Common

Analyzing combinatorics
problems involving flags and
playing cards presents common
pitfalls for students—pitfalls that
can be avoided.
402 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010
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Errors in
Counting
Problems
Scott A. Annin and Kevin S. Lai

M
athematics teachers are often asked,
“What is the most difficult topic
for you to teach?” Our answer is
teaching students to count. The
concepts can be challenging and
slippery to apply in problems. Many times, no
rigid procedures or formulas can be used to solve
the problems directly, and students simply do not
know where or how to approach them. Further,
subtle differences in how questions are posed can
necessitate entirely different solution techniques.
This article will draw attention to some errors
that students fall victim to when solving counting
problems, examine the differences between correct
solutions and solutions often given by misdirected
students, and provide some problems to encourage
practice in this challenging area.
Combinatorics is an important topic in the
mathematics curriculum. It can help students
develop their reasoning skills—making conjectures,
generalizing, thinking systematically—and their

Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010 | Mathematics Teacher 403

 conceptual understanding of mapping, functions, of counting problems (see fig. 1). If students are
equivalence relations, and so forth (Kapur 1970). studying problems that rightly belong in one and
Combinatorics also has applications in many fields, only one of these four categories, there appears not
such as physics and biology, and Kapur recom- to be anything extraordinarily unusual about what
mended that it be taught at all grades. The same they must do to learn the material successfully.
view is expressed in Principles and Standards for What we often find challenging about teaching
School Mathematics (NCTM 2000), which notes students to count, however, is that most problems
that although the topic of discrete mathematics was do not fall cleanly into one and only one standard
removed from the 2000 Standards, it is evident category of counting problems. Rather, each prob-
across all the other Standards and spans all grades, lem typically involves different aspects that rely on
K–12. Discrete mathematics has many applications different techniques. Moreover, subtle differences
in business and industry, and students’ understand- between problems lead to a propensity for hesita-
ing of combinatorics should be developed through- tion, uncertainty, and errors in students’ thinking.
out their school years. Let’s begin with two problems:
Discrete mathematics textbooks commonly
attempt to classify counting problems neatly in  roblem 1: How many flags of 8 horizontal
P
the hope of giving students clear guidelines and stripes contain at least 6 blue stripes if each
solution procedures (Brualdi 2004; Johnsonbaugh stripe is colored red, green, or blue?
2009; Rosen 2007). Such attempt at classification
is also reflected in the research literature (Fishbein Problem 2: How many flags of 8 horizontal
and Gazit 1988; Batanero, Godino, and Navarro- stripes contain at least 2 blue stripes if each
Pelayo 1997). In counting selections of objects, for stripe is colored red, green, or blue?
example, one can distinguish problems according
to whether repeated selection of the same object In cases where contiguous stripes of the same color
is allowed and whether the order<fig.1>
in which the occur, the stripes are still to be viewed as separate
selected objects are chosen makes a difference to stripes, not as a single wider stripe. Both flags shown
the selection (i.e., permutations versus combina- in figure 2, for example, consist of 8 separate stripes.
n!
tions). This approach results in four general types Let’s now study each of these problems, look-
<fig.1> n−r !
<fig.1>
( ) ing at some of the fallacies in thinking that com-
Repetition Allowed Repetition Not Allowed monly arise as well as the thinking that leads to
n! (n + r − 1)! correct solutions. Many students do not see the
n!
) (( ))
differences—either the fine points or the substan-
r permutations
of n objects
(
n −nr !
r
r! n − 1 !
n−r ! tive differences—in the way these two problems are
best approached.
r combinations (n + r − 1)! n!
(n + r − 1)!
of n objects (
r! n − 1 ! ) (( ))
r! n − r !
r! n − 1 !
OVERCOUNTING RELATED TO ORDER
In many years of teaching combinatorics and ask-
Fig. 1 Discrete mathematics textbooks often contain a table showing the number of ing exam questions similar to that posed in problem
selections from n objects in each ofnthe <fig.3>
! four traditional categories. 1, we have found that students often arrive at the
n!
(
r! n − r ! ) ( )
r! n − r ! following incorrect solution.
 8  8
 6 • 2 • 2 +  7 • 2 + 1 =Incorrect
129 Solution to Problem 1
<fig.3> <fig.3> Each stripe on the flag must be labeled with a color:
red, green, or blue. Because at least 6 blue stripes
 8  8 <fig.4> are required, one can begin by choosing 6 stripes to
 8  8
 6 • 2 • 2 +  7 • 2 + 1 = 129   • 2 • 2 +   • 2 + 1color = 129blue. There are
 6  7
 13  4  4
 2  •  2  •  2  = 2808  8
<fig.4> <fig.4>  6 = 28

 13  4  4 <fig.5> ways to do this. Once the minimum of 6 blue

 13  4  4  8
 2  •  2  •  2  = 2808
 2  •  2  •  2  = 2808stripes is fulfilled, theremaining
= 28 2 stripes (which-
ever ones they are) can  6each be colored in any one
 4  4
13 •   • 12 •   = 3744 of 3 ways (red, green, or blue). Therefore, there are
<fig.5>  3  2
<fig.5> (3)(3) = 9 ways to finish 8 coloring the stripes, giving
a total of (28)(9) = 252  (2)(2) =patterns
 6different (28)( 4 ) =of11color
2,
Fig. 2 Which of these flags satisfiesthe  4 set in problems 1and
4 conditions 2? on the flag’s stripes.
13 •   • 12 •   = 3744 4  4
 3  2 13 •   • 12 •   = 3744
404 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010  
3  2  8
 7
Analysis
This solution appears to be a straightforward applica-
tion of the multiplication principle: To count the total
number of ways of doing a task, one can multiply
the number of ways of performing the subtasks that
constitute the whole task. Hence, the answer (28) •
(9). However, this answer is nearly twice as large as it
should be, mainly because it imposes an ordering on
the blue stripes (a fact students are unaware of at this
point), when the order in which the stripes are painted
is immaterial: The problem demands a count only of
finished, colored flags. In particular, this solution first
chooses 6 blue stripes and then (possibly) chooses addi-
tional blue stripes. Therefore, the solution has ordered
the blue stripes into 2 “groups”: (1) the first 6 blue
stripes and (2) any additional blue stripes.
To see the difficulty more explicitly, consider the
flag with all 8 stripes colored blue. Obviously, only
one such flag is possible, yet the solution counts
it 28 times in the 252 total obtained. How is this
result possible? Suppose 8 we place a gold star next to
 6 =among
each stripe that is chosen 28 the first 6 for the
color blue. For an all-blue flag, there are
 8
 6 = 28
different patterns of gold stars that could occur on
 8
the stripes. The solution incorrectly counts each of
  (2)(2) = (28)( 4 ) = 112,
these 28 outcomes asa6different flag.
Finally, one flag has all 8 stripes blue. When
we use the sum rule, the total number of flags
with at least 6 blue stripes is 112 + 16 + 1 = 129
(see fig. 3).
Conclusions
Many counting problems involve a minimum
requirement (e.g., flags with at least 6 blue stripes,
license plates with at least 6 As, bags of fruit con-
taining at least 6 apples, and so on). Such problems
are vulnerable to overcounting in the manner
shown, but this overcounting can be remedied by
replacing the minimum condition with several
cases containing an exact condition and summing
the total count for each case. Instead of counting
the number of flags with at least 6 blue stripes in
one step, for example, we separately count the
number of flags with exactly 6 stripes, exactly 7
stripes, and exactly 8 stripes. Each of these three
subcases is less prone to error, and, as shown in
figure 3, the results from each subcase can be
added to yield the final result.
Correct Solution to Problem 2
This problem is closely related to problem 1 and
can be solved the same way. Because the number of
blue stripes can now be of value 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or
8, we have 7 different cases to take care of. We ask:
How many flags of 8 stripes contain exactly k blue
xxx
stripes? The answer is

Correct Solution to Problem

8 1  8 8 − k
 8  k (2 ),
To correct forsuch  = 28overcounting,
 7 students can sub-
tract, but it is easier
6 to avoid overcounting in the <fig.1> <fig.1>
first place. Students might observe that the trouble xxx
obtained by first choosing k stripes to color blue,
 8does not occur with flags that and then deciding on  8  8  8  8  8  8  8
described in the  8analysis n!  either n! ) +red
(64 or (32green
) +  (2 (choices
16) +   (8) +   ( 4 ) +   (2) +   (1)
( 2 ) = ( 8 )( 2
= 28red or green. The number of ) = 16      7
each of the 2remaining   38 – k stripes.  4 We  5  6  8
have 2 stripescolored
 6
such flags (flags with exactly =6 28
 7
 8  blue stripes) is precisely must
each)
 8 for
( 2 8− k
), ( )(
n−r ! n−r ! )
 k sum this value for all k = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8.
 6 xxx
The total is  8 7
 8 8 ( n + r −1(1n()!2+ r) − 1)!
= 28
 6(62)(2) = (28)( 4 ) = 1128, 
 8   (28 − k ),


8 

 8
(64 ) +   (32

( )(  4
)
r ! )n+−18r! (n16−)1+ ! 8 (8) +  8 ( 4 ) +  8 (2) +  8 (1) = 5281.
 5  6  7  8
 6 = 28  k  2  3
because there are 28 ways to choose 6 blue stripes  
8 7
 8 8 n!2 +  n! (2 ) = 256 + 1024 = 1280
8
and 2 choices ofcolor = 28 (red or green) for each of the
     8
 1
last 2 stripes. 7 6  8
)(2) =
(2that
 8

(28  ( 64 ) +
 8
 
4 ) = 11723,
( 32 ) +
88  7
   (
 2
( )
16 ) +
 8
  ( )(
r(!8)n+− r8r ! (n4 −
  )  8
) +r !  (2) +   (1) = 5281.
Next, the number of flags  2)(exactly 14   5  6  7  8
 6
have
blue stripes can  8be 8counted. There are
<fig.3> <fig.3>
 7(62)(=2()(82)()2=)(=28 16)( 4 ) = 112,
 8 7  8 7
 8  1 (2 ) 2 +   (2 ) = 256 + 1024 = 1280
8

 7  1  8  8  8  8
 8  6 •• 22 •• 26+•27+• 2• 2 ++  71=•• 2
2 + 1 = 129
129 + 1 = 129

ways to choose 7 7stripes 
 to color blue,8and  8the
 last
 8 2 +   (27 ) = 256 + 1024 = 1280
stripe must be either red or (green.
2) = (8)( Hence,
2) = 16  1there
 are
 7 <fig.4> <fig.4>
 8 Exactly 6 blue stripes Exactly 7 blue stripes Exactly 8 blue stripes
 7 (2) = (8)(2) = 16
 13 413    44  4
  • • • = •2808 = 2808
such flags. Fig. 3 The solution  2 to problem22   212isabout
  2  half the original, incorrect solution.

Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010 | Mathematics Teacher 405

<fig.5> <fig.5>
 xxx
Although xxx the final answer by this solution QUESTIONS ABOUT ORDER
requires many terms, students become very comfort- IN ANOTHER CONTEXT
 8 8 − k
able with it, especially after (2 seeing
), enough similar Playing cards are prevalent in combinatorics and
examples. Of 8 course,
8− k  k the minimum require-
when probability problems. Despite the heavy attention
 k (2 ),
ment of the problem is rephrased as the complement such problems have received, they can illuminate
of a maximum requirement,  8 a shorter
 8 answer  8  can  8 someimportant 8  8but easily
 8 overlooked points. In
( 64 ) + ( 32 ) + (16 ) + ( 8 ) + ( 4 ) + ( 2 ) + 1) = 5281. in how prob-
 8 (difference
be found: How 8 many  8 2
flags  8 3
contain at most 8 4
1 blue  8 5  8 6  8 7
particular, there is a basic
stripe? Because
 2 ( 64
2 8
) +
flags ( 32
 3have no ) +  4blue (16 )
 stripes+ ( 8 ) +
 5 and  6 ( 4 ) +
lems  3( 2 )
and + 4 are
 8 (1) = 5281
solved, .
and the ordering of objects
lies 7at the center of the analysis.
 8 7
 8 7  1 (2 ) Problem 3: How many 4-card hands consisting
 1 ( 2 ) of 2 cards each of 2 different ranks (i.e., ace, 2,
flags have exactly 1 blue stripe, a total of 3, …, queen, king) can be made from a standard
 8 7
2 +   (2 ) = 256 + 1024 = 1280
8
deck of 52 cards?
 8 7  1
2 +   (2 ) = 256 + 1024 = 1280
8

 1 Problem 4: How many 5-card hands containing

flags do not contain at least 2 blue stripes. Because
a total of 38 = 6561 flags have 8 horizontal stripes
(each stripe independently colored red, green, or
blue), precisely 6561 – 1280 = 5281 flags do contain
at least 2 blue stripes.
a full house can be made from a standard deck
of 52 cards? (A full house consists of precisely 3
cards of a first rank and 2 cards of a second rank
from a standard deck.)
Incorrect Solution to Problem 3
Students will be tempted to impose an unwanted
order on the 2 different ranks used to build the
4-card hand, although students frequently do not
intend to do so or realize that they have done so.
The faulty reasoning goes like this: There are 13
ways to choose the first rank, and then

 4
 2 

ways to choose 2 of the4 suits of that rank, 12

4
ways to choose the second
 2  rank, and

 4
4
2   4
(13  4
2 )  (12)  = 5616,
 
2  2
ways to choose 2 of the 4 suits of the second rank.
 4
Multiplication
4 of the various
choices21available
23 here would give
  
 
the answer 2
 4  4
(13)4 (12)4 = 5616,
(134)42(12) 2 = 5616,
 2   2
2

 2

whichis 
13twice as large as it
13
should 2   4  4faulty
be.
213 This  reasoning,
 2   2   2  = (78)(6)(6) = 2808

 4  4
44
224
213   4
 3   2  = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.
 2  2
iStockphoto.com

 13  4  4
1344 = (78)(6)(6) = 2808
2  2 2 = (78)(6)(6) = 2808
213
 2   2   2 

 13  4  4
1344 = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.
22 3322 = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.
406 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010
  6  76  7  6  7

<fig.4> <fig.4> <fig.4>

 4
in which the 2 ranks are placed in order (a point  2 
 13  4  413  4  4  13  4  4
emphasized by referring to them as “first rank”  2  •  2  • • 2 = 2808
• • =• 2808• • = 2808 = 2808
 2   2   2   2   2   2 
and “second rank,” as above) when they should
 4
not be is common.  2 
 4 <fig.5> <fig.5> <fig.5>
 
Correct Solution to Problem 42  3 Ways to Ways to choose 2 Ways to choose 2 cards
The undesired
 4 order 
imposed
 2  on the 2 different choose 2 
ranks 4  4   4 
cards  4  
from 
4, one rank  4   4 theother
from 4 rank
(13)13  2•(12 )•12 •=135616
• = 3744 • 12 • = 3744
13 • 12 • = 3744
ranks can be 2 avoided with the following approach.        •
  
 4  3  2  2  3  2  3  2 
The tasks required to construct   a 4-card hand con- Fig. 4 The correct solution to problem 3 is exactly half the original, incorrect solution.
sisting of 2 pairs are, first,  42 to choose 2 different
 4 (without
ranks of cards  2ordering
 the ranks) to build change toproblem 13 3, for example, leads to the more
pairs from and  then to choose 2 suits for the 2 cards troublesome  2 problem 4.
2  4  4
from each of the 2 ranks(13 )  (12
chosen in )the = 5616
 first ,
step.
 42   42 
There are (13)  (12)  = 5616, Incorrect Solution to Problem 4
 4  4 2   2  4  4
This problem  2  appears to be almost identical to
(13)  (12)  = 5616,
 2 213 problem 3. 2  we must first choose 2 ranks of
Again,
  cards and then choose an appropriate number of
 132 
 2  cards of each  13rank.  4  4If we try a technique similar to
 13
ways to complete
 2  the first step and the correct solution  = (78for
 2   2   2given )(6) = 2808
)(6problem 3 above, the
 4  4
<fig.1> expected answer might be
  
 4242 
 4  4  2   2   13  4  4
n!
 2   2   2   3   2  = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.
ways to complete the second
( )
 13  4n− r4!
 2  step,   giving = (78 )(6) =of2808
us)(a6total
 13   4242 
= (78)(6)(6) = 2808 But this answer is incorrect, because it does not
 13  4  4 2   2(n+2 r − 1)! distinguish
 13
in any way<fig.1>between the 2 chosen ranks.
 2   2   2  = 13 (78)(6)(6) = 2808  2 
( )
  4  4
r! n − 1 !
 2   3   2  = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872them
The
.
first
in
step
order.
chooses only 2 ranks; it does not put
 13  4  4 n!
such hands (see fig. 4). = (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.

 13  4  4 2   3   2n!     
(
Correct Solution to Problem 4 ) n−r !
 2   3   2  = 13 (78)( 4 )(6) = 1872.

Analysis ( )
 2  r ! n − r ! In problem 4, unlike problem 3, the 2 chosen ranks
By simultaneously choosing  13  the 2 ranks of cards cannot be handled simultaneously (n + r − 1)! because 1 of the
 
that the pairs
sible mistake
 13will
 2 
of
be
putting
built from,
 2  <fig.3>
the 2 ranks
we avoid
of cards
the
in
pos-
a
2
from
chosen
it,
ranks
whereas
(
of cards
the
) must
r! n − 1 !
other
have
should
3 suits selected
have only 2. We
specified order. Students often successfully solve must impose an order on the chosen ranks. The
problem 3 merely because their  8experience  8with correct answer is shownnin ! figure 5.
2 • 2 +   • 2 + 1 = 129
playing cards is that the order 6of  •the cards  7does not ( )
r! n − r !
matter. That is, cards can be played from a hand Conclusions
in any desired order; the left-to-right order of the In problem 3, the order of the 2 ranks used to cre-
<fig.4> <fig.3>
cards in the hand is inconsequential. Therefore, ate 2 pairs is unimportant, whereas in problem 4
most people are trained to use combinations (rather we must differentiate between the rank that 3 cards
than permutations) to solve card  13 problems.
 4  4A natu- are chosen from andthe 8 rank that  82 cards are cho-
 2  •  of  •
  = 2808   •2•2+ + 1 = 129
 7to• 2result
ral corollary of using combinations, course,
2  2 is sen from. This distinction
 6 appears from
that with card problems in which order is in some the fact that the same number of cards of each rank
way significant, students often falter. Only a minor is chosen in problem 3 but not in problem 4.
<fig.5> <fig.4>

 4  4  13  4  4
13 • 13 •   • 12 •   =• 3744 12 • = 2808
 2  •  2  •  2= 3744
 3  2

<fig.5>
Ways to choose a Ways to choose 3 Ways to choose another Ways to choose 2
rank for 3 cards cards from one rank rank for 2 cards  4that
 4cards of  rank
13 •   • 12 •   = 3744
 3  2
Fig. 5 The correct solution to problem 4 contains a factor of (13)(12) rather than the factor of 13C2, which occurs in the
incorrect solution.

Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010 | Mathematics Teacher 407

 xxx

 12
 2 
(1) ABC DEF GHI JKL (2) ABC GHI DEF JKL (3) DEF ABC GHI JKL
(4) DEF GHI ABC JKL (5) GHI ABC DEF JKL (6) GHI DEF ABC JKL
 
(7) ABC DEF JKL GHI (8) ABC GHI JKL DEF (9)10DEF ABC JKL GHI
 3 
(10) DEF GHI JKL ABC (11) GHI ABC JKL DEF (12) GHI DEF JKL ABC
(13) ABC JKL DEF GHI (14) ABC JKL GHI DEF (15) DEF JKL ABC GHI
(16) DEF JKL GHI ABC (17) GHI JKL ABC DEF (18)
 12GHI  10JKL DEF ABC
(19) JKL ABC DEF GHI (20) JKL ABC GHI DEF (21) = (66ABC
 2   3 DEF
JKL ) = 7920.
)(120GHI
(22) JKL DEF GHI ABC (23) JKL GHI ABC DEF (24) JKL GHI DEF ABC

Fig. 6 The same 4 groups of 3 occur 24 times when an order on groups is imposed.  12  9  6
 3   3  3 = (220)(84 )(20) = 369, 600.
RELATED PROBLEMS One might be tempted to give the answer
Here are some related problems that also demon-
strate this subtle distinction in the problems above.  4
Try to solve these two before reading the solutions.  2  = 6,

 roblem 5: Alice, Bob, Candice, Douglas, Ellen,

P the number of ways to choose 2 of the 4 individuals
Freddie, George, Henrietta, Irvin, Josh, Kelly, to form a group (with the other 2 then being paired
and Lawrence are instructed to break into 1 up by default thereafter). However, we can directly
group of size 2, 1 group of size 3, and 1 group of count only 3 (not 6) pairs of 2: Alice and Bob in
size 7. In how many ways can they do this? a pair, Alice and Candice in a pair, and Alice and
Douglas in a pair. The answer 6 would be correct
Problem 6: The same 12 persons are instructed to only if we wanted to place the 2 groups chosen in
break into 4 groups of 3. In how many ways can order. Perhaps, for example, the first 2 individuals
they do this? chosen to form a group are also designated as officers
for the whole group. If we wanted to keep track of
xxx
To solve problem 5, we know that there are this additional information, then there would indeed
be 6 possible outcomes. However, there are only 3
xxx 12 ways to split 4 individuals into 2 unordered pairs.
 2  Returning to problem 6, the answer 369,600
 12 involves unintentionally putting the 4 groups of
ways to choose xxx 2 people  2for  the group of size 2. 3 in order. If the groups had different sizes, as in
 10
Next, there remain 10 people  3  and, hence, problem 5, this approach would be acceptable. In
problem 6, however, it results in gross overcount-
 12  10 ing. For example, the incorrect solution above
 2   3 
 12  10 counts the group formation ABC | DEF | GHI | JKL
 2   3  = ( 66 )(12 0 ) = 7920 . as different from the group formation GHI | ABC |
xxx
ways to choose  103 people for the group of size 3. JKL | DEF (note that the order of the three letters
 12  10
Finally, thelast 7 people form a group of size 7 by comprising a group is immaterial here). There are
3   2   3  = (66)(120) = 7920.
default, 12 
giving us a total 12 of  9  6 4! = 24 ways to permute the same 4 groups of 3 (see
 2   3   3  3 = (220)(84 )(20) = 369 , 600.
fig. 6); thus, each way of grouping 12 individu-
 12  10       als into 4 groups of 3 is being counted 24 times.
12 9 6
 2   3  =(66)(120) = 7920 = (220. )(84 )(20) = 369, 600.
Therefore, the correct answer to problem 6 must be
 10  3 4   3  3
 2  = 6, smaller than the wrong answer obtained by a factor
 3 
Problem 6 is rather challenging for students, of 24. The result is 369,600/24 = 15,400.
 12  9  6 
especially if they attempt 4 it immediately after solv- As we have seen in these examples, one of the
 3   3  3 =(220 = 6,)(84 )(20) = 369, 600.
ing problem
 12  10 1. In solving  2 problem 6, many students most important questions to resolve in solving
will follow the
 2   3  =
same ( 66)(
reasoning 12 0 ) = 7920 .
exactly to obtain the counting problems is this: Does the order of the
incorrect answer  4 objects occurring in a selection of objects matter?
 2 = 6, The answer may not be as clear-cut as it appears at
 12  9  6 first, and great care must be exercised.
 3   3  3 = (220)(84 )(20) = 369, 600.
ADDITIONAL PRACTICE
This answer, however, is 24 times too large! In this article, we have used examples in a vari-
 4
To see why, let’s consider a smaller example ety of contexts to show how minor differences in
  = 6,
first: In 2how many ways can Alice, Bob, Candice, combinatorics problems can cause a novice solver
and Douglas be arranged into 2 groups of 2 people? to have major misconceptions. The standard cat-

408 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010

egorization of these problems into different types
can ease this difficulty to some extent, but many
problems do not belong to one and only one cat-
egory. A variety of problems needs to be presented
to students so that they can gain a better conceptual
understanding of the problems and become familiar
with the common pitfalls that must be avoided.
Teachers can readily and specifically address
the issues we have raised here by giving students
any number of problems like the ones we have dis-
cussed. In so doing, they will equip and train their
students to be mindful of the potential errors that
frequently arise in solving these problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Batanero, Carmen, Juan D. Godino, and Virginia
Navarro-Pelayo. “Effect of the Implicit Combinato-
rial Model on Combinatorial Reasoning in Second-
ary School Pupils.” Educational Studies in Math-
ematics 32 (1997): 181–99.
Brualdi, Richard A. Introductory Combinatorics. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004.
Fishbein, Efraim, and Avikam Gazit. “The Combi-
natorial Solving Capacity in Children and Adoles-
cents.” Zentralblatt fur Didaktik der Mathematik 5
(1988): 193–98.
Johnsonbaugh, Richard J. Discrete Mathematics. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009.
Kapur, J. Nevin. “Combinatorial Analysis and School
Mathematics.” Educational Studies in Mathematics
3 (1970): 111–27.
Mathematical Association of America (MAA). Ameri-
can Invitational Mathematics Exam (AIME) Alter-
nate Exam. Washington, DC: MAA, 2002.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM). Principles and Standards for School Math-
ematics. Reston, VA: NCTM, 2000.
Rosen, Kenneth H. Discrete Mathematics and Its Appli-
cations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
For additional exercises on combinatorics, go to
the NCTM Web site: www.nctm.org/mt.
SCOTT A. ANNIN, sannin@fullerton.
edu, is a professor at California
State University, Fullerton, whose
mathematical interests include
algebra and combinatorics. KEVIN
S. LAI, kslai@ucdavis.edu, a former
combinatorics student of Annin’s, is
a graduate student in the School of
Education at the University of California, Davis.
Photographs by Kevin S. Lai
Vol. 103, No. 6 • February 2010 | Mathematics
mbrref809_431 Teacher 409
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