demand is significantly higher in Although not without problems, this is also
periods 1 and 4. This means that the higher- the underlying assumption of the planning
level part C can only be produced as planned if approaches supported by MRP, MRP II, and
the increased capacity necessary for part H is ERP systems. Only in the field of supply chain
available in periods 1 and 4. management (SCM) have interdependencies
From a theoretical point of view, the connec- between different parts, quantities, and capacities
tions between lot-size planning and capacity been explicitly taken up and are being considered
requirements have to be taken into account in the planning approaches.
for all of the parts. Otherwise, any attempt to
optimize the production plan will at best end up Manufacturing Levels vs. Low-Level Codes
in a suboptimum. Requirements-driven material planning can be
In practice, however, feasibility of the produc- performed in basically two different ways: by
tion plan has usually received more attention manufacturing levels or by low-level codes. The
than optimization. Therefore, material require- first way is most common when dealing with a
ments planning focuses only on the quantities, single product structure, for example, in make-
relying on the implicit assumption that the to-order production. The second way is typical
required capacity will be available when the when all products of a standardized end-product
production has to be completed. This assump- program are included, for example, in mass or
tion, however, is only justified when the produc- series production.
tion program is basically stable, the demand Proceeding by manufacturing levels means
curves are well known and more or less uniform, that one product structure tree at a time is
54 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
2
A B C D
E F G C E D
3
E D 4
Low-level code
Y Z 1
A B 2
F G C C 3
4
E E D E D D
traversed, branch-by-branch, part-by-part, and stock, however, was reserved to fill the higher-
from top to bottom. If a part appears more than level requirements at a later point in time.
once in the tree (or in different trees), it is dealt To avoid such misassignments of available
with several times. In Fig. 2.30 (upper section), stock, so-called low-level codes were introduced.
this is the case for parts C, D, and E. In this approach, the product structures are
Calculating net requirements involves subtract- reorganized across all trees in such a way that
ing available stock in the course of the process. each part occurs only on one level. Graphically
Since higher-level parts are considered first, speaking, the trees are stretched vertically so that
the existing stock is assigned to the higher each node reaches the lowest manufacturing level
manufacturing levels. This may cause net require- that the part has in any branch of any of the trees.
ments to appear for the same part on a lower level. This level is called the low-level code of the part.
However, the temporal structure of the pro- In the lower section of Fig. 2.30, parts D and E
duction process is such that the lower-level parts receive the low-level code 4 and part C the code 4.
have to be available before the higher-level parts. Requirements-driven planning by low-level
As a consequence, production of a part that codes starts with the first part on the highest
occurs both on a lower and a higher level will level (code 1), executing:
be initiated to fill the lower-level requirements, • Gross requirements planning
although at the time stock is still available. This • Net requirements planning
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 55
Y Z 1
A B P 2
G C C Q 3
E F E D E D F D 4
b C is replaced by S
Y Z 1
A B D 2
E F G S S 3
is entered into the database, its low-level code more than one product, they can be planned
must be determined, but what is worse, the codes independently from specific customer orders
of all other parts in the database must be reeval- and produced in larger batches, which saves
uated. The reason is that the codes may need to time and cost.
be changed due to the product structure of the
new part. The same applies when an existing part Planning Levels Different planning levels can
is deleted from the database. be introduced to handle customer-specific parts
Figure 2.31 illustrates the two scenarios. The and standard parts. Zimmermann called these
top section of the figure shows the case that end levels the expectation-oriented planning level
product Z is augmented by part P. Part F goes and the customer-order-oriented planning level
into part Q, which goes into P. Part F was already (Zimmermann 1989, pp. 74–76).
contained in the product structure of end product Figure 2.32 illustrates this distinction with the
Y (with low-level code 3). Introducing P changes help of two product structures representing the
the low-level code of F to 4 because in Z’s customer-specific products Y and Z. The com-
product structure, F is on a lower manufacturing pany has decided to use the standard parts C, E,
level than in Y’s. and F whenever possible, but A, B, D, and G
The lower section of the figure shows a sce- are parts that must be manufactured just for the
nario in which assembly C is no longer produced customer order.
in-house but replaced with a purchased part S. As the figure shows, planning for the parts Y,
Since C is not there anymore, D and E are not Z, A, B, D, and G will be done when a customer
needed either (for C) but are still needed for Z order arrives, while planning for the parts C, E,
and A, respectively. They move up according to and F can be done whenever suitable, for exam-
Y’s and Z’s product structures, and their low- ple, following a consumption-driven approach as
level codes are now equal to the manufacturing described in Sect. 2.3.1. The dashed line between
levels. the two planning levels is called the stock-
keeping level.
Inventory management in make-to-order
2.3.3 MRP in Make-to-Order production has to meet more challenges than
Production in make-to-stock production. The reason is that
consumption is not as smooth as in make-to-stock
An essential characteristic of make-to-order pro- production where the planning can be based on a
duction is that the product is specific to the cus- known, possibly constant withdrawal rate. In
tomer. This means that important master data such make-to-order production, the future customer
as product structures may not be available and orders are not known, and hence, derived require-
have to be created for the order. Furthermore, ments can at best only be estimated. Consequently,
customer-specific products are not produced to higher inventory levels including safety buffers
stock but only when the customer places an have to be kept, causing additional inventory cost.
order. This is actually an expensive strategy in Alternatively, the company may try to keep
comparison to mass or series production. The com- the inventory (for standard parts) at a reasonably
pany cannot benefit from cost savings that go low level and purchase peak demand from sup-
along with larger batches if they produce only pliers or competitors. In some industries, for
customer-specific parts. Likewise, it is difficult to example, suppliers exist that have specialized in
meet short delivery dates if for all parts, planning express delivery of certain materials at substan-
can only start when a customer order is placed. tially increased prices (e.g., special materials
For these reasons, make-to-order manufac- which otherwise have long delivery times). If
turers strive to use not only customer-specific such an option is available, the company may
parts but also standard parts where possible. consider a trade-off between increasing the
Since standard parts are typically included in inventory level (i.e., high inventory cost) and
2.3 Planning Primary and Secondary Requirements 57
Y Z Customer-order
oriented planning
2 1 2 2
A B D
1 2
1 4
G C C Stock-keeping level
2 1 2 1
E F E F E F Expectation-oriented
planning
express delivery when demand peaks arise In the opposite direction, only some of the
(i.e., high delivery cost). connections have been explicitly included in the
As mentioned in Sect. 2.2.2, make-to-order figure. For example, an arrow connects one of
production requires that the status of a customer the three y requirements with the first w order on
order, and of all dependent orders, can be level n. Had all connections been drawn, three
retrieved at any time. This is possible when the arrows would be pointing upward from the y
connections between the orders are explicitly requirements to the same order. Instead, the letter
stored and maintained in the database. If standard p is used to indicate that the requirement record
parts are involved, it is quite likely that second- contains an upward pointer.
ary requirements resulting from different
end-product orders are combined into the same Reservations and Availability Checks In
production lot. If the part is on an intermediate make-to-order production, reservation of stock
manufacturing level, requirements for parts on plays a more prominent role than in make-to-
the next lower level, derived from the current stock production. The reason is that completing
part (and from other parts), may again be aggre- a customer order on time has very high priority.
gated into lots, etc. In order to be able to complete an order as
Suppose an operating facility needed for any of planned and confirmed, material (just as other
the lower-level parts in Fig. 2.32 breaks down. In resources) has to be definitely available when it
order to check which customer orders might is needed.
be affected, the production manager needs to Early checking to ensure the availability,
know the connections from the machine to the followed by a reservation, is typical for many
manufacturing orders involved and from there make-to-order manufacturers. In some cases,
to the end-product customer orders. While the for example, when an important customer is
former connections are available in the involved, the reservation may already be booked
manufacturing orders (or the routings), the latter when an inquiry is received or when the company
ones have to be explicitly created and maintained. sends a quotation to the customer.
Figure 2.33 contains a general scheme, This is particularly important when purchased
showing connections on two levels between parts with long delivery times or in-house parts
individual requirements, production orders (lots), with long lead times are involved. By the time a
and derived requirements. w, x, y, and z are customer order has been received, it may be too
part numbers. In order to keep the figure simple, late to place a purchase or manufacturing order
only the “downward” connections are shown for this part. The delivery or lead time may be
completely: from the level n requirements ! longer than the time the customer is willing to
level n orders ! level n + 1 requirements ! wait for delivery of the order. Therefore, a pur-
level n + 1 orders. chase order might already be placed after the
58 2 MRP: Material Requirements Planning
Level n
Level n+1
w
y
y requirement requirement p
w
y
w
order date order quantity
date
requirement requirement
w
date
requirement requirement
date
requirement requirement
w
date
requirement requirement
date
requirement requirement
date
requirement requirement
quantity
quantity
quantity
quantity
quantity
quantity
quantity
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
w
order date order quantity
z
x
p
z
x
date
requirement requirement
z
quantity
x
p
order date order quantity
p
customer’s first inquiry, even if there is a risk that chain management (SCM) and included in ERP
a customer order will not come through. systems. They are often summarized under the
Advanced approaches for availability check- name ATP (“available to promise”). ATP and
ing have been developed in the field of supply other methods will be discussed in Sect. 10.1.5.
2.4 Outcome of Material Requirements Planning 59
(0, *)
(1, 1)
Quantity
(0, 1) Is a
Storage
place Primary Secondary
require- require-
ment ment
Goes into
Is a Is a
(1, )
Order
Is a
Planned Purchase
order order