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CHEMISTRY NOTES
9th CLASS
Chapter NO 1
Fundamentals of Chemistry
a) Science:
The study of nature through observations and experiments is called science.
b) Chemistry:
The branch of science which deals with the composition, structure, properties of matter,
the changes occurring in matter and the laws and Principles that govern these changes is called
chemistry.
c) Matter:
Anything which occupies space and has mass is called matter.
Examples: Air, book, sugar, salt, Pen, Paper, Glass, Plastics, Gold, water etc.
d) Mass:
The quantity of matter in an object is its mass. Mass does not depend on Earth Gravity.
e) Substance:
A sample of pure matter is known as substance “or” The uniform composition of matter
is called a substance.
Examples: Elements, Compound.
Period of Al-Chemists: The Period of Muslims from 600-1600 A.D is generally called the
Period of Al-Chemists in the history of Chemistry.
AIMS:
The major aims of the Al-Chemists were:
1. To find out methods to Prolong life.
2. Looking for ways to change base metals (such as lead) into gold.
3. To find Physical evidence to support religious and Philosophical belief.
Achievements:
Some achievements of Al-Chemists are as follow;
1. They invented instruments like beakers, funnels, crucibles, furnaces, retorts etc.
2. They also found many chemical Procedures commonly used in the laboratory like,
distillation, filtration, fermentation, Sublimation and Calcination.
In Europe the term “Alchemy” used for the knowledge and techniques of Al-Chemists. But
later on this term i.e. alchemy changed into purely English word “Chemistry”.
i) Physical Chemistry:
The branch of chemistry which deals with the relations between the physical properties
of substances and their chemical composition and transformation is called physical chemistry.
BASIC DEFINITIONS:
Element: A pure substance in which all the atoms are chemically identical (similar) having
the same atomic number is called an element.
There are nearly 118 elements known up till now. Among 92 are naturally occurring
elements, while rest has been synthetically prepared in the laboratory.
Properties of Elements:
i) Elements contain only one kind of atoms.
ii) An element cannot be decomposed into substances because it is composed of only one type
of atoms.
iii) Elements are represented by chemical symbols.
Examples: i) Copper (used in wire). ii) Oxygen (used breathing). iii) Mercury (used in
thermometer). iv) Neon (used in electric bulb) etc.
Symbol: The short way of writing of name of an element is called the symbol of that
element.
Explanation: The symbols come from the Latin or Greek names of the elements. A symbol is
usually the first letter of an element but sometimes a symbol consists of two or more letters, in
this case first letter is always a capital letter and second- third are small letters.
Examples: Symbols of elements consisting of a single letter.
Element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Oxygen O
Carbon C
Boron B
Nitrogen N
Sulphur S
Phosphorous P
Fluorine F
Compound:
A pure substance which is composed of two or more elements that are chemically
combined in definite proportion by mass is called a compound.
Characteristics:
1. A compound is always pure.
2. A compound cannot be separated into its elements by physical methods.
3. The composition of a compound is fixed.
4. Components of a compound lose their individual properties.
5. A compound is represented by a chemical formula.
Examples: i)Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a compound of Sodium (39.3%) and Chlorine (60.7%).
ii) Water (H2O). iii) Sucrose (Sugar) C12H22O11.iv) Ethyl alcohol (used in wine) C2H5OH
v) Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) C2H6O2 vi) Iron oxide (rust). v) Carbon dioxide (CO2) etc.
i) Homogeneous Mixture: A mixture in which all parts have same properties and uniform
composition is called a homogeneous mixture. It is also called solution. It exists in one physical
state.
Example: i) Air ii) Aqueous NaCl solution iii) Aqueous sugar solution.
ii) Heterogeneous Mixture: A mixture in which different parts have different properties and
different composition is called heterogeneous mixture.
Examples: i) Concrete ii) Ice cream iii) Mixture of Petrol and water
iv) Food products.
Ans: Atomic number: The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus
or the number of electrons present around the nucleus of the atom. The atomic number or an
element (or atom) is represented by “Z”.
Examples: i) The atomic number of Hydrogen (H) is =1.
ii) The atomic number of oxygen (O) is =8.
Calculation of 1 amu:
1 mol of Carbon (C) = 12 grams = 6.022x1023 atoms.
So, Mass of 6.022x1023 atoms of ‘C’ =12 grams
12
Mass of 1 atom of ‘C’ = 1
6.022 10 23
= 1.99x10-23
Then,
1
1 amu = x 1.99x10-23
12
1 amu = 1.67 x 10-24 gram
1.67×10−24
1 amu = = 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
1000
Q: 14. What is Average atomic mass? Calculate the average atomic mass of Chlorine which
exists naturally as a mixture of two isotopes 𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 (75%) and 𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍(25%):
Ans: Average Atomic Mass: The weighted average of the atomic weights of all the isotopes of
an element is called average atomic mass. The average atomic mass of an element depends
upon the relative abundance (existence in nature) of the isotopes of that element.
Calculation of Average Atomic Mass of “Cl”:
Formula,
𝐴𝑡.𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜−1 ×𝑖𝑡𝑠 % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑡.𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜−𝐼𝐼 × % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average At. Mass = ( ) + ( )
100 100
Put values in the above formula
75 25
Average atomic mass of “Cl” = (35 × 100) + ( 37 × 100 )= 35.50
Q: 16. What is a chemical formula? Write the process of writing the chemical formula:
Ans: Chemical Formula: A chemical formula of the compound contains symbols of the
elements “OR” Chemical formula is a shorthand method of represent a compound.
Examples:
Chapter|1 GREEN HILLS SCHOOL & COLLEGE Page |7
BaCl2
b) Molecular Formula: The formula which shows the actual number, rather than simplest
ratio, of constituent atoms per molecule of the compound is called molecular formula.
Explanation: Molecular formula gives the true formula for the compound, because it shows
the actual number of atoms in the compound. The relation between empirical formula and
molecular formula is given as follow:
Molecular formula = 𝑛 × 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
Where
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛=
𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Examples:
1) The molecular formula of Benzene is “C6H6”.
2) The molecular formula of Glucose is “C6H12O6”.
3) The molecular formula of Acetic Acid is “C2H4O2”.
4) The molecular formula of Acetylene is “C2H2”.
5) The molecular formula of Water is “H2O”.
Q: 18. Write steps for the calculation of empirical and molecular formula:
Ans: Calculation of Empirical & Molecular Formula:
Following steps are carried out to determine empirical and molecular formula.
i) Percentage composition: Find the Percentage composition of each element in the
compound.
ii) Mole Ratio: Find the mole ratio by dividing the Percentage of each element by atomic mass
of the element.
iii) Atomic Ratio: Divide each mole ratio by the smallest mole ratio.
iv) If the resulting values are simple whole numbers then place them as subscript of the
elements symbol, you get the required empirical formula, otherwise, if the value is in fraction
then multiply the atomic ratio by a small suitable number to get the whole number.
v) After determining empirical formula, molecular formula can be determined as
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Q: 20. a) What is molecular mass of a compound? How will you differentiate it from formula
mass?
b) Calculate the molecular mass or formula mass as the case may be of the following in amu.
i. Benzene C6H6 ii. Ethane gas C2H6
iii. Aluminium Chloride, AlCl3 iv. Iron Oxide, Fe2O3
Ans: Molecular Mass: The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms of elements present in one
molecular formula is known as molecular mass. It is also called relative molecular mass.
Formula Mass: The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms of elements present in one
formula unit is called formula mass. Formula unit is used for Ionic compounds.
Calculation: Molecular mass and formula mass both are calculated in the same way.
Formula:
(No. of atoms in substance x At. Mass) + (No. of atoms in substance x At. Mass)
112+48
160 amu.
Solution:
i. Molecular mass of C6H12O6
6x12+12x1+6x16
72+12+96
180 g.
b) Gram Formula Mass: When formula masses of Ionic compounds expressed in grams,
then it is called Gram formula mass.
Examples:
i. The gram formula mass of NaCl = 58.5g.
ii. The gram formula mass of CaCl2 = 111g.
iii. The gram formula mass of MgO = 40g.
a. Simple Ion:The ion which consists of only one type of atoms is called simple ion.
b) Compound Ion: The ion which consists of more than of type of atoms is called a
compound ion.
Phosphate PO3-3
Q: 23. Define Free radical with an example:
Ans: Free Radical: Free radical is defined as a species with an unpaired electron.
Formation: Free radicals are highly reactive species formed by the breaking of stable
molecules, in such a way that the resulting reactive species get separated with unpaired
electrons.
Example: During the reaction between Chlorine molecules and methane, CH4 in the
presence of diffused sun light, first from Chlorine free radicals.
Cl2 2Cl° (Chlorine free radical)
The dot on the symbol of chlorine atom, written as Cl°, represents the single unpaired electron.
The Chlorine free radical does not remain for long time and reacts with CH4 to form the
following products.
CH4+Cl° C°H3+HCl
methyl radical
C°H3+Cl2 CH3– Cl+Cl°
(Chloromethane)
Examples:
i. CO+ ii. CH4+ iii. O2+ iv. Na2+ etc.
Q: 25. Define a molecule. Describe briefly Monoatomic molecules and Polyatomic molecules:
Ans: Molecule: The smallest particle of an element or compound (Pure substance) which
can exist as an independent distinguishable entity is called a molecule.
a. Monoatomic Molecules (mono-one): This type of molecule is made up of only one atom.
Examples: Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar) etc.
ii. Triatomic Molecules: These types of molecules are made up of three atoms.
Examples: 1) H2O, 2) CO2, 3) SO2, 4) H2S etc.
iii. Tetra atomic Molecules: These types of molecules are made up of four atoms.
Examples: 1) NH3, 2) PCl3 etc.
iv. Penta atomic Molecules: These types of molecules are made up of five atoms.
Examples: 1) CH4, 2) CHCl3 (Chloroform)
v. Macro Molecules: Some molecules are so big that they are called macromolecules.
Examples: 1) Hemoglobin, 2) Proteins, 3) Plastids etc.
b) Hetero Atomic Molecule: A molecule which consists of different kind of atoms is called
heteroatomic molecule. It is also called hero nuclear molecule.
Example: CO, CO2, H2O, CH4, NH3, HNO3, C12H22O11 etc.
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Q: 27. What do you understand by the terms mole and Avogadro’s number? Give examples:
Ans: Mole: The atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of a substance expressed in
grams is called a mole. “OR” The gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass or gram formula
mass of a substance is called a mole.
Explanation: We use the term dozen in our daily life to express 12 similar things e.g. a dozen
of eggs means 12 eggs, and a dozen of bananas would mean 12 bananas. In the same manner
Chemists use the term mole to express a definite amount of a substance.
Unit: Mole is the SI base unit of the amount of a substance.
Examples:
1) One mole of H = 1g.
2) One mole of H2 = 2g.
3) One mole of O = 16g.
4) One mole of O2 = 32g.
5) One mole of H2O = 18g.
6) One mole of CO2 = 44g.
Avogadro’s Number: The number of atoms, molecules and ions in one mole of a substance is
called Avogadro’s Number. Its value is 6.023x1023. It is represented by “NA”. Avogadro is an
Italian Scientist.
Examples:
1) One mole of Hydrogen (H) atom = 6.023x1023 atoms.
2) One mole of Hydrogen molecule (H2) = 6.023x1023 molecules.
3) One mole of Hydrogen ion (H+) molecule = 6.023x1023 ions.
4) One mole of H2O (water) molecule = 6.023x1023 molecules.
5) One mole of Carbon dioxide (CO2) = 6.023x1023 molecules.
“Exercise”
Q: 2. iv. How would you differentiate between a substance and a mixture?
Ans: The differences between a substance and a mixture are as follow.
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Substance Mixture
i) Such type of matter which has definite Such types of matter which has no definite
properties and composition properties and composition.
ii) It is pure It is unpure.
iii) It may be element or compound It is the combination of elements, compounds
or both of them.
iv) It is denoted by Symbol of formula No such representation for a mixture.
v) Its examples are Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Its examples are sugar solution, ice-cream,
H2O (water) etc. CNG, Petroleum etc.
Q: vii. Calcium loses two electrons, when it is ionized. Give the symbol for the calcium ion.
Ans: Calcium (Ca) belongs to Group IIA. Therefore, Calcium atom has two electrons in the
valence shell. Those two electrons loses by Calcium atom to get the electronic configuration of
the nearest noble gas that is Neon (Ne) to becomes stable.
Mg + E Mg++ + 2e-
Q: ix. Why the atomic masses of the elements (atom) are compared with a standard mass
of 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝑪 ?
Ans: The mass of an atom, measured in grams or Kilograms, is an extremely small value. It has
been found that the masses of single atoms range from 1.67x10-24 g to about 4.0x10-22 g. These
extremely small masses are not only impossible to measure but are also terribly impractical to
work with. It is, therefore, preferable to express atomic masses by comparing them with a mass
of a standard atom. The atom chosen now a day, as the standard for comparison, is that of
12
6𝐶 .
Q: x. What do you mean by the molar mass of an element or a compound? Give examples.
Ans: Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance (element or compound) is called
molar mass.
Examples:
1) Molar mass of Hydrogen (H) = 1grams.
2) Molar mass of Hydrogen (H2) = 2grams.
3) Molar mass of Water (H2O) = 18grams.
Q: 5. Find out the number of Protons, electrons and neutrons in the following elements.
107 23 56 40 16 24 31 207 238
47𝐴𝑔, 11𝑁𝑎 , 26𝐹𝑒 , 18𝐴𝑟 , 8𝑂 , 12𝑀𝑔, 15𝑃 , 82𝑃𝑏, 92𝑈.
Chapter|1 GREEN HILLS SCHOOL & COLLEGE P a g e | 14
Ans: As we know that the number of electrons is equal to the number of Protons in an atom
and it is called atomic number. While the number of Neutrons is found as
Number of Neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
Neutrons of Neutrons = A – Z
107
47𝐴𝑔
The number of electrons in “Ag” is = 47
The number of Protons in “Ag” is = 47
The number of Neutrons in “Ag” is = 107-47 = 60
23
11𝑁𝑎
The number of electrons in “Na” is = 11
The number of Protons in “Na” is = 11
The number of Neutrons in “Na” is = 23-11 = 12
56
26𝐹𝑒
The number of electrons in “Fe” is = 26
The number of Protons in “Fe” is = 26
The number of Neutrons in “Fe” is = 56-26 = 30
40
18𝐴𝑟
The number of electrons in “Ar” is = 18
The number of Protons in “Ar” is = 18
The number of Neutrons in “Ar” is = 40-18 = 22
16
8𝑂
The number of electrons in “O” is = 8
The number of Protons in “O” is = 8
The number of Neutrons in “O” is = 16-8 = 8
24
12𝑀𝑔
The number of electrons in “Mg” is = 12
The number of Protons in “Mg” is = 12
The number of Neutrons in “Mg” is = 24-12 = 12
31
15𝑃
The number of electrons in “P” is = 15
The number of Protons in “P” is = 15
The number of Neutrons in “P” is = 31-15 = 16
207
82𝑃𝑏
The number of electrons in “Pb” is = 82
The number of Protons in “Pb” is = 82
The number of Neutrons in “Pb” is = 207-82 = 125
238
92𝑈
The number of electrons in “U” is = 92
The number of Protons in “U” is = 92
The number of Neutrons in “U” is = 238-92 = 146
ii. Elements and compounds are called pure substances but mixtures are not:
Ans: Reasons:
a) The composition of Pure substances (elements or compounds) is uniform every but the
case is not same for mixture.
b) All the Particles of a pure substance have identical properties but in mixture different
components have different properties.
c) Pure substances (elements or compounds) are represented by symbols or formulae but
for mixtures no such representation are used.
Chapter|1 GREEN HILLS SCHOOL & COLLEGE P a g e | 15
d) All the particles of pure substances must be similar in structure while in mixture they
have different structures.
v. Mole is a definite quantity and a definite number as well but Avogadro’s number is only a
number:
Ans: Reasons: Mole is SI base unit of the amount of a substance. A mole is the amount in grams
equal to atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of the substance. Mole is also a number
that is
1 mole = 6.023x1023 particles
While Avogadro’s number is only used as a number which is equal to 6.023x10 23. The number
of particles in one mole of a substance is called Avogadro’s number.