Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
M. ATANGANA ELOUNDOU
1|Page
Année académique 2018-2019
2|Page
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
ABSTRACT
1. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
2. FRONTAL DISPLACEMENT
3. THE BUCKLEY-LEVERETT
DISPLACEMENT EQUATION
4. AVERAGE SATURATION
BEHIND THE FRONT:
WELGE'S EQUATION
5. CALCULATION OF OIL
RECOVERY AS A FUNCTION
OF TIME, AND THE
FRACTION OF DISPLACING
FLUID IN THE
PRODUCTION STREAM
6. FRONTAL INSTABILITY:
FINGERING
3|Page
ABBREVIATIONS’ DEFINITIONS
k permeability
k average
permeability
k0 permeability, effective, to
oil
k, radial permeability,
also:
relative permeability
ktg permeability, relative, to gas
krw permeability, relative, to water
Ms mobility ratio, diffuse-front
approximation
Pwoc pressure, at water/oil contact
PQ capillary pressure
Pc average capillary pressure
4|Page
INTRODUCTION
“Immiscible displacement” is a general phenomenon that happens when one fluid
displaces another and the two fluids cannot be mixed. In a reservoir engineering
context, the term "displacement" describes the process wherein a fluid drives out and
replaces the mobile oil contained in the pore spaces of the reservoir rock.
The mobile oil in the case of immiscible displacement is that part of the oil,
which will not remain trapped in the pores as a residual oil saturation Sor at the end
of the process. In particular, the displacing fluid can be water (originating from the
aquifer, injected into the aquifer, or injected into the reservoir) or gas (from the gas
cap, which expands because of pressure depletion; or injected into the gas cap or
reservoir).
In this analysis, we are going to focus on basic assumptions of “immiscible
displacement”, 1D and 2D displacements, finally relative permeability and capillary
pressure pseudo- curves
ABSTRACT
Immiscible displacement is based on some assumptions: unidirectional flow, water
wet rock, displacement is a drainage process, incompressible fluids, vertical
equilibrium maintenance throughout the drainage process. The successive
displacement of two immiscible fluids creates what we call “a front”. It is then a
frontal displacement. Therefore, any fluid has its own flow on the total flow. It is
called “fractional flow”. The fractional flow of water when displacing oil in its most
general form is expressed by:
.
Immiscible displacement have been discribed by Buckley and Leverett who base
their theory on volumetric material balance. The final equation which explicit their
theory is:
The resolution of this equation gives a fractional flow with three possible types of
curves: concave downwards, concave upwards and S-shaped.
When injected water reaches oil, we are at breakthrough. The Welge’s equation gives
water saturation at breakthrough:
5|Page
Therefore, oil recovery can be evaluated and its initial volume is expressed by:
It is important to notice that, frontal instability called fingering can occur during
immiscible displacement. This depends essentially on the mobility ratio Ms. If Ms >
1, fingering will occur; if Ms < 1, it will not.
1. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The basic assumptions made when attempting to describe displacement processes are
the same for one- and two-dimensional systems:
The oil and the displacing fluid are the only mobile fluids in the porous
medium, and move in the same direction (unidirectional flow). If a third fluid
is present (Sgr or Siw), it is not mobile.
In the case of the displacement of oil by gas, the gas is the non-wetting phase,
and the displacement is a drainage process. Once again, the movement of the
two fluids is described by their relative permeability curves, which are
functions only of the fluid saturations.
6|Page
pressure curve at all times and at all points along the fluid path. This concept
will be dealt with in more detail shortly. The first of the listed assumptions
intentionally excludes the displacement of oil by gas liberated from the oil
itself, following a decrease in reservoir pressure (solution gas or depletion
drive). This kind of displacement is, in fact, considerably more complex than
one driven by gas from an expanding gas cap. Firstly, owing to gravitational
forces, the gas migrates towards the top of the reservoir. This is in the
opposite direction to the oil, which, under the influence of the same
gravitational forces, tends to move down towards the lower parts of the
reservoir. Relative permeability curves describing this kind of countercurrent
flow do not exist. Secondly, the gravitational segregation of gas from the oil
is dependent on the value of the critical gas saturation Sgr, the vertical
permeability of the reservoir rock, and the rate at which the gas evolves from
solution. This latter in turn depends on the rate at which the reservoir pressure
declines.
Fig.1. Movement of the vertical water saturation profile with time in a porous media
in which displacement occurs under conditions of vertical equilibrium (VE).
2. FRONTAL DISPLACEMENT
We will consider a porous medium which is very thin relative to the capillary
transition zone (so that it can be represented as a one-dimensional system), in which
the oil is being displaced by, for example, water injected at a constant rate into the
bottom end. Adopting the usual convention of z increasing downwards, the x, Z
coordinate system that conforms to the porous medium will be as shown in Fig. 11.3.
For convenience in the analysis that follows, we will define a second coordinate
7|Page
system (X, Z), with the same origin as the (x, z) system but with the X-axis horizontal.
(2.1)
(2.2)
Equation (2.2) is the fractional flow equation for water in a porous medium.
The terms 𝜆𝑤 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑤 ⁄𝜇𝑤 ,𝜆𝑜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜 ⁄𝜇𝑜 and 𝜕𝑃𝑐,𝑜𝑤 /𝜕𝑥 are functions of the local
water saturation (or oil saturation, since Sw + So = 1). Consequently, of course, fw is
also function fw (Sw) of the local value of Sw. According to its definition, it varies
between zero (100% oil) and one (100% water). A typical fw (Sw) curve for a medium
viscosity oil is shown in Fig. 2.
8|Page
Fig. 2.2: A typical fractional flow curve fw = fw (Sw)
Note that the term 𝜕𝑃𝑐,𝑜𝑤 /𝜕𝑥 in Eq. (2.2) must be negative. In fact,
(2.3)
where 𝜕𝑃𝑐,𝑜𝑤 /𝜕𝑆𝑤 is negative, since Pc decreases as Sw increases, and 𝜕𝑆𝑤 /𝜕𝑥 is
positive because Sw increases with x (Fig. 11.3). To emphasize this point, Eq. (11.Sa)
can also be expressed as:
(2.4)
(2.5)
We get finally:
(2.6)
Equation (2.6) is the fractional flow equation in its most general form. By neglecting
the gravity and capillary terms, we get:
9|Page
(2.7)
The fractional flow equations for gas (fg) and oil (fo), in the case of oil displacement
by gas from a gas cap or gas injection, can be derived following the above procedure.
Suppose we have a linear porous medium in which oil, for example, is being
displaced by water. The porous medium has a cross-sectional area A and a porosity
cp. We will consider an element of length dx within the medium, with a local
saturation Sw = Sw(x, t).
If qw is the flow rate of water entering the element, then there will be [qw + (
𝜕𝑞𝑤 /𝜕𝑥) dx] leaving from the other end. The difference between entry and exit rates
accounts for any change in the volume of the water contained in the element.
Assuming incompressible fluids, volumetric balance applied to the element of porous
medium over a time interval dt requires that:
(volume of water entering in time dt) - (volume of water leaving in time dt) = (change
in volume of water in time dt)
(3.1)
(3.2)
10 | P a g e
Fig. 3.1. The displacement, or Buckley-Leverett, equation: volumetric material
balance
Since fw = fw(Sw),
(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
Since Sw = Sw(x, t), the total differential dSw will be given by:
(3.6)
(3.7)
11 | P a g e
and, combining Eqs. (3.4) and (3.7), we get:
(3.8)
Fig. 4. Displacement of oil by water. Case of a porous medium with an fw (Sw) curve
which is concave downwards (curve A), showing the variation of the velocity of
frontal advance with water saturation (curve B), and characteristics (C) which
describe the advance of individual saturations Sw with time.
(3.9)
(3.10)
12 | P a g e
The behavior of this function Sw(x, t) depends in turn on the behavior of j'(Sw) =
dfw(Sw)/dSw.
We will now look in detail at three cases, which illustrate some interesting
aspects of the displacement process.
Firstly, we shall look at the case where the curve fw(Sw) is concave downwards, as in
Fig. 11.6A: a situation commonly encountered when the oil is very viscous (µo »µw)
and in the absence of gravity effects (horizontal strata, 𝜃 = 0). The gradient j'(Sw)
increases progressively from its value at Sw = 1 - Sor to a maximum at Sw = Siw +
∆Siw. Remember that the initial condition,
given by Eq. (l1.l9c), is that Sw = 1 - Sor at x = 0 when t = O. The velocity of advance
is therefore a maximum where Sw is just greater than Siw (Fig. 11.6C), and decreases
steadily towards a minimum where Sw = 1 - Sor. The progress of the water saturation
profile at different times is as shown in Fig. 11.7: Sw at the exit face of the porous
medium (producing well) will increase progressively with time, and with it the
fraction fw of water in the produced fluids, as soon as Sw > Siw This explains why, in
wells producing heavy oil, the produced water cut increases steadily until the well
has to be shut down, with, as a consequence, poor oil recovery.
Fig. 3.1. Evolution of the water saturation profile with time through a porous
medium, in the case where the fw(Sw) curve is concave downwards. Water
breakthrough is observed at time tBT, after which an increasing fraction of water is
produced.
13 | P a g e
b. Case 2 - Fractional Flow Curve fw(Sw) Concave Upwards
fw(Sw) is concave upwards when the oil is very light (µo « µw) and a large
gravitational effect causes a significant reduction in fw [highly dipping strata, very
low velocity ut, high (Pw - Po)]. In this case, the gradient f'(Sw) decreases steadily
from its value at Sw = 1-Sor towards Sw = Siw (Fig. 11.8B); in other words, the highest
water saturations move with the highest velocity, with the maximum velocity at Sw =
1 - Sor. This means that saturations where Siw < Sw < (1 - Sor) cannot exist in the
porous medium, because they would be overtaken by the faster moving
Sw = 1 - Sor (Fig. 11.8C). Consequently, after a rapid initial buildup of Sw, a shock
front of water saturation Sw = 1 - Sor traverses the porous medium, with Sw = Swi
ahead of the front and Sw = 1 - Sor in the swept region behind it (Fig. 11.9). The
shock front represents a discontinuity in the water saturation. This sort of
discontinuity is, incidentally, a common feature in all phenomena involving shock
waves. At the exit face of the porous medium (the producing well), water-free oil
will be produced until the shock front arrives. From then on, 100% water will be
produced, and the well will have to be shut down. The oil remaining in the formation
at the moment of breakthrough will be at the residual oil saturation Sor.
Fig. 3.2.1. Evolution of the water saturation profile with time through a porous
medium, in the case where the fw(Sw) curve is concave upwards, showing the
formation of a shock front in the water saturation.
This explains the excellent recovery factors obtained from light oil reservoirs,
especially where the strata are highly dipping, and where production is at a low
enough rate to allow the front to stabilize.
14 | P a g e
Fig. 3.2.2. Calculation of the frontal velocity using the Rankine-Hugoniot condition
Vf = (Ut tan a)/Ø
Therefore,
(3.2.1)
where a is the angle shown in Fig. 3.2.2 between the Sw axis and the line joining
(Siw, 0) and (l - Sor, 1).
In this case, a shock front develops also. The saturation Sw,f at the front moves faster
than the saturations Sw < Sw,f which lie ahead, and leaves saturations Sw > Sw,f in its
wake.
Here, the front satisfies the relationship:
(3.3.1)
Equation (3.3.1) provides us with a convenient graphic method for determining the
water saturation Sw,f at the front. This is achieved by drawing a line through the point
(Siw, 0), tangential to the curve fw(Sw). This can be understood by looking at the
triangle AFB in Fig.3.3, where:
(3.3.2)
15 | P a g e
Note that Eq. (3.3.2) is satisfied at, and only at, Sw,f. Sw,f therefore represents the
water saturation at the displacement front. Ahead of the front, we will find oil in the
presence of water at its irreducible saturation Siw. Behind the front, on the other hand,
water saturation increases gradually from Sw,f towards (1- Sor). After a time tBT,
corresponding to the time it takes the front to traverse the entire length L of the
medium:
Fig. 3.3. Water saturation Sw,f at the front, in the case of a porous medium where the
fw(Sw)
curve is Sshaped.
Water is injected at a rate qw into one end of the porous medium. At the other
end, only oil will exit up to time fBT, after which there will be a mixture of oil and an
increasing percentage of water produced.
Fig. 4. Water saturation profile along the porous medium at time tBT, when the front
breaks through at the exit face
16 | P a g e
This curve is traduced mathematically by the Wedge’s equation for the average water
saturation at breakthrough that is:
(4)
(5.1)
If flushing of the porous medium continues, after a certain time all the mobile oil
will have been displaced, and only a residual saturation Sor of oil will remain. From
this moment on, only water will be produced (fw = 1).
The fraction of oil (ED)ult recovered at the time that fw = 1 will be:
(5.2)
Recalling that
(5.3)
we can use Eq. (5.3) to derive the time (t) Sw,e required by the saturation Sw,e to travel
the entire length of the porous medium:
17 | P a g e
(5.4)
The cumulative injected volume of water (Wi)sw,e when the saturation Sw,e reaches
the exit face of the medium will be:
(5.5)
(5.6)
In addition,
(5.8)
so that:
(5.9)
Fig. 6.1. How water starts to finger along a thin layer of high permeability (Ms > 1)
Fig. 6.2. The fingering process observed in a laboratory sample of porous medium,
apparently homogeneous, with μo/μw= 80. (From Ref. 15 1958, Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME. Reprinted with permission of the SPE)
The mobility krw (Sw,f) / µw of the water behind the front is higher than that of the oil
kro (Siw) / µo ahead. The displacement of oil by water in the high permeability streak
steadily reduces the resistance to local frontal advance. The phenomenon tends to be
self-enhancing, to the extent that when the water/oil front has travelled the entire
length of the streak, it looks like a finger of water within the oil.
19 | P a g e
The mobility of the water behind the front is less than that of the oil ahead. In this
case, resistance to frontal advance in the streak increases as the front advances. The
process therefore tends to stifle itself, and no water fingering will occur within the
oil. Looking at the phenomenon of fingering on a more complex level, we would find
that it is in fact an interplay between numerous parallel fingers of water, which form
along the front, spreading laterally and merging by diffusion and dispersion. Detailed
treatments of these phenomena are to be found in the classic works of van Meurs et
al, Chuoke et al, and Rachford. Hagoort demonstrated that the presence or absence
of fingering at the front depended on the local mobility ratio Ms.
Roughly speaking, this means that there will be a risk of fingering whenever the oil
is more viscous than the fluid displacing it. The phenomenon is therefore very
common when oil is being displaced by gas, because of its very low viscosity. Figure
6.2, taken from the work of van Meurs et al., illustrates the evolution of fingers of
water during the displacement of oil in a laboratory sample of porous medium, where
μo/μw = 80. Where fingering is extensive, it is no longer realistic to speak of a
displacement "front" as such, but rather of a region where the average water
saturation varies between Siw and (1 - Sw,f), while the actual saturation at any point
is either Siw or (1 - Sw,f).
CONCLUSION
At the end of this analysis about immiscible displacement, we have globally seen
immiscible displacement assumptions, frontal displacement, Buckley-Leverett
equation, Welge’s equation, oil recovery at breakthrough and frontal instability. We
have then learn about fractional flow of water and its relation with water saturation
given by Buckley and Leverett, water saturation and initial oil recovery at
breakthrough, fingering also, etc. It shows then all the steps of the evolution of an
immiscible displacement from the beginning to breakthrough, with the eventual
frontal instabilities that can disturb displacement. In our study, we focus on
displacement of oil by water. It will be interesting to see what will change if oil is
displaced by gas.
20 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
21 | P a g e
22 | P a g e