VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF

PRODUCTION UNIT BY USING

MECHANICAL STETHOSCOPE
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

With the development of modern manufacturing technology, Flexible

Manufacturing Systems have become key equipment in factory automation.
Machine components and tools are heart of the Flexible Manufacturing Systems.
Lathe, milling and grinding machines are the general type of machine tools related
with bearing, pulley etc...used by almost all the FMSs. During the operation of
these machines, different kinds of failures are faced by the industry, due to friction,
couldn't identify the lifetime of replaceable components in machineries. If
components like bearing, pulley or other relevant materials are damaged, the
whole production systems are collapsed and facing problems in dealers. A
systematic study of such failures can help in identifying the vibration mode in
machine to replace the damaged components and to detect the problem by using
frequency monitoring chart.

This paper involves to detect the failure components in machineries and

analyse the vibration-frequency converter mechanical stethoscope are used.
Mechanical stethoscope will be useful for identifying the condition of vibrations
and monitoring the machine components and tools.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
Chapter-1

Introduction to Condition Monitoring

This chapter reviews the importance of condition monitoring and fault diagnosis
for the smooth running of industrial processes. It emphasises vibration
measurement as this is both the most commonly used monitoring method in
industry and the technique selected for the rolling element bearings used in this
project. The sections of the chapter sequentially present the motivation for this
research project, outline the aims and objectives and present the structure of this
thesis.
1.1 Research Background
The purpose of this project is to give an insight into the area of measuring
vibrations and the use of measuring vibrations in vibration diagnostics. Vibration
diagnostics is one of the non-destructive methods used for condition monitoring of
machines in operation. All the machines while operating vibrate more or less, and
with most of them the vibrations are unwanted and the effort is to minimize them.
Only with some types of machines, vibrations are directly a working principle of
the machine and are caused deliberately (e.g. vibrating screeners). Though, this
group of machines is not of interest to vibration diagnostics.
Based on a diagnostician’s assessment they can either continue in operation, or a

tiny intervention is necessary, or they need to be shut down and repaired

thoroughly. Purpose of all this is to save the cost of repair or to prevent a disaster
and its associated costs.
As the name vibration diagnostics suggests, machine condition is diagnosed on
the base of an analysis of vibration. Successful application of vibration diagnosis
requires in practice staff with considerable degree of knowledge and experience.
Routine work in data collection may be carried out by trained personnel without
academic qualifications, but data processing and assessment of the state of a
machine is a task for an engineer who has knowledge in various areas (design of
machines, dynamics, mathematics, signal processing, etc.) and who is able to use
this knowledge in context. A graduate in Applied Mechanics specialization is an
ideal candidate for becoming a skilled vibration diagnostician.
Mechanical failure prevention and condition monitoring have been one o f the
mechanical engineers’ concerns in recent years due to the personal safety,
reliability, failure cost, and equipment downtime issues. Proper system failure
prevention process helps to reduce the possibility of the system malfunction,
identification of source causes, and troubleshooting. Generally, failure prevention
can be identified as the process of fault detection, diagnosis, and prognosis:
 Mechanical failure prevention and condition monitoring have been one o f the
mechanical engineers’ concerns in recent years due to the personal safety,
reliability, failure cost, and equipment downtime issues. Proper system failure,
prevention process helps to reduce the possibility of the system malfunction,
identification of source causes, and troubleshooting. Generally, failure prevention
can be identified as the process of fault detection, diagnosis, and prognosis:
i. Fault detection is the process of observing the measured system
data and system status information and comparing them with a
normal range of observed attributes to determine whether some
measurements fall outside the range representing the healthy
condition of the system.
ii. Diagnosis is the process of determining the state of failing
components, and identifying the cause(s) of the failure.
iii. Prognosis is the process of predicting impending component
failures or abnormal system states before they actually occur, and
estimates their remaining useful life.
The required degree of fault prevention depends strongly on the complexity of
the system and the application. For example, it is important for the rotating
machinery used in the aerospace industry to perform fault detection, diagnosis with
different means as well as prognosis to predict the time of failure of the critical
components.
Bearings are among the most critical mechanical components that have wide
applications in many industries and have proven to be reliable and long-lived when
properly applied. As a result of improvements in bearing materials, design,
lubrication technology and service life, they have been gradually employed under
more severe application requirements such as higher load, higher speed, and
restricted lubrication. These requirements have made condition monitoring and
fault diagnosis of bearings very important to ensure safe operation o f rotary
machines.
 Bearing failure prevention through health monitoring have been one the most
researched areas in the past decades in the field of mechanical engineering. These
research activities have resulted in a better understanding of bearing health
analysis as well as advanced diagnostic methodologies (Howard, 1994).

Although several oil debris monitoring methodologies have shown some

satisfactory applications on bearing health monitoring, the most successful
methods in use at present are all based on vibration analysis. Vibration analysis is
performed through the extraction of features from a sensor signal and associating
these features with healthy or faulty components of the bearing. More advanced
bearing heath monitoring methods using vibration could even determine the defect
severity. Recent advancement in cheap and powerful computers has enabled the
use of advanced signal processing and analysis techniques required for improved
condition monitoring of the bearing. The task of condition monitoring of rolling
element bearing is often burdensome, labour intensive and complex procedure
because of:

• The location of defect, which generates different dynamic behaviour,

• Existence of high level of noises in the rest of the system,
• The variation of load and shaft speed during operation,
• The tolerances of assembly and geometry during any operation.

However, an appropriate choice of the sensors and applicable signal processing

techniques along with a good test procedure facilitates to overcome the difficulty
of condition monitoring of rolling element bearing.
1.2 Research Objective
This thesis is a report of a study of techniques for fault detection and diagnosis
on rolling bearing elements based on vibration and acoustic analyses. The primary
objective of this research thesis is to identify the capability of novel sensors
through experimental evaluations and apply suitable techniques to diagnose
defects on the bearings.
The secondary objective is to present a comparative study of four representative
bearing vibration analysis techniques commonly employed for non-stationary
signal processing. These four techniques include time domain, frequency domain
and two of joint time-frequency domain analyses. Because each of the presented
techniques has shown to be successful in extracting features hidden within the
signals, a proportional evaluation of these techniques provides a useful direction to
select the most effective technique for the bearing health management
applications. Thus, this thesis investigates these four representative techniques in
detail to diagnose faulty bearings.
The final objective is to evaluate a classification methodology to determine them
bearing as healthy or defective and identify the type of defect(s) as well as the
level of the defect severity. This classification was achieved to some extent by
appropriate feature extraction from vibration signals and data fusion of the sensors.
The overview of the procedure followed in this research activity, that included
data acquisition from vibration tests with variety of sensors, develop
methodologies to analyze the data and perform classification based on the data that
leads to the diagnosis of a faulty bearing. Although this particular research activity
focused on the rolling element bearings, the research process could be successfully
used for analyses of gearboxes and spindles.
 Chapter-2
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

In machines condition monitoring (CM), fault detection/diagnostic approaches can

be classified into two types, dependent on whether the diagnosis evaluation is
based on deterministic or stochastic information (e.g., historical, statistical
parameters).The first of which has been termed a model-based or “white box”
approach, while the second is known as data-driven or “black box” approach (Park
and Zak 2003; Kim 2010; Butler 2012).
The model-based approach relies on comparing the model outputs with the
actual system outputs to generate a residual signal, and based upon the properties
of the generated residual signal, potential fault conditions are identified and useful
information is extracted (Ding 2008).
Therefore, the main advantage of model-based techniques is the capability of
detecting unanticipated faults as well as the replacement of hardware redundancy
by analytical redundancy (Vachtsevanos et al.2006).
Betta et al. (1998, 2002) proposed a digital signal processing (DSP)-based FFT
analyzer for the fault diagnosis of rotating machinery using vibration analysis. The
hardware and software of the DSP-based FFT-analyzer were introduced in their
papers, and parametric non-fault and fault models, which were estimated by
extracting specific characteristics in vibration spectrums, were integrated with
rule-based reasoning for fault detection. It was claimed that the system could
diagnose 99% of the situations.
Tse et al.(2004) designed a novel wavelet transform called exact wavelet
analysis, to minimize the effect of redundant information generated by overlapping
and to enhance the accuracy of fault detection by extracting an adaptive daughter
wavelet to match the inspected signal as exactly as possible. The results obtained
from computer simulations and experiments showed that the fatal breakdown of
machinery could be avoided by this approach.
 These techniques are effective in cases where a specific "signature" of sound
signal changes when a machine component fails or malfunctions.
Shibata et al. (1999) proposed a symmetric dot pattern (SDP) method for
visually expressing the changes in the amplitude and frequency of sound signals.
SDP involves the transformation of a sound signal into a set of dots having mirror
symmetry, in which the time waveform of the sound signal is visualised as a
snowflake-shaped pattern of six-fold symmetry. It was claimed that this pattern
could potentially be applied to the detection and characterisation of significant
features of any sound signals.
Benko et al.(2003) developed a sound-based fault detection and diagnosis system
for vacuum cleaner motors. Root mean square (RMS), power spectrum density
(PSD), short-time Fourier transform and Hilbert transform were applied for feature
extraction. Three case studies were presented in the paper to illustrate how fault-
free motors could be distinguished using sound analysis.
Vision-based approaches are among the most powerful methods of fault
detection and diagnosis, especially in the field of industrial quality control.
Ahmed Abouelela et al.(2004) discussed an automated visual inspection system
for detecting textile defects. Simple statistical features (mean, variance, median)
were employed to guarantee the real-time performance. The results indicated that
the approach had a very low false detection rate.
Verma et al. (2005) presented an algorithm that provided computationally
tractable approach for robot fault diagnosis. Vision information was used to
monitor the states of robots so that anomalous situations could be detected in a
timely manner. A dynamic simulation of a six-wheel rocker-bogie rover showed
very good performance over classical approaches.
Sometimes, a single sensor is not adequate to detect all possible faults that may
occur in complex machinery within practical environments. In view of this, multi-
sensor.
 However, an appropriate choice of the sensors and applicable signal processing
techniques along with a good test procedure facilitates to overcome the difficulty
of condition monitoring of rolling element bearing.
The early practical works on vibration diagnostics were based on the commercial
real-time spectral analyzers. Then, various attempts have been made to analyze
vibration resulting from faults on machines using the spectral analyses
methodologies (White (1972) and Swansson (1984)). By the end of the 1980s, the
vibration analyses of faulty rotating machines were based on either the time
domain analyses or frequency domain analyses. Forrest (1989) showed the non
stationary nature of the signals extracted from a defective rotating component and
the capability of the joint time-frequency technique to detect the defects. In
addition, Cohen (1989) reviewed the time-frequency techniques and their
applications.
An excellent literature review that highlights several techniques and vibration
sensors for fault diagnosis and condition monitoring of localized bearing faults
was written by Howard (1994). In his report he explains the different modes of
failure, described kinematics and dynamics in rolling bearings and summarizes the
available signal processing techniques at the time of publication.
Dadouche and Bird (2005) provide an overview o f techniques and sensors
applied for rolling bearing diagnosis, over the last decade. They also showed that,
although the literature is not lacking in identification of applied techniques, there is
still a void in examining a number of signal processing techniques on some of the
more novel and useful sensors.
However, a practical widely applicable mechanical bearing monitoring system is
still to be developed and accomplishment of such a system requires new ideas as
well as new implementation concepts to increase the system sensitivity and
achieve true prognosis capability.
 Chapter-3
III.PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
 Chapter-3

III.PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 Role of Maintenance

The role of maintenance is not to repair damaged equipment, but to prevent its
damage. Moreover, we want the machines to work efficiently, reliably and safely.
Goal of the maintenance can be expressed through three interrelated requirements:
1. Achieve maximum productivity:
• Ensure continuous and satisfactory operation of the machine throughout
its proposed lifetime – or even longer.
• Achieve higher machine utilization with minimal downtimes for
maintenance.
• Continually improve the production process.
2. Optimize machine performance – Smooth and efficiently running machines cost
less and produce higher quality products.
3. Ensure operation safety.
Each of you may imagine a car example – when you neglect maintenance, your car
will not only be unreliable, but can also be dangerous.
3.2 Maintenance Types
Equipment maintenance is essential for long-term trouble-free operation. In the
course of technological development, several types of maintenance have been
established, the application of which depends on a number of circumstances that
must be considered. Basic maintenance tasks are listed in the preceding paragraph.
In considering them, however, costs should always be considered together with
safety. Therefore, small and backed up equipment is still used in maintenance-free
way – i.e. operation to failure. Examples of this type of maintenance are household
appliances (we do not perform regular inspection of a vacuum cleaner or
microwave); in industry these may be small (and backed up) pumps, etc. This type
of maintenance is called reactive maintenance.

For more expensive equipment with more costly operation, the method with
periodic maintenance inspections or repairs has been established, which is called
preventive maintenance.

Predictive maintenance – a machine is repaired when its condition requires a

repair rather than at predetermined intervals. Of course, it is necessary to know this
condition, and therefore watch the machine in operation, i.e. to perform monitoring
and diagnostics. This approach helps us to avoid unplanned shutdowns and
failures. The key idea is the right information at the right time. If we know which
part of the equipment requires replacement or repair, we can order spare parts,
arrange it for staff, etc., and perform shutdown at the appropriate time. Such a
planned shutdown is shorter and less costly than a shutdown forced by a failure of
equipment or even an accident. An increase of equipment lifetime, increased
safety, fewer accidents with negative consequences for the environment, optimized
management of spare parts, etc. are other advantages of predictive maintenance.

Proactive maintenance - In addition to the previous type of maintenance this one

also includes addressing the root causes of the aggravated condition. Corrective
actions do not focus on current symptoms of the fault (e.g. damaged bearing), but
the key idea is to identify and address the root cause of the fault (e.g. damage of
the bearing has arisen due to a bad alignment of the machine).
There are also other modern maintenance methods such as RCM - Reliability
Centred Maintenance, which is used in aviation, and others.
When predictive and proactive maintenance is applied, it is necessary to determine
the current condition of the machine.
Maintenance process can be divided into five stages:
1. Determining the initial condition - A thorough measurement of the
machine is performed at the time when it is in good state, which
provides the basic reference values for subsequent comparison.
2. Monitoring - On the machine, points are defined at which vibrations
are measured at regular time intervals. Usually the overall value of
vibration is measured. This activity can be carried out by a trained
worker without diagnostic knowledge.
3. Detection - Data obtained through monitoring are simply
quantitatively evaluated. For each measured quantity, alarm limits are
set. Exceeding the programmed alarm limit means warning about a
problem.
4. Analysis (diagnostics itself) - After detecting the problem, detailed
measurements and analyses (evaluation of the trend, FFT analysis,
phase analysis, etc.) are carried out allowing a clearer view of the
problem and its underlying cause.
5. Recommendation - Once the basic cause of the problem has been
detected, economically acceptable corrective actions can be
recommended and implemented.

1.3 Diagnostics
The term diagnostics is usually used for monitoring and evaluation condition of a
machine during operation (i.e., points 2, 3 and 4 stated above). This paper deals
with vibration diagnostics, where detection of the machine condition is based on
its vibration. In practice, it is advisable or even necessary to use other parameters
for monitoring as well. Most of the procedures are described by international
standards ISO.
Types of diagnostics according to the type of parameters analyzed are:
 Operation diagnostics - All available measured operating parameters,
which allow assessment of the machine condition in operation, are used. For
very expensive equipment, on-line systems are used with large databases
and possibly with analysis software. For less important machinery,
parameters are periodically recorded or some tests during operation are
performed to verify proper operation. Standard ISO 17359 - Condition
monitoring and diagnostics of machines - General guidelines deals with this
issue. Table 1 is taken from this standard and it shows how various
operational parameters are associated with various machine faults. In the
standard, there are several such tables for different types of machines. For
rotating machines, the majority of defects manifest themselves in change of
amount and spectral content of vibrations.
 Tribo-diagnostics (analysis of lubricants) - It fulfils two main tasks:
- Monitoring the condition of the lubricant - A lubricant degradation
can occur for various reasons (oxidation, penetrating of water or other
substances, etc.).
- Analysis of impurities and wear particles (ferrography) – On the base
of the material and shape of particles present in the lubricant, an
assessment about the place where the machine is damaged is carried
out.
 Thermo-diagnostics (measurements of temperature, thermal imaging) -
Using local or surface temperature measurements, sites with different
temperature can be determined and the cause of the elevated temperature
can be deduced (excessive friction, high electrical resistance, etc.). Thermo-
diagnostics is widespread in inspections of electrical switch-gears, high
voltage lines, hot water pipes, in the steel industry (brick lining of furnaces
and chimneys), etc.
 Ultrasonic diagnostics - Based on the physical fact that the dry friction
generates ultrasound. It is also produced when the flow occurs - the leakages
due to leaks and friction in seals, etc. In addition, electrical discharges
produce ultrasound as well and therefore this method and instruments based
on it are also used by specialists in the field of electrical equipment.
 Electro-diagnostics - Based on the analysis of electrical quantities (e.g.
power supply) to detect faults of electrical machines (e.g. broken rotor bars).
 Vibration diagnostics - Vibration signal involves information about the
cause of vibration and through its analysis using different methods, an
emerging or developing fault can be detected. For rotating machines, this is
usually the method that covers most possible faults (see the example of the
standard in Table 1.1). Vibration diagnostics is described in more detail in
ISO 13373-1: Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Vibration
condition monitoring - Part 1: General procedures and ISO 13373-2:
Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Vibration condition
monitoring - Part 2: processing, presentation and analysis of vibration data.
 Table 1.1 - Example of Operational Parameters Monitoring ( ISO 17359)
1.4 Excitation Force and Vibration Response
Basic problem of the application of each type of diagnosis is the fact that we
analyze only the response to the acting causes that are essential to establish the
method of repair. In the case of vibration diagnostics, this response is represented
by vibrations, the character of which depends on the applied force. Common types
of excitation force are:
- periodical
- impulse
- random
Periodical excitation force:
The simplest case of periodic force is a harmonic force. In engineering practice,
harmonic, force is very rare, but most of the real forces occurring in rotating
machinery can be expressed as a sum of harmonic forces Therefore, it is possible
to describe the properties of periodic force and its influence on the vibration
response using harmonic force and response. If a harmonic force,



Forced Vibration Caused by Harmonic Excitation Force
Impulse Excitation Force:
When an impulse force is acting on the body, it diverts the body from the
equilibrium position which causes subsequent free vibration on one or more of its
natural frequencies. A common example may be hitting a glass (solid glass sounds
different than a cracked one), ringing a bell, etc. In technical practice, we use
intentional impulse excitation performing "bump test" or a modal test. The
unintentional impact excitation is associated with defects in rolling bearings.

Free Vibration Caused by Impulse Excitation Force

Excitation force of random waveform:

When random force acts on a body, the response is also random. Moreover,
similarly to impulse excitation, natural frequencies can be excited (any abrupt
change in force would excite the free vibration on natural frequencies). It should
be realized that the random excitation is always present, mostly as noise only, but
occasionally it should be considered even in the standard vibration diagnostics, e.g.
when unwanted turbulence flow occurs.
When random force acts on a body,

Vibration Excited by Force of Random Waveform

Self-excited Vibration:
Self-excited vibration is potentially a very destructive phenomenon when
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces acting on the object excite vibration of the
object on one of its natural frequencies. This phenomenon is called flutter and, e.g.
in aviation, it should be unconditionally avoided. In a non-destructive form, this
phenomenon is quite common – it causes for instance vibrations of blinds caused
by a draft, laundry flapping on a clothesline, etc.

Flutter can occur in any object within a strong fluid flow, under the conditions
that a positive feedback occurs between the structure's natural vibration and the
aerodynamic forces. That is, the vibrational movement of the object increases an
aerodynamic load, which in turn drives the object to move further. If the energy
input by the aerodynamic excitation in a cycle is larger than that dissipated by the
damping in the system, the amplitude of vibration will increase, resulting in self-
exciting oscillation.
The amplitude can thus build up and is only limited when the energy dissipated by
aerodynamic and mechanical damping matches the energy input, which can result
in large amplitude vibration and potentially lead to rapid failure.

Self-excited Vibration
Chapter-4
 Fundamentals of Rolling
Element Bearings

Chapter-4
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINE

A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the
following highlights:
 1680 - Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed (but never built) an
internal combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.
 1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal
combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel.
Rivaz designed a car for his engine - the first internal combustion powered
automobile. However, his was a very unsuccessful design.
 1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old new comen steam
engine to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's
Hill in London.
 1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir invented and
patented (1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion
engine fueled by coal gas. In 1863, Lenoir attached an improved engine
(using petroleum and a primitive carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that
managed to complete an historic fifty-mile road trip
 1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patented but did
not build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).
 1864 - Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus, built a one-cylinder engine
with a crude carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-
foot drive. Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at
10 mph that a few historians have considered as the forerunner of the
modern automobile by being the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle
 1873 - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful
two-stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders).
However, it was considered the first safe and practical oil engine.  1866 -
German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto improved on
Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more efficient gas engine.
 1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four
stroke engine, known as the "Otto cycle".
TYPES OF ENGINES

There are two major cycles used in internal combustion engines: Otto and Diesel.
The Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus Otto (1832 – 1891) who developed a four
stroke engine in 1876. It is also called a spark ignition (SI) engine, since a spark is
needed to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The Diesel cycle engine is also called a
compression ignition (CI) engine, since the fuel will auto-ignite when injected into
the combustion chamber. The Otto and Diesel cycles operate on either a four- or
two stoke cycle. Since the invention of the internal combustion engine many
pistons-cylinder geometries have been designed. The choice of given arrangement
depends on a number of factors and constraints, such as engine balancing and
available volume:

 in line
 horizontally opposed
 radial
 V

HEAT ENGINES

Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the combustion of
fuel or any other source and coverts this energy into mechanical work is termed as
a heat engine. Heat engines may be classified as:

 External Combustion Engines

 Internal Combustion Engines

1. External combustion engines (e.c. engines)

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside of the cylinder as in case of
steam engines where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam which
is used to move a piston in a cylinder.

2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the
cylinder of the engine. The internal combustion engines group includes engines
employing mixtures of combustible gases and air, known as gas engines, those
using lighter liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines and those using heavier
liquid fuels, known as oil compression or diesel engines. Even though internal
combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly complex machines. There
are hundreds of components which have to perform their functions satisfactorily to
produce output power. There are two types of engines

 Spark ignition engine (S.I engine)

 Compression ignition engine (C.I engine)

According to the cycle of operations again these engines are classified as

 Two-stroke engines
 Four-stroke engines

Two-stroke S.I engine

Dugald Clark invented the two stroke engine in the year 1878. The two strokes are
literally “suction” and “exhaust”. In two stroke engine the cycle is completed in
one revolution of the crank shaft. The main difference between two stroke and four
stroke engines is in the method of filling the fresh charge and removing the burnt
gases from the cylinder. In the four stroke engines these operations are performed
by the engine piston during the suction and exhaust strokes respectively. In a two
stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed in the
crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the
product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore no piston strokes are
required for these two operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle,
one for compressing the fresh charge and the other for expansion or power stroke.

The cylinder/piston fit is one of the most important factors governing the
success of a home-built model engine. Material selection wise, the home
constructor has a number of choices but each has their own characteristics,
advantages, and disadvantages. The most common choices, in ascending order of
experience required, are:

 Steel liner, Cast Iron piston

 Cast Iron liner, Cast Iron piston
 Steel liner, Steel piston
 Steel liner, Aluminium piston, Cast Iron ring(s)

The normal temperature of gasoline engine exhaust is approximately 650ºC

(923ºK). This is also approximately the melting point of most aluminium alloys
and it is only the constant influx of ambient air that prevents the piston from
deforming and failing.

FOUR-STROKE ENGINE

The engine is an air-cooled one-cylinder 4-stroke Diesel engine. Front and side
views of the engine respectively. The engine is mounted on a base plate which is
installed in the seat of the internal combustion engine basic module. The speed of
the engine is set with a controller. To measure the exhaust temperature, the engine
is equipped with a temperature sensor, which is installed in the area of the exhaust
muffle. The connection for the exhaust hose is also located at the exhaust muffler
the engine can be started with a recoil starter. A pulley is mounted on the output
shaft of the engine, which is used to couple the engine to the dynamometer in the
brake unit.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF ENGINE:

The cross section of engine. A brief description of these parts is given below.

Engine fin

In Engine When fuel is burned heat is produced. Additional heat is also generated
by friction between the moving parts. Only approximately 30% of the energy
released is converted into useful work. The remaining (70%) must be removed
from the engine to prevent the parts from melting. For this purpose Engine have
cooling mechanism in engine to remove this heat from the engine some heavy
vehicles uses water-cooling system and almost all two wheelers uses Air cooled
engines, because Air-cooled engines are only option due to some advantages like
lighter weight and lesser space requirement

Cylinder

The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the
engine power unit. Its major function is to provide space in which the piston can
operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air (depending upon spark ignition or
compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand and thus generate power.
The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give greater
strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum
are added to the cast iron.

Piston

The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power
to the crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the
combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed at one end and open on the other end
to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and its free action. The materials
used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy. However, the
modern trend is to use only aluminium alloy pistons in the tractor engine

Piston Rings

A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is
used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring
groove which function as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an
expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the piston an the cylinder
wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains the
integrity of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston
rings seal the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder
wall, and return oil to the crankcase. Piston ring size and configuration vary
depending on engine design and cylinder material. Piston rings commonly used on
small engines include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A
compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston
head. The compression ring seals the combustion chamber from any leakage
during the combustion process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from
combustion gases is applied to the piston head, forcing the piston toward the
crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel through the gap between the cylinder wall
and the piston and into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas pressure forces the
piston ring against the cylinder wall to form a seal. Pressure applied to the piston
ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas pressure. A wiper ring is
the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove between the
compression ring and the oil ring.

The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion chamber and to wipe
the cylinder wall clean of excess oil. Combustion gases that pass by the
compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring. An oil ring is the piston ring
located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is used to wipe
excess oil from the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is returned
through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block. Two-stroke cycle
engines do not require oil rings because lubrication is supplied by mixing oil in the
gasoline, and an oil reservoir is not required.

Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, transferring heat to the cylinder
wall and controlling oil consumption. A piston ring seals the combustion chamber
through inherent and applied pressure. Inherent pressure is the internal spring force
that expands a piston ring based on the design and properties of the material used.
Inherent pressure requires a significant force needed to compress a piston ring In
addition to inherent pressure, a piston ring seals the combustion chamber through
applied pressure. Applied pressure is pressure applied from combustion gases to
the piston ring, causing it to expand. Some piston rings have a chamfered edge
opposite the running surface. This chamfered edge causes the piston ring to twist
when not affected by combustion gas pressures.
The piston acts as the movable end of the combustion chamber and must withstand
pressure fluctuations, thermal stress, and mechanical load. Piston material and
design contribute to the overall durability and performance of an engine. Most
pistons are made from die- or gravity-cast aluminum alloy. Cast aluminum alloy is
lightweight and has good structural integrity and low manufacturing costs. The
light weight of aluminum reduces the overall mass and force necessary to initiate
and maintain acceleration of the piston. This allows the piston to utilize more of
the force produced by combustion to power the application. Piston designs are
based on benefits and compromises for optimum overall engine performance

Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is a major link inside of a combustion engine. It connects the
piston to the crankshaft and is responsible for transferring power from the piston to
the crankshaft and sending it to the transmission. There are different types of
materials and production methods used in the creation of connecting rods. The
most common types of connecting rods are steel and aluminum. The most common
type of manufacturing processes are casting, forging and powdered metallurgy.
The connecting rod is the most common cause of catastrophic engine failure. It is
under an enormous amount of load pressure and is often the recipient of special
care to ensure that it does not fail prematurely. The sharp edges are sanded smooth
in an attempt to reduce stress risers on the rod. The connecting rod is also
shotpeened, or hardened, to increase its strength against cracking. In most high-
performance applications, the connecting rod is balanced to prevent unwanted
harmonics from creating excessive wear. The most common connecting rod found
in production vehicle engines is a cast rod. This type of rod is created by pouring
molten steel into a mold and then machining the finished product. This type of rod
is reliable for lower horsepower-producing engines and is the least expensive to
manufacture. The cast rod has been used in nearly every type of engine, from
gasoline to diesel, with great success.

Crankshaft

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear
motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the
crankshaft are supported on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-
weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the smooth running of the
engine. The crankshaft is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear
piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the
crankshaft has crankpins, additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that
of the crank, to which the “big ends” of the connecting rod from each cylinder
attach. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of
the four stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the
opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the
crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsion
elasticity of the metal

Camshaft

Camshaft is frequently called “brain” of the engine. This is so because its job is to
open and closed at just the right time during engine rotation, so that the maximum
power and efficient cleanout of exhaust to be obtained. The camshaft drives the
distributor to electrically synchronize spark ignition. Camshafts do their work
through eccentric "lobes" that actuate the components of the valve train. The
camshaft itself is forged from one piece of steel, on which the lobes are ground.
On single-camshaft engines there are twice as many lobes as there are cylinders,
plus a lobe for fuel pump actuation and a drive gear for the distributor. Driving the
camshaft is the crankshaft, usually through a set of gears or a chain or belt.
 The camshaft always rotates at half of crank rpm, taking two full rotations
of the crankshaft to complete one rotation of the cam, to complete a four-stroke
cycle. The camshaft operates the lifters (also called tappets or cam followers) that
in turn operate the rest of the valve train. On "overhead valve" engines the lifters
move pushrods that move rocker arms that move valve stems. Lifters can be of
several types. The most common are hydraulic, mechanical and roller lifters.
Hydraulic lifters fill with oil that acts as a shock absorber to eliminate clearance in
the valve train. They are quiet and don't require periodic adjustment. Mechanical
lifters are solid metal and require scheduled adjustment for proper valve clearance.
These are used in high-rpm applications. Roller lifters use a roller device at one
end and can be hydraulic or mechanical.

They are used in applications where a very fast rate of valve lift is required.
Overlap is the point in crank rotation when both the intake and exhaust valves are
open simultaneously. This happens at the end of the exhaust stroke when the
exhaust valve is closing and the intake is opening. During the period of overlap,
the intake and exhaust ports can communicate with each other. Ideally, you want
the scavenge effect from the exhaust port to pull the air/fuel mixture from the
intake port into the combustion chamber to achieve more efficient cylinder filling.
A poorly designed cam and port combination, however, can cause reversion, where
exhaust gases push their way past the intake valve and into the intake tract.

Several factors influence how much overlap is ideal for your engine. Small
combustion chambers typically require minimal overlap, as do engines designed to
maximize low-rpm torque. Most current stock car racing engines depend on high
rpm to take advantage of better gear ratios, so more overlap is normally helpful.
When the revolutions per minute increase, the intake valve is open for a shorter
period of time. The same amount of air and fuel must be pulled into the
combustion chamber in less time, and the engine can use all the help it can get to
fill the chamber. Increasing the overlap can help here. Duration: The amount of
time (in degrees of rotation of the camshaft) that the lobe holds the valve off its
seat. Duration also affects the total lift of the valve because of the inherent
limitations to the rate-of-lift of the lifter itself. Duration is generally the most
important thing to consider when choosing a camshaft.

The point where the intake valve opens is critical to an engine's running
properly. If it opens too early, exhaust gases can get forced into the intake
manifold. This causes soot build up on the intake runners, low engine vacuum and
low power. If the valve opens too late, less of the fuel/air mixture gets into the
combustion chamber and exhaust gases won't be as efficiently removed. If the
exhaust valve closes too early the desired "scavenging effect" will be less and
some exhaust gases can get trapped in the cylinder. If the valve closes too late an
excessive amount of fuel/air mixture will escape into the exhaust port and the
combustion chamber will not be optimized. The camshaft material should combine
a strong shaft with hard cam lobes. The most widely used material at present is
chilled or forged cast iron.

ENGINE

An engine and motor are machines designed to convert energy into useful
mechanical motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and
external combustion engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat,
which then creates motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy into
mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others such as
clockwork motors in wind-up toys—use elastic energy. In biological systems,
molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create motion.
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is an engine where the combustion of a fuel
occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral

part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the
expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by
combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is
applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the
component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical
energy.

SILENCER

An exhaust system is usually piping used to guide reaction exhaust gases away
from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system conveys
burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes. Depending on
the overall system design, the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of:

 Cylinder head and exhaust manifold

 A turbocharger to increase engine power.
 A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution.
  A muffler (North America) / silencer (Europe/India), to reduce noise.

FUEL TANK

A fuel tank (or petrol tank) is a safe container for flammable fluids. Though any
storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is typically applied to part of an
engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released
(pressurized gas) into an engine. Fuel tanks range in size and complexity from the
small plastic tank of a butane lighter to the multi-chambered cryogenic Space
Shuttle external tank.

ENGINE FINS
The heat transferring fins plays a vital role as heat sink in various equipment and
machines. Fins increases surface area for increased heat dissipation to system or
surrounding. It has a particular shape of geometry. Fins experience thermal loads
from source and even some time static loads from external sources at time of
cleaning or during finishing. The design and development of fins has always been
a challenging task for weight, shape and design consideration. These
improvements result in lighter parts with better heat transferring rate. This
comparison was conducted on a rectangular pin fin with one side as a source of
heat and also fixed onto that side of fin. Two different materials are analysed in
same model and their results are compared. The heat transferring fins are
modelled.

SPARK PLUG

Today, more sophistication is being demanded of the essential requirements

of engines in terms of performance, which are "high power" and "low fuel
consumption". At the same time, a closer eye is being kept on global
environmental problems than in the past, and "lower emissions" are becoming
essential.

To achieve these tasks, the number of engine-related components is

increasing, and the space in which such components can be loaded is severely
restricted. In response to these social and technical trends, we expect that in the
future spark plugs, which are placed in the combustion chamber, must be able
to withstand more severe conditions.
 That is, they must be able to withstand leaner combustion, higher pressure,
stronger swirling, and large quantities of EGR(exhaust gas recirculation). This
in turn will increase the required voltage and worsen the ignitability environment.

A Spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to
the combustion chamber of a spark ignition engine to ignite the compressed
air/fuel mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within
the engine. A spark plug has metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a
central electrode by a porcelain insulator.

The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a

heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The
spark plugs metal shell is screwed into the engine’s cylinder head and thus
electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between
the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or
structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side,
earth or ground electrode.

Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes in Saab Direct Ignition
when they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the
cylinders this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase
sensor, knock sensor and misfire measurement function. Spark plugs may also be
used in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible air/fuel mixture
must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.
Spark plugs are under constant chemical, thermal, physical and electrical attack by
corrosive gases at 4500 degrees Fahrenheit, crushing pressure of 2000 pounds per
square inch (PSI), and electrical discharges up to 18000 volts. This unrelenting
assault under the hood of a typical automobile occurs dozens of times per second
and over a million times in a day’s worth of driving.

HISTORY OF SPARK PLUG

The spark plug evolved with the internal combustion engine, but the earliest
demonstration of the use of an electric spark plug to ignite a fuel-air mixture was
in 1777 In that year, Alessandro Volta loaded a toy piston with a mixture of marsh
gas and air, corked the muzzle, and ignites the charge with a spark from a Ley den
jar In 1860, French engineer Jean Lenoir created what most closely resembles the
spark plug of today.

Manufacturing of Spark Plug

To make spark plugs, manufacturers first extrude or cold-form steel to the proper
hollow shape. At this point, the steel forms ore called “blanks”. Next, these blanks
undergo further forming operations such as machining and knurling, and the side
electrode with only a partial bend is attached. The ceramic insulator, with a hollow
bore through its center, is molded under pressure. He combined an insulator,
electrodes and spark gap in a single unit. As part of his patent application for the

Internal combustion engine that year, he devoted one sentence to describing the
spark plug. He refined this spark plug in 1885.

In the early 1900s, Robert and Frank Stranahan, brothers and partners in an
automobile parts importing business, set out to produce a more efficient and
durable spark plug. They added gaskets between the metal shell and porcelain
insulator, made manufacturing easier, and reduced the possibility of gas leakage
past the gaskets. In 1909, Robert Stranahan sold the plug to one automobile
manufacturer and went into the spark plug manufacturing business, cornering the
market at that time. The industry exploded as the age of the automobile opened.
Eventually, variation in ignition systems, fuel, and performance requirements
placed new demands on spark plugs. Although the basic design and function of the
plug has changed little since its inception, a staggering variety and number of
electrode and insulator materials have been tried.

RAW MATERIALS

The electrodes in a spark plug typically consist of high-nickel alloys, while the
insulator is generally made of aluminum oxide ceramic and the shell is made of
steel wire. Selections of materials for both the electrodes and the insulator have
consumed much research and development time and cost. One major spark plug
manufacturer claims to have tested 2000 electrode materials and over 25000
insulator combinations. As electrodes erode, the gap between them widens and it
takes more voltage than the ignition system can provide to fire them. High-nickel
alloys have been improved and thicker electrodes have been used to reduce engine
performance loss. In addition, precious and exotic metals are increasingly being
used by manufacturers. Many modern plugs feature silver, gold and platinum in
the electrodes, not to mention center electrodes with copper cores. Silver has
superior thermal conductivity over other electrode metals, while platinum has
excellent

Corrosion resistance.

Insulator material also can have a dramatic effect on spark plug

performance. Research continues to find a material that better reduces flashover, or
electrical leakage, from the plug’s terminal to the shell. The breakthrough use of
sillimanite, a material that is found in a natural state and also produced artificially,
has been succeeded by the use of more heat resistant aluminum oxide ceramics, the
composition of which are manufacturer’s secrets. One major manufacturer’s
process for making the insulator involves wet grinding batches of ceramic pellets
in ball mills, under carefully controlled conditions. Definite size and shape of the
pellets produce the free flowing substance needed to make a quality insulator. The
pellets are obtained through a rigid spray drying operation that removes the water
from the ceramic mixture, until it is ready for pouring into molds.

Spark plug construction

A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes
through the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the
combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures without deteriorating
over long periods of time and extended use. Spark plugs are specified by size,
either thread or nut (often referred to as Euro), sealing type (taper or crush
washer), and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm (16 mm),
14 mm (21 mm; sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm). In
the United States, common thread (nut) sizes are 10mm (16mm), 12mm (14mm,
16mm or 17.5mm), 14mm (16mm, 20.63mm) and 18mm (20.63mm).

PARTS OF THE PLUG

Terminal

The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. The
exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most
passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires
have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut. Plugs which
are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double
purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type
of connection.

Insulator

The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina, a very hard
ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer’s
name and identifying marks, and then glazed to improve resistance to surface
spark tracking. Its major functions are to provide mechanical support and electrical
insulation for the central electrode, while also providing an extended spark path for
flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply
recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it
more readily accessible. A further feature of sintered alumina is its good heat
conduction reducing the tendency for the insulator to glow with heat and so light
the mixture prematurely.

Ribs

By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded
metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve
the electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the
insulator surface from the terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path
makes the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug
even in the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark plugs are manufactured
without ribs; improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them
less important.

Insulator tip

On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the
combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminum oxide (alumina) ceramic as
the upper portion, merely unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 °C (1,200 °F)
and 60 kV. The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core
determine the heat range of the plug. Short insulators are usually “cooler” plugs,
while “hotter” plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though
this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core. Older spark plugs,
particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica,
compressed by tension in the centre electrode. With the development of leaded
petrol in the 1930s, lead deposits on the mica became a problem and reduced the
interval between needing to clean the spark plug. Sintered alumina was developed
by Siemens in Germany to counteract this. Sintered alumina is a superior material
to mica or porcelain because it is a relatively good thermal conductor for a
ceramic, it maintains good mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at
higher temperatures, and this ability to run hot allows it to be run at “self cleaning”
temperatures without rapid degradation. It also allows a simple single piece
construction at low cost but high mechanical reliability.

Seals

Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber or the engine when
installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion
chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal
powder, but old style seals were typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze.
The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the
cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing.

Metal case/shell

The metal case/shell of the spark plug withstands the torque of tightening the plug,
serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and
acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side
electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. It’s
important to install spark plugs with the correct “reach,” or thread length. Spark
plugs can vary in reach from 0.095 to 2.649 cm (0.0375 to 1.043 in), such for
automotive and small engine applications. Also, a marine spark plug’s shell is
double-dipped, zinc-chromate coated metal.

Central electrode

The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and
commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the
sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly sold without an “R”in the plug type
part number, lack this element to reduce electro-magnetic interference with radios
and other sensitive equipment.
 The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or
noble metals. In the late 1970s, the development of engines reached a stage where
the heat range of conventional spark plugs with solid nickel alloy centre electrodes
was unable to cope with their demands. A plug that was cold enough to cope with
the demands of high speed driving would not be able to burn off the carbon
deposits caused by stop–start urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions,
making the engine misfire.

Similarly, a plug that was hot enough to run smoothly in town could melt
when called upon to cope with extended high speed running on motorways. The
answer to this problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a
different material and design for the centre electrode that would be able to carry
the heat of combustion away from the tip more effectively than a solid nickel alloy
could. Copper was the material chosen for the task and a method for
manufacturing the copper-cored centre electrode was created by Flo form At one
time it was common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either
manually or with specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the
electrode to restore the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for
two reasons:

 cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the
insulator which can provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the
spark (increasing emissions)
 Plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement,
particularly with modern long life plugs.
 iridium and platinum plugs that have longer life times han copper have
become more common

The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as
yttrium, iridium, tungsten, or palladium, as well as the relatively high value
platinum, silver or gold) allows the use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper
edges but will not melt or corrode away.

These materials are used because of their high melting points and durability,
not because of their electrical conductivity (which is irrelevant in series with the
plug resistor or wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark
and initial flame energy. At one point, Firestone marketed plugs with polonium in
the tip, under the (questionable) theory that the radioactivity would ionize the air in
the gap, easing spark formation.
Spark plug gap

Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted by
the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the ground electrode slightly.
The same plug may be specified for several different engines, requiring a different
gap for each. Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between 0.6 and 1.8
mm (0.024 and 0.071 in).

FIG. spark plug gap

The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box gap. A spark plug
gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of precise diameters,
and is used to measure the gap. Use of a feeler gauge with flat blades instead of
round wires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, will give erroneous
results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes.
 The simplest gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses which
match the desired gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With
current engine technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems
and computerized fuel injection, the gaps used are larger on average of carburetors
and breaker point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era
cannot always measure the required gaps of current cars. Vehicles using
compressed natural gas generally require narrower gaps than vehicles using
gasoline.

Heat range

The operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical temperature at the
tip of the spark plug within the running engine, normally between 500 and 800 °C

(932 and 1,472 °F). This is important because it determines the efficiency of plug
self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual
temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct relationship
between the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage.
However, the level of torque currently being produced by the engine will strongly
influence spark plug operating temperature because the maximal temperature and
pressure occur when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and
rotational speed directly determine the power output).

The temperature of the insulator responds to the thermal conditions it is

exposed to in the combustion chamber, but not vice versa. If the tip of the spark
plug is too hot, it can cause pre-ignition or sometimes detonation/knocking, and
damage may occur. If it is too cold, electrically conductive deposits may form on
the insulator, causing a loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark
current.

OPERATION

The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto.
As the electrons flow from the coil, a voltage develops between the central and
side electrodes. No current can flow because the fuel and air in the gap is an
insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the
gases between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of
the gases, the gases become ionized.

The ionized gas becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across
the gap. Spark plugs usually require voltage of 12,000–25,000 volts or more to
"fire" properly, although it can go up to 45,000 volts. They supply higher current
during the discharge process, resulting in a hotter and longer duration spark. As the
current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark
channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in the spark channel causes the ionized gas
to expand very quickly, like a small explosion.

This is the "click" heard when observing a spark, similar to lightning and
thunder. The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the
end of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the
gases burn on their own. The size of this fireball, or kernel, depends on the exact
composition of the mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion
chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will make the engine
run as though the ignition timing was retarded and a large one as though the timing
was advanced.

PISTON RING

In the early steam engines no piston rings were used. The temperatures and the
steam pressures were not as high as the corresponding parameters in today’s
internal combustion engines, and the need for considering thermal expansions and
clearances was smaller. Increasing power demands required higher temperatures,
which caused stronger heat expansion of the piston material. This made it
necessary to use a sealant between the piston and the cylinder liner to allow a
decrease in the clearance in cold conditions, i.e. when the clearances were at their
maximum. Keeping the clearance between the piston and liner wall at a minimum
considerably reduces the combustion gas flow from the combustion chamber past
the piston. The first piston rings used in an engine had the sole task of sealing off
the combustion chamber, thus preventing the combustion gases from trailing down
into the crankcase. This development increased the effective pressure on the
piston. Rams bottom and Miller were among the pioneers to investigate the
behaviour of the piston rings in steam engines. Rams bottom, in 1854, constructed
a single-piece, metallic piston ring. The free diameter of the ring was 10 per cent
larger than the diameter of the cylinder bore.
 FIG.1. piston rings

When fitted in a groove in a piston, the ring was pressed against the cylinder bore
by its own elasticity. Previous piston rings had consisted of multiple pieces and
with springs to provide an adequate sealing force against the cylinder bore. Miller,
in 1862, introduced a modification to the Rams bottom ring. This modification
consisted of allowing the steam pressure to act on the backside of the ring, hence
providing a higher sealing force. This new solution enabled the use of more
flexible rings, which conformed better to the cylinder bore (Priest and Taylor,
2000). In the early days, the ring pack was lubricated solely by splash lubrication;
i.e. lubrication by the splashing of the rotating crankshaft into the crankcase oil
surface. Subsequently, when the combustion conditions became even more
demanding, i.e. with higher temperatures, pressures and piston speeds, oil control
rings were introduced. A proper lubricant film on the piston, piston rings and liner
wall was required in order to prevent damage. The oil control rings were, and are,
especially designed to appropriately distribute the oil on the cylinder liner and to
scrape off surplus oil to be returned to the crankcase.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF PISTON RINGS

The functions of a piston ring are to seal off the combustion pressure, to distribute
and control the oil, to transfer heat, and to stabilise the piston. The piston is
designed for thermal expansion, with a desired gap between the piston surface and
liner wall. The 10 rings and the ring grooves form a labyrinth seal, which relatively
well isolates the combustion chamber from the crankcase. The position and design
of the ring pack. The ring face conforms to the liner wall and moves in the groove,
sealing off the route down to the crankcase. The sealing ability of the ring depends
on a number of factors, like ring and liner conformability, pre-tension of the ring,
and gas force distribution on the ring faces. Piston rings forces are discussed in
greater detail in Section 5.2. Some of the combustion chamber heat energy is
transferred through the piston to the piston boundaries, i.e. the piston skirt and
rings, from which heat transfers to the liner wall. Furthermore, the piston rings
prevent excess lubrication oil from moving into the combustion chamber by
scraping the oil from the liner wall during the down stroke. The piston rings
support the piston and thus reduce the slapping motion of the piston, especially
during cold starts where the clearance is greater than in running conditions.
 Chapter-4

IV.MATERIALS AND
METHODS
LAB VIEW
LabVIEW (short for Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench)
is a platform and development environment for a visual programming language
from National Instruments. The graphical language is named "G". Originally
released for the Apple Macintosh in 1986, LabVIEW is commonly used for data
acquisition, instrument control, and industrial automation on a variety of platforms
including Microsoft Windows, various flavors of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X.
The latest version of LabVIEW is version LabVIEW 2011. Visit National
Instruments at www.ni.com. The code files have the extension “.vi”, which is an
abbreviation for “Virtual Instrument”. LabVIEW offers lots of additional Add-Ons
and Toolkits.
Dataflow Programming
The programming language used in LabVIEW, also referred to as G, is a dataflow
programming language. Execution is determined by the structure of a graphical
block diagram (the LV-source code) on which the programmer connects different
function-nodes by drawing wires. These wires propagate variables and any node
can execute as soon as all its input data become available. Since this might be the
case for multiple nodes simultaneously, G is inherently capable of parallel
execution. Multi-processing and multithreading hardware is automatically
exploited by the built-in scheduler, which multiplexes multiple OS threads over the
nodes ready for execution.
Graphical Programming
LabVIEW ties the creation of user interfaces (called front panels) into the
development cycle. LabVIEW programs/subroutines are called virtual instruments
(VIs). Each VI has three components: a block diagram, a front panel, and a
connector panel. The last is used to represent the VI in the block diagrams of other,
calling VIs. Controls and indicators on the front panel allow an operator to input
data into or extract data from a running virtual instrument. However, the front
panel can also serve as a programmatic interface. Thus a virtual instrument can
either be run as a program, with the front panel serving as a user interface, or,
when dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the front panel defines the inputs
and outputs for the given node through the connector pane. This implies each VI
can be easily tested before being embedded as a subroutine into a larger program.
2 Introduction Tutorial: An Introduction to LabVIEW The graphical approach also
allows non-programmers to build programs simply by dragging and dropping
virtual representations of lab equipment with which they are already familiar. The
LabVIEW programming environment, with the included examples and the
documentation, makes it simple to create small applications. This is a benefit on
one side, but there is also a certain danger of underestimating the expertise needed
for good quality "G" programming. For complex algorithms or large-scale code, it
is important that the programmer possess an extensive knowledge of the special
LabVIEW syntax and the topology of its memory management. The most
advanced LabVIEW development systems offer the possibility of building stand-
alone applications. Furthermore, it is possible to create distributed applications,
which communicate by a client/server scheme, and are therefore easier to
implement due to the inherently parallel nature of G-code.

Benefits
One benefit of LabVIEW over other development environments is the extensive
support for accessing instrumentation hardware. Drivers and abstraction layers for
many different types of instruments and buses are included or are available for
inclusion. These present themselves as graphical nodes. The abstraction layers
offer standard software interfaces to communicate with hardware devices. The
provided driver interfaces save program development time. The sales pitch of
National Instruments is, therefore, that even people with limited coding experience
can write programs and deploy test solutions in a reduced time frame when
compared to more conventional or competing systems. A new hardware driver
topology (DAQmxBase), which consists mainly of G-coded components with only
a few register calls through NI Measurement Hardware DDK (Driver Development
Kit) functions, provides platform independent hardware access to numerous data
acquisition and instrumentation devices. The DAQmxBase driver is available for
LabVIEW on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux platforms. This document
introducing the following themes:
1. Start using LabVIEW o The LabVIEW Environment
 Front Panel and Block Diagram
 Palettes: Control Palette, Functions Palette, Tools Palette
 Data Types o Property Nodes
2. Sub Vis
3. Loops and Structures
3. Troubleshooting and Debugging
4. Working with Data 3 Introduction Tutorial: An Introduction to LabVIEW o
Arrays § Array Functions o Cluster
5. Working with Strings
6. Error Handling
7. Working with Projects using Project Explorer
8. Design Techniques
 Shift Register
 State Machine
 Multiple Loops
9. User Interface
10. Plotting Data
11. Deployment: Building Executable Applications (.exe)
12. Introduction to Add-Ons and Toolkits
 Briefly explanations…
 More detail about Control and Simulation Module in later
14. Introduction to DAQ - Data Acquisition
 MAX – Measurement and Automation Explorer
  NI-DAQmx • Quick Reference with Keyboard Short-cuts

4.1 VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS:

To be able to measure vibration of a machine, some technical equipment is

necessary. In practice, various tools are used, from simple instruments measuring
overall vibration to multichannel analyzers equipped with numerous features that
facilitate not only the measurement itself but also the analysis of the measured
data.
In this chapter, the typical scheme of vibration analyzer and various types of
sensors that are used for vibration measurements will be introduced. Furthermore,
analysis and evaluation of the vibration measurements will be described.
4.1.1 Analyzer:
Basic scheme of the analyzer used for vibration measurements is in Fig. 2.1. The
analogue signal from the vibration sensor passes through the input amplifier, anti-
aliasing filter and A/D converter, where it is digitized and enters the data buffer.
From the buffer it can be displayed either as a time waveform or can be further
processed by the Fourier transform to obtain frequency spectrum. Individual
functional units of the analyzer will be discussed in detail in the following
chapters.
4.1.2 Vibration Transducers
Depending on the measured quantity, sensors are divided into:
- Displacement transducers (proximity probes).
- Velocity probes (velometers).
- Accelerometers.

Usable frequency response and dynamic range differ for various types of sensors.
The dynamic range of a sensor is the range of amplitudes of the measured quantity
that can be measured by the sensor.
 Choosing the right type of sensor depends both on the application (for example,
whether shaft vibration or vibration of machine case are measured) and on the
frequency range of interest. As shown in Figure 1.13, the non-contact displacement
sensors have the upper frequency limit at approximately 2000 Hz. But already in
the range from 1000 to 2000 Hz, measurements performed by non-contact
proximity probes are very suspicious because it is not possible to adequately
eliminate the influence of unevenness of the shaft surface, which is comparable to
the measured displacements. Velocity transducers are limited because of their
design to frequencies of approximately 10-1500 Hz. Accelerometers that can
measure frequencies lower than 1 Hz to about 30 kHz have the widest frequency
range. Further on, the individual types of sensors, their typical applications and
mode of operation will be described.
 Vibration Analyzer Scheme

4.1.3 Displacement Transducers

There are several types of sensors to measure displacement, distance or position.
The oldest type is probably a contact mechanical slider; nowadays, the often used
type is a noncontact sensor based on eddy currents - proximity probe which
operates on the base of change of Foucault currents - the resistance of the material
changes due to the change in distance. Other types, such as laser, ultrasonic,
capacitive or inductive sensors, also exist. Displacement sensors are quite complex
systems; so, they are only used for shaft vibration measurement - they measure
vibrations of shaft relative to a part of stator, usually relative to the bearing
housing.
The proximity probe based on eddy currents measures the distance between the
sensor tip and a conductive surface. The measuring system comprises the sensor
and the proximitor. The oscillator in proximitor generates high-frequency
alternating current that passes through a coil embedded in the sensor tip and
creates high-frequency electromagnetic field around the tip of the sensor. Bias
voltage used to be -10 Vdc, but may be up to -24 Vdc (depending on the
manufacturer); an alternating component has a frequency of about 1.5 MHz
(depending on the manufacturer). The electromagnetic field in the coil induces
eddy (Foucault) currents in the conductive material. These eddy currents absorb
energy from the system, resulting in the change in impedance of the coil. Instant
distance to the target surface would modulate itself onto this wave and then is
demodulated. With respect to the high frequency of the electromagnetic field, the
entire measurement is strongly dependent on the total resistance (all of ohmic,
inductive and capacitive resistance). Cables leading the high frequency signal are
produced in strict tolerances of electrical values and their length cannot be
modified. Any damage to the cable or the shield threatens the quality of
measurements.
After affecting the carrier wave and eddy current by the variable distance of the
target surface during the vibration, the signal is led back to the demodulator. Then-
now already low frequency- the signal is led to the evaluation unit.

Scheme of the Proximity Probe System Based on Eddy Currents

If the distance between the tip of the sensor and the conductive surface is
constant, output voltage depends on the frequency of the electromagnetic field, the
conductivity of the measured material and its magnetic permeability. It is obvious
that sensors of this type are supplied according to a particular shaft material and
may not be used for the shaft made of different material. An example of the
sensitivity characteristics of the same probe to different target materials is shown.
A common value of sensitivity is 8 mV/μm.

It is therefore appropriate to have a sizing agent, which is simple - the micrometer

screw and a bracket for the target material. In addition, it is very important to
specify the type of probe with regard to the target material while purchasing the
probe.

Example of the Probe Sensitivity to Different Materials

Note: These probes have a relatively small range of distances in which the output
signal is linear (typically in the range 0.25 to 2.3 mm). From a user perspective,
this means that the probe should be set in the middle of the zone with linear
response at rest. The manufacturer gives recommendations - both in mm and in
bias voltage on the probe at rest. Graph of voltage as a function of the gap
(calibration curve) is supplied together with the probe. Proximity probes are
compact devices without any moving parts, so they provide the same output
regardless of the position in which they are mounted. Usually, two proximity
probes rotated by 90° are used. The use of proximity probes will be described in
more detail in the section 2.4 dealing with the shaft vibration.
EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS