CELLS AND TISSUES

CELLS AND TISSUES

Basuru Weerakoon
BMS 14
BMS 17/14/01

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Acknowledgement

I give my thanks to everyone who helped me and supported me during this assignment on cells and
tissues. I am thankful for their great guidance and friendly advice during this assignment.

Especially to our lecturer Ms. Gaayathri who taught us and guided us during this module so that we do a
good job.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Task 01 ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Prokaryotic cell structure and functions ................................................................................................... 4
Organelles in the prokaryotic cells and their structure and functions ..................................................... 4
Eukaryotic cell structure and functions .................................................................................................... 9
Organelles in the eukaryotic cell with their structure and functions ....................................................... 9
Differentiation between prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell ..................................................................... 17
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Task 2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Compound Microscope ........................................................................................................................... 19
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)............................................................................................... 20
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) ..................................................................................................... 21
A comparison of the Compound Microscope, Scanning electron Microscope and the Transmission
Electron Microscope ............................................................................................................................... 22
Staining methods .................................................................................................................................... 23
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 26
Task 03 ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 27
Stem cell theory ...................................................................................................................................... 27
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 CELLS AND TISSUES

Cellular differentiation ............................................................................................................................ 28

Different cell types and their functions .................................................................................................. 29
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 37
References .............................................................................................................................................. 38

Introduction

CELL THEORY

 All organisms are comprised of one or more cells.

 Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
 All new cells are produced from pre-existing cells through division.

The Cell theory was proposed by main three scientists. Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann and Rudolf
Virchow.

There mainly 2 types of living organisms

1. Eukaryotes
2. Prokaryotes
These two types differs from one another from their cellular structure, functions, chemical composition and
many other factors.

Human beings are comprised of trillions of cells. These cells comes together to form tissues which comes
together to form organs. These organs then combine together to function as systems inside the body
specified to do separate functions. A series of these systems will make the human being.(Boundless,
2016a)

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Task 01

Prokaryotic cell structure and functions

A prokaryote is a single celled or unicellular organism that does not contain an organized nucleus. These
organisms does not contain membrane bound organelles as well. These specific characteristics can only
be seen in prokaryotes. Genetic material of these organisms are circular DNA which is situated in the
nucleoid. These are not covered by any kind
of layers.

Most prokaryotes has a peptidoglycan cell

wall and also a polysaccharide capsule. Cell
wall provides protection, maintains shape of
the cell and also prevents the cell from
dehydrating. The capsule helps the Figure 1: Structure of a prokaryotic cell (Boundless, 2014)
prokaryotic cells to attach themselves
into surfaces and host bodies. Some
prokaryotes contains flagella, fimbriae and
pili which helps them in many activities. Figure 2: Structure of a prokaryotic cell (Boundless, 2014)
Prokaryotes contains 70s ribosomes which
synthesizes proteins within their cell. The
cytoskeleton of the prokaryotes supports the
cell in cell division as well in maintaining the
shape. (Raven and Johnson, 2002)

Out of the main three Domains both Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea are considered as
prokaryotes. This makes prokaryotes the largest type of living organisms by their sheer number.

Organelles in the prokaryotic cells and their structure and functions

01. Cell Wall:

Structure
The cell of prokaryotes are basically made of peptidoglycan or murine. These components give the cell
wall its rigidity. Peptidoglycan is basically made out of polysaccharides (glycan) cross linked with short
chains of amino acid (peptides) monomers. (Boundless, 2016h)

Two glucose compounds creates the backbone of the peptidoglycan molecule.

 N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
 N-acetylmuramic acid (NAG)
These two molecules are created in the cytosol of the prokaryotic cell. These have inter-peptide bonds and
these are transported by a carrier molecule called bactoprenol. (Boundless, 2016)
The thickness of the cell wall can vary according to the bacteria being either Gram+ or Gram-. Thicker cell
walls are present in Gram+ bacteria while thinner layers are present in Gram- bacteria. In Gram- bacteria

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the outer layer of the cell wall contains

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS). These act as
endotoxins (poison) in pathogenic bacteria.
(Boundless, 2016h)

Figure 3: Prokaryotic cell wall (Thinglink, 2015)
Figure 4: Prokaryotic cell wall (Thinglink, 2015)
Bailey, 2016)
Functions
The cell wall mainly provides the structural
integrity to the prokaryotic cell which gives
the cell strength, shape and protection
against osmotic rupture and lysis. The cell
wall contains the main receptor sites for
bacteria and antiviruses as well. (Regina

02. Cell Membrane / Plasma membrane

Structure
Situated immediately after the cell wall. Consists of
primary phospholipid bilayers and proteins that
moves laterally along the surface. Bacteria cell
membrane contains saturated fatty acids but
doesn’t contain steroids. Archaea cell membrane
contains branched lipids that helps Figure 5: lipid bilayer formation of plasma membrane9Khan Academy, 2017)
them to survive in extreme
environments.(Raven and Johnson, 2002)
Figure 6: lipid bilayer formation of plasma membrane9Khan Academy, 2017)

Functions
Semi permeability of the cell membrane controls the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
Assembles and secretes extra cytoplasmic proteins. Also helps in generating ATP energy.

03. Cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells contains 80% of water, enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic ions. It
has a thick liquid like structure named cytosol and almost all the organelles are situated in this. There is a
network of fibers named the cytoskeleton to help the cytosol to organize these components.(Taylor, Green
and Stout, 2006)

04. Capsule:

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Structure
Capsule is the layer which surrounds the cell
wall of prokaryotic cell. It is an added
gelatinous layer that is present on some
types of bacteria only.(Boundless, 2016h)

Function
Capsule does a main role in the prokaryotic
cell wall. It enables a prokaryotic cell to
attach themselves on to surfaces and to
other cells and avoid an immune response.
Because of that the chance of bacteria to
getting disease will be reduced. Capsule
always give an additional protection to the
Figure 7: Prokaryotic capsule (Thinglink, 2017)
cell. It also assists in retaining moisture, and
helps the cell adhere to nutrients as well.(Alberts,Brey,Hopkin,Johnson,Lewis,Raff,Roberts, 2013)

Figure 8: Prokaryotic capsule (Thinglink, 2017)

05. Nucleoid:

Structure
Prokaryotes does not have a well-organized
nucleus. Their genetic material or the genophore
stays unprotected in the cytoplasm. Basically
prokaryotes does not have linear chromosomes
as their genetic material. The genetic code of
these organisms are contained in a single double
stranded DNA. DNA can also be found outside the
nucleoid as well.(Pettijohn, 1976)

Figure 9: Prokaryotic Nucleoid (Socratic.com, 2014)

Functions
Nucleoid is the main part that is involved in the process of reproduction and it’s
Figure 10: Prokaryotic the center
Nucleoid that controls
(Socratic.com, 2014) all
the functions of the prokaryotic cell. It’s the place where DNA replicates and transcription occurs. Proteins
are synthesized in the nucleoid. (Raven and Johnson, 2002)

06. Mesosomes:

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Structure
Mesosomes are structures that makes complex foldings
or invaginations in the cell. It wall. It is visible in the electron
microscope. All prokaryotes does not have
mesosomes.(Boundless, 2016e)

Functions Figure 11: Prokaryotic mesosomes (home.earthlink.com, 2013)

These mainly help the prokaryotic cell in respiration as they contain various enzymes that are involved in
the process.(Taylor, Green and Stout, 2006)
Figure 12: Prokaryotic mesosomes (home.earthlink.com, 2013)

07. Ribosomes

Structure
Ribosomes are formed from 60% rRNA and 40% proteins. The
ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells are smaller 70s type ribosomes.
These ribosomes has 2 main sub units one being the larger 50s sub unit
while the other being the smaller 30s sub unit. The sedimentation of
ribosomes is measured in Svedberg units.(Tutor Pace, 2017)

Function Figure 13: Ribosome structure

Acting as the site for protein synthesis by translating the mRNA (Schoolbag.info, 2012)
(IvyRose Holistic, 2003)

Figure 14: Ribosome structure

08. Flagella (Schoolbag.info, 2012)

Structure
These are threadlike locomotor appendages. There are three main parts in the structure of flagella.
 Flagella filament-Composed of flagelline protein
 Basal body- Anchors the flagella to the cell wall and
the cell membrane.
 Flagellar hook- Links the filament to the basal body.

There are various types of flagella that can be seen on

prokaryotic cells.
1. Attrichous- No flagella.
2. Preitrichous-Many flagella all over the cell.
3. Montrichous- Contains a single flagella.
4. Lophotrichous- Contains a group of flagella at one
Figure 15: Structure of flagella (Nicerweb, 2003)
pole.
5. Amphitrichous- Contains flagella at both poles.(Boundless, 2016e)

Functions Figure 16: Structure of flagella (Nicerweb, 2003)

Locomotion of bacteria and archaea.(IvyRose Holistic, 2003)
09. Pilli and Fimbriae:

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Structure
Pilli - Longer than fimbriae and are genetically determined by conjugative plasmids.
Fimbriae - Can be seen on either both poles of a prokaryotic cell or can be spread throughout the whole
surface of the cell.(Telford et al., 2006)

Functions
Pilli - Transfer DNA from one cell to
another by a special type of movement. Also
needed for conjugation.
Fimbriae - Adhere to surfaces or other cells
and form bio films.(Raven and Johnson, 2002)

Figure 17: Structure of Pilli and fimbriae (Khan Academy, 2017)

10. Plasmids:
Figure 18: Structure of Pilli and fimbriae (Khan Academy, 2017)

Structure
Plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA
which are located outside of bacterial genome
in prokaryotes cells. It is not connected to
nucleoid in the cell and can replicate
independently. Due to that, they produce only
few genes. So plasmids are an additional
advantage to the cell.(Boundless, 2016e)

Function
Spreads genes that are beneficial to Figure 19: Structure of Plasmids (Nicer Web, 2008)
survival.(Boundless, 2016e)

Figure 20: Structure of Plasmids (Nicer Web, 2008)

11. Episomes
These are plasmids that can integrate with normal chromosomes. These are inherited in cell division. The
loss of plasmid is called curing. (Raven and Johnson, 2002)

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Eukaryotic cell structure and functions

Eukaryotic cells differ from
prokaryotic cells mainly by having
a well-organized nucleus and also
membrane bound organelles in it
cytoplasm. They are also larger
than prokaryotic cells and contains
rod shaped chromosomes.
(Chemlibre texts, 2016)

Out of the main three Domains,

Domain Eukarya consists only of
eukaryotes. Thus Kingdom
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia all are eukaryotes. The
structure of eukaryotic cell can be
explained according to two main
types of cells which are plant cells
Figure 21: Typical eukaryotic plant cell. (Boundless, 2017)
and animal cells. Eukaryotic cells contains
several characteristic membrane bound
organelles. Some of them are Golgi apparatus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria and Chloroplast.
Characteristically the plant cell has a cell wall where the animal cell doesn’t. In comparison with prokaryotic
Figure 22: Typical
cells the eukaryotic eukaryotic80s
cell contains plantribosomes.(Boundless,
cell. (Boundless, 2017) 2017a)

Organelles in the eukaryotic cell with their structure and functions

01. Cell wall:

Structure
Cell wall is a thick, semi-elastic, transparent layer
that protects the cell. Cell wall can be found in
plant cells, fungal cells and in some protists as
well. Animal cells doesn’t contain a cell wall. In
plants the cell wall is made out of cellulose micro
fibrils, hemicellulose and pectin. Depending on
the function cell wall can also contain lignin or
suberin. The fungal cell wall is made out of chitin,
a nitrogen polysaccharide which is a Figure 23: Plant cell wall structure (Molecular Expressions, 2015)
polymer of NAG (N- acetyl glucosamine). Plant cell wall has three main layers.
Primary cell wall Secondary cell wall Tertiary cell wall
Figure 24: Plant cell wall structure (Molecular Expressions, 2015)
Plasmodesmata can be found in between plant cells connecting two protoplast of two plant cells. These
are protoplasmic channels that helps in the communication of plant cells with each other.(Chemlibre texts,
2016)

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Functions
 Plasmodesmata helps to transfer nutrients, stimuli and other signals with adjacent plant cells.
 Cell wall provides shape to the cell and protects the cell from pathogens and other foreign
substances as well.
 Maintains the osmotic balance of the cell.
 Cutin and suberin the cell wall controls the water loss.(Trisha, 2017)

02. Plasma membrane:

Structure
The plasma membrane is made out of a
phospholipid bilayer that contains
phospholipids. These phospholipids contains a
hydrophilic phosphate head and two
hydrophobic fatty acid tails. Plasma membrane
is semi permeable membrane. There are three
main components in the cell membrane which
are carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
Oligosaccharides are present as the
carbohydrates while there are two main types Figure 25: Structure of plasma membrane (Khan Academy, 2017)
of proteins. Peripheral proteins and integral
proteins are them. The lipid component is the phospholipid bilayer. Steroids like cholesterol can be found in
the animal cell membrane which affects the fluidityFigure
of the26:membrane.(biology.tutorvista.com, 2015)
Structure of plasma membrane (Khan Academy, 2017)

Because of the fluid-like movement of the phospholipid layers and also the artistic mosaic-like spreading of
proteins the structure of the plasma membrane is known as the Fluid-Mosaic structure. This structure was
proposed by S. Simons and G. Nicholson in 1972.

Functions
 Regulates what goes in and out of the cell
 Separates the cell from outside and provides protection
 Proteins in the cell membrane helps in the transportation of molecules, enzymatic activity, signal
transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining and in attaching to the cytoskeleton and extra
cellular matrix (ECM).
 Helps to maintain the water and ion balance.(biology.tutorvista.com, 2015)

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03. Nucleus:

Structure
All eukaryotes has a well-organized nucleus in
their cell. Normally it is globular shape. And
basically there is a one nucleus in every cell
except skeletal muscle. It contains DNA and
RNA. Nucleus is the brain of the cell. It controls
each and every function of the cell. Inside the
nucleus DNA is organized into chromosomes.
Each chromosome has a single DNA with
histone proteins. Together these are called
chromatin. So basically chromosomes are
condensed chromatins.(Trisha, 2017)

There are five parts of the nucleus.

01. Nuclear envelope- Encloses nucleus. Separates it from the cytoplasm. This is a double membrane
which contains a peri nuclear space in the Figure 27: Structure of nucleus. (Boundless, 2015)
middle. Outer membrane continues with RER. Inner membrane has a mesh layer of lamin protein
02. Nuclear lamina- Made of 3 types of protein intermediate filaments which are Lamina A, Lamina B
and Lamina C. Helps in chromatin condensation and formation of interphase nuclei.
Figure 28: Structure of nucleus. (Boundless, 2015)
03. Nucleoskeleton-Gives support to nucleus. Made of intermediate V type filaments. Protects the
nucleus and maintains its structure.
04. Nucleopore- Regulates the entry and exit of molecules. Has two rings which are the outer
cytoplasmic ring and the inner nuclear ring
05. Nucleolus-Composed of three components which are fibrillary centre, dense fibrillary component
and granular component.(Taylor, Green and Stout, 2006)

Functions
 Ribosome synthesis
 Contains genetic material of a species.
 Controls all the functions of the cell(Taylor, Green and Stout, 2006)

04. Mitochondria:

Structure
Mitochondria is the power house of a cell.
Almost all the cells that does respiration contains
mitochondria. Some cells contains huge
amounts of mitochondria since the energy
consumption of these cells are really high. It
contains two layers. The inner layer and the
outer layer. There is a space between these two
membranes. The mitochondrial matrix is situated
Figure 29: Structure of mitochondria (biologydiscussion.com, 2008) right after the inner membrane. In this matrix
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Figure 30: Structure of mitochondria (biologydiscussion.com, 2008)

 CELLS AND TISSUES

enzymes that supports respiration are present with other small inclusion bodies, 70s ribosomes and
circular DNA as well. The inner mitochondrial membrane folds down to create cristae which increases the
surface area of the membrane and provides more area for the respiration process. (Taylor, Green and
Stout, 2006)

Functions
 Producing ATP energy through anaerobic reparation.
 Supporting photorespiration in C3 plants.(Taylor, Green and Stout, 2006)

06. Endoplasmic reticulum:

(Bio synthetic factory)

Structure
Endoplasmic reticulum is system of tubes and flat disks like
structures that can be seen in the cytoplasm of the cell. This
organelle is responsible for more than half of the membranes in
the cell. It continues with the nuclear envelope. It is surrounded by
a single layer. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum in a
cell.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

RER is the endoplasmic reticulum that continues with the

nucleus. The structure of these is more like disks and the surface Figure 31: structure of endoplasmic reticulum
(Tutorvista, 2008)
of RER is covered with ribosomes.
SER is more tube-like and there are no ribosomes on the surface of the reticulum.(Boundless, 2017a)

Figure 32: structure of endoplasmic reticulum

Functions (Tutorvista, 2008)
01. RER
a. Secretes glycoproteins
b. Distributes transport vesicles
c. Acts as a membrane factory for the cell.

02. SER
a. Synthesizes lipids
b. Metabolizes carbohydrates
c. Detoxifies drugs and poisons
d. Stores Ca ions.(Boundless, 2017a)

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07. Golgi apparatus:

(Shipping and receiving centre)

Structure
A complex of flattened membranous sacks creates the Golgi
apparatus. One sack is named a cisternae. There are two
sides in the apparatus. The Cis face and the Trans face are
them. The Cis face is the receiving side and it’s near the
plasma membrane. The Trans membrane is the shipping
side.
(Taylor, Green and Stout, 2006)

Figure 33: Structure of Golgi apparatus

Functions (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008)
 Modifies the products that comes from endoplasmic reticulum.
 Manufactures certain macromolecules.
 Sorts and packs material into transport vesicles.(Taylor, Green and34:
Figure Stout, 2006)
Structure of Golgi apparatus
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008)

08. Lysosomes:

Structure
Single membraned sack that contains hydrolytic enzymes.
Contains a series of enzymes. These enzymes works best in acidic
environments.(Boundless, 2017a)

Figure 35: Structure of lysosome
(Shutterstock, 2009)
Functions
 Digests macromolecules
 Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, nucleic acids
and polysaccharides.
 Some types of cells can engulf another cell by phagocytosis and
this forms a food vacuole. Together with lysosomes these food
vacuoles digests molecules.
 Autophagy- Uses enzymes o recycle the cells own organelles
and macromolecules.(Boundless, 2017a)

Figure 36: Structure of lysosome

(Shutterstock, 2009)

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09. Vacuoles:

Structure
A vacuole is surrounded by a single membrane called
tonoplast. This sac contains cell sap, a mixed solution of
various substances. Some of these substances are
pigments, sugars, mineral salts, organic acids and
enzymes. There is a large vacuole in plant cell and
sometimes small vacuole in animal cells. Plant cells and
fungal cells can contain several vacuoles sometimes.
These are derived from Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum.(Raven and Johnson, 2002)

Functions
There are several types of vacuoles according to their
functions
 Food vacuoles- Formed by phagocytosis Figure 37: structure of vacuole (simplebiology.com, 2005)
 Contractile vacuoles- Can be found in fresh
water protists. Pumps excess water out of cells.
 Central vacuoles- Found in mature plant cells. Holds organic compounds, color pigments and
Figure 38: structure of vacuole (simplebiology.com, 2005)
water(Raven and Johnson, 2002)

10. Plastids:

Structure
 Plasmids are double membraned organelles found in plant and fungi cells. There are several types
of plastids.
 Chromoplasts- Contains all the pigments in the cell .Chromoplasts are carotenoid pigments.
Chloroplasts converts into chromoplasts.
 Leucoplasts – Non-pigmented organelles that can be found in non-photosynthetic parts of a plat
like roots. There are three types of leucoplasts. Amyloplasts, Proteinoplasts and Elaioplasts are
them.(BYJU’S, 2016)
 Chloroplasts
This is the most important plastid of all.
These can only be seen in photosynthetic
cells only. Any one cell can contain
several of these chloroplasts. These are
double membraned organelles. Inner
cytoplasm is named as stroma. It
contains a cyclic DNA, RNA, granules
and few enzymes. There is a special unit
called thylakoid which is located in the
stroma. A collection of thylakoids are
named as granum. Chloroplasts also
contains 70s ribosomes. Contains
chlorophylls which helps in
photosynthesis. (BYJU’S, 2017)
Figure 39: Structure of Chloroplasts (byju's.com2017)

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Figure 40: Structure of Chloroplasts (byju's.com2017)
 CELLS AND TISSUES

Functions
 Leucoplasts stores fats, proteins and carbohydrates
 Chromoplasts provides colors in flowers and this helps in pollination.
 Chloroplasts uses chlorophylls to trap solar energy and uses this energy to produce food which is
known as photosynthesis.(BYJU’S, 2016)

11. Ribosomes:

Structure
Eukaryotes has 80s ribosomes. These are formed by two sub
units. The large 60s sub unit and the small 40s sub unit are
those. Ribosomes are made out of rRNA and proteins.
Eukaryotes contains two types of ribosomes which are the
cytosolic ribosomes and the organellar ribosomes. Organellar
ribosomes are seen in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Cytosolic ribosomes are the 80s ones.(Tutor Pace, 2017) Figure 41: Structure of ribosomes
(biologytutorpace.com, 2017)

Functions
Figure
The main function of ribosome is to provide the site for protein synthesis. 42: Structure
(Tutor of ribosomes
Pace, 2017)
(biologytutorpace.com, 2017)

12. Cytoskeleton:

Structure
Figure 43: types of protein tubules in the
cytoskeleton (Plantlife, 2011)
This is a network pf fibers placed in the eukaryotic cell
that organizes structures and activities. This looks like a
three dimensional lattice in every cell. Consists of three
main types of protein tubules.
a. Microtubules- Made out of tubulin protein.
Consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules.
b. Microfilaments- Made out of actin protein.
Consists of two intertwined strands of actin protein.
c. Intermediate filaments- Made out of several
types of proteins like keratin. Consists of fibrous proteins
supercoiled into thicker cables. (Boundless, 2017a)

Figure 44: types of protein tubules in the

cytoskeleton (Plantlife, 2011)

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Functions

 Maintenance of cell shape

 Provides cell motility
 Vesicles travel through monorails
provided by cytoskeleton
 Helps to form the cleavage furrow in cell
division. (Boundless, 2017a)

Figure 45: Structure of Cytoskeleton (Plantlife, 2011)

Figure 46: Structure of Cytoskeleton (Plantlife, 2011)

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Differentiation between prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell

Table 01: Differentiation between eukaryotic cell and prokaryotic cell (Boundless, 2017a)
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Small in size Large in size.

Has no organized nucleus. So it is not surrounded Has an organized nucleus. So it is surrounded by

by a layer. a layer.

Doesn’t contain a nucleolus Contains a nucleolus

Contains a single stranded chromosome Contains double stranded multiple chromosomes

Chromosome is made up from cyclic DNA, no
proteins involved
Has no membrane bound organelles
Can see only 70s ribosomes
Chromosomes are made up from DNA and
histone proteins
Has membrane bound organelles, such as
mitochondria, chloroplast, Golgi apparatus, etc.
Can see both 70s and 80s ribosomes

Has no microtubules Has microtubules

Has no microfilaments Has microfilaments

Has no intermediate filaments Has intermediate filaments

There is no cytoskeleton There is a cytoskeleton

Has pili Has no pili

Can contain flagella. It is of 9+2 structure and not Can contain a flagella. It is of 9+2 structure and
surrounded by membranes. surrounded by membranes.
Can see artificial vacuoles Can see actual vacuoles

Cell wall is rigid and contains polysaccharides and Only plant cell has a cell wall. It is made of
amino acid cellulose.
Origin was about 3.5 thousand million years ago Origin was about 1.2 thousand million years ago

Cell division is mostly by binary fission, no spindle
No photosynthesis
Some has the possibility of nitrogen fixation
Cell division occurs through mitosis, meiosis or
both
Photosynthesis occur in cells which has
chloroplast.
None have the ability to fixate nitrogen.

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Conclusion
The student observed three layers in the sample of cells. Further she noticed the unprotected genetic
material. The three layers were the capsule, the cell membrane and the plasma membrane thus
confirming the cell as a prokaryotic cell since these cells also has unprotected genetic material

Task 2

Introduction
Microscope was first constructed by Robert Hooke to observe micro-organisms, In 1670s Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist constructed a simple microscope to observe certain protozoans, fungus
and bacteria later it was further elaborated and modified for the microbiology world. Function of the
microscope is to increase the resolution and get a magnified detailed image of the small structures. There
are several types of microscope used to observe and study the small components:(Balentine, 2013)

1. Simple microscope
2. Compound microscope
3. Confocal microscope
4. Fluorescence microscope
5. Scanning Electron microscope
6. Transmission electron microscope

The resolution power is higher in electron microscope than other type of microscopes, it is preferable to
start with low power magnification when doing the experiments, and then increase the resolution until the
specimen is observed clearly

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Compound Microscope
Compound microscope is used to magnify specimens that cannot be seen through the simple microscope.
This microscope magnifies the sample using two convex lenses. One of these lenses is situated near the
sample while the other is in the eye piece of the instrument. Sometime there can be more than two lenses
as well.(Balentine, 2013)

Compound microscopes can be one ocular, bi-ocular or tri-ocular. The most commonly used compound
microscope is bi-ocular. The light from the illuminator passes through the aperture, the slide and then
through the objective lens. The object is place beyond the focal length of the objective lens. The image that
is formed by the objective lens will become the object for the ocular lens. The final image becomes
magnified since it gets formed near the focal point of the ocular lens. Therefore the final image is the
product of both convex lenses. The image that is formed is 2D and virtual.(Balentine, 2013)

Components of the compound microscope

01. Eye piece- The lens at the top. The

specimen is observed through this.
The magnification of this would be
around 15x or 10x
02. Tube- This connects the eye piece
to the objective lens.
03. Arm- Supports the tube and
connects it to the base
04. Base- The bottom part of the
microscope. This is mainly needed
to support the microscope.
05. Stage clips-This is used to hold the
slide in place while examining.
06. Nose piece- The lens that is near
the sample can be rotated in order
to adjust the power of the lens.
There can be up to 3 lenses in this
part that can have 4x, 10x, 40x or
100x magnification power. Figure 47: Structure of Compound Microscope (APS, 2017)
07. Rack stop- Prevents the slide from
breaking when it is adjusted on the stage.
08. Condenser lens- Focuses the light on to sample to get a clearer and sharper image.
09. Diaphragm or iris- This controls the amount Figure
of light48: Structure
that of Compound
is projected Microscope
upwards. (APS,
This is also2017)
a
rotatable disk situated under the stage with different sized holes.
10. Fine adjustment- Increases the detail of the sample.(Balentine, 2013)

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 CELLS AND TISSUES

How to use the compound microscope

 Coarse adjustment- This brings the sample into focus.

 After this turn on the illuminator and increase the light intensity using the dimmer.
 Then place the sample on the stage and clamp it using the clips.
 Allow the maximum amount of light to enter by the iris diaphragm.
 Rotate the lens nose and get the lowest magnification of the ocular lens.
 Look through the binocular and adjust the amount of light according to the viewer.
 Use the fine adjustment knob to sharpen the focus of the specimen.
 Use the coarse adjustment knob until the slide comes into more focus.
 Start from the lowest power of objective lens while observing through the binocular and bring the
slide closer without cracking it by the objective lens until the image become clearer.(Balentine,
2013)

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The transmission electron microscope uses a high energy beam of electrons to penetrate a thin layer of the
sample which then in turn provides a significantly detailed image of the sample. 3d images of the sample
can be taken with these microscopes. Also the sample will be many more times magnified than that of the
compound microscope.(Central Microscopy, 2017)

The transmission electron microscope is used in various fields of science and other technological
industries. It is widely used in nanotechnology, forensic science and microbiology.

Components of the transmission electron microscope

 ELECTRIC GUN- Consists of a tungsten filament, wehnelt lamp and the extraction anode. The
filament will produce electrons after connecting with the negative power supply. These will be then
accelerated to the required velocity and
energy. The power provided should not
be excessive for otherwise it can
damage the filament. There are two
types of electron guns. The thermionic
electron gun and the field emission
electron gun. After analyzing the sample
the electron beam should always be
turned off in order to collect the sample
 CONDENSER SYSTEM- A magnetic
lens system that focuses the parallel
electron beams towards the focal plane
of the lenses.
 OBJECTIVE LENS- The lens that is
close to the specimen which is used to
direct the beam of electrons into the
Figure 49: Structure of TEM (CCBER, 2011)
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Figure 50: Structure of TEM (CCBER, 2011)

 CELLS AND TISSUES

sample. There is a scanning coil that helps to visualize the specimen involved with this objective
lens.
 APERTURE- This is a strip of metal with a tiny hole in the middle that is situated in the path of the
electron beam which helps the beam to direct towards the specimen.
 VACUUM- The whole electron beam is created in a pressured vacuum pump of 10-4 Pascal’s.
This vacuum ensures that the electrons won’t get deflected by unwonted particles in the air. Also
this prevents the sample from getting contaminated as well.
 SPECIMEN STAGE- The specimen holder has two or three well that are used to hold the
specimen in place. A ring is placed to hold the sample tightly. Then the holder is inserted in to the
column. The sample should always be kept free of dust and stored in a covering sleeve when it’s
outside of the machine.
 DETECTORS- These collects the data from the electron beams that passes through the sample.
The most commonly used detector is X-ray energy disperse spectroscopy system.
 IMAGE CAPTURE- A temporary image can be take using a phosphorescent screen which will
give off electrons when it gets irradiated by the electron beams. A Computer Digitizing and
Archiving camera (CCD) can be used to get a more permanent image of the needed
sample.(Central Microscopy, 2017)

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A scanning electron microscope provides a detailed image of the surface of a sample by spreading out
electron beams on the surface of the specimen. The working and the parts of the SEM is as same as the
TEM. The scanning electron microscope is produces black and white 3D images. These are basically used
in forensic and agricultural fields.(FEI, 2015)

The SEM is controlled by a computer which directs the electron beam to the surface area which needs to
be scanned. A very high magnification is achieved by this microscope compared to TEM and compound
microscopes. The samples placed in the vacuum should be specially prepared. There are two basic
preparation methods used in this.
1. The sputter coating for non- conductive samples
2. Dehydration for biological samples

In the dehydration process specimens are fixed in glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide to stabilize the cell
structure. After fixation dehydration is done by compounds like acetone and ethanol. Heavy metals are
used for staining which helps in the process of capturing the image.(FEI, 2015)

The most important differences between the SEM and the TEM are,
 TEM uses a broad static electron beam rather than SEM where the beam is focused to a
fine point so that it can scan the samples line by line over its surface.
 The power supply needed for the SEM is much larger than that is needed by the TEM
since it needs to penetrate the specimen.
 Also the specimens placed in the TEM need not be very thin which makes sample
preparation simpler than that of the SEM. (FEI, 2015)

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 CELLS AND TISSUES

A comparison of the Compound Microscope, Scanning electron

Microscope and the Transmission Electron Microscope

Microscope type Advantages Disadvantages

LIGHT MICROSCOPE/  Cheaper.  Can only magnify
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE  Small and easy to samples up to 1500x
handle.  Cannot take
 Natural color of the observations of the
sample can be micro organelles in a
observed. sample.
 Sample can be easily  Samples should be
prepared. prepared carefully in
 Can observe an image order to get clear
directly images.

SCANNING ELECTRON  Can take a detailed 3D  Very expensive.

MICROSCOPE (SEM) image.  Needs a large space to
 Can be operated easily be operated.
compared to the TEM.  Should always maintain
 Allows data in digital the appropriate current
form. level for the magnetic
 Works very fast and lenses to operate
gives results almost correctly.
instantly.  Should always be
prepared for radiation
leaks while handling the
instrument.
 Detects only the surface
of the sample

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON  Very powerful  Very large and very

MICROSCOPE (TEM) magnification. expensive.
 Largely used in  Sample preparation is
industries. much more complicated
and take a lot of time.
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 CELLS AND TISSUES

 Provides a detailed 
Operation and analyzing
image if the sample. samples requires proper
 training.
Detects all the internal
 Gives images in black
and external structures
of the sample and and white only.
provide a very good  Proper constant
image. maintenance is required
to maintain the
instrument at optimal
level
Table 02: Comparison of Microscopes(FEI, 2015)(Central Microscopy, 2017) (Balentine, 2013)

Staining methods

Cell staining is basically done in order to get a clear view of the structure which is been observed through
changing the color of some parts of it. Only a small amount of microorganisms can be seem directly
without using staining techniques since most of the time the cytoplasm of microorganisms are transparent
and without color. A preparation like this called a wet mount which is the most common and easiest kind of
staining method that is been used.(LabMedica, 2015)

Heat fixing is also another method that is been used where you place the microorganism on a slide and air
dry it and then pass it quickly over a flame. This kills the microorganism and makes them adhere to the
slide.

Staining can be either in-vivo or in-vitro. In-vivo is where you use a still living biological matter for staining
and in-vitro the biological matter used is non-living. (Laboratorium Life Science SRL, 2015)

Gram staining method

Gram staining method is used

to mainly differentiate two large
groups of bacteria based on
their cell wall structure. These
are distinguished between gram
positive and gram negative
bacteria. The main
differentiation factor of these is
the color. Gram positive
bacteria gives the color violet
due to their cell wall containing a
thick layer of peptidoglycan
while gram negative bacteria
gives the color red due to their
Figure 51: Gram negative and positive cell walls (The amazing medicine, 2017)
thinner peptidoglycan
wall.(Gram, 1884)

Figure 52: Gram negative and positive cell walls (The amazing medicine, 2017) P a g e 23 | 41
 CELLS AND TISSUES

Gram staining has main three steps,

1. Staining with Crystal violet, a water soluble dye
2. Decolorization
3. Counterstaining with safranin

Staining with crystal violet dye – Here the sample is stained by the dye and then an iodine solution is added
which forms an insoluble large molecule between iodine and crystal violet.
Decolorization – A decolorizer like acetone or ethyl alcohol is added to the sample to dehydrate the
peptidoglycan cell wall which will then shrink and tighten it. In gram positive bacteria the large crystal violet-
iodine complex will not be able to pass through the peptidoglycan layer thus gets trapped in. But in gram
positive bacteria the thinner peptidoglycan layer will not be able to hold the crystal violet – iodine complex.
Counterstaining – A counterstain like safranin is added in to the sample which will stain it red. Since it’s
lighter than crystal violet it won’t affect the purple of gram positive bacteria. But the decolorized gram
negative cells will be affected and they will be stained red.(Gram, 1884)

Protocol and reagents used

Reagents
a. Crystal violet (Primary stain)
b. Iodine solution/ Gram’s iodine
c. Decolorizer (Ethanol or acetone)
d. Safranin (Secondary stain)
e. Water in a squirt bottle.

Protocol
 Make a slide of the
sample that needs to be
stained. Heat fix the sample by
carefully passing it through a
Bunsen burner.
 Add the primary stain to
the sample and incubate it for
1 minute. Then rinse the
sample with water for
maximum 5 seconds to
remove excess crystal violet.
Figure 53: Methodology of Gram Staining (medicinehacks, 2016)
 Add Gram’s iodine to
the sample and keep it for
about 1 minute. This will fix the crystal violet to the cell wall.
 Rinse the sample with acetone or alcohol for about 3 seconds and rinse again with water. The
alcohol will54:decolorize
Figure theofsample
Methodology if it’s Gram
Gram Staining negative2016)
(medicinehacks, but it will also decolorize Gram positive cells
if remained for too long.
 Add the secondary stain to the sample and incubate for 1 minute. Wash again with water. If the
bacteria is Gram positive it will retain the primary stain and will look purple under a microscope. If it
is Gram negative it will not take the primary stain but will take the secondary stain which will make it
look red under a microscope.(Laboratorium Life Science SRL, 2015)

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 CELLS AND TISSUES

Figure 55: microscopic image of Gram negative and positive bacteria (Bioninja, 2017)

Gram
Figure 56:positive bacteria
microscopic Gram
image of Gram negative negative
and positive bacteria
bacteria (Bioninja, 2017)
Bacillus Escherichia
Nocardia Helicobacter
Clostridium Neisseria
Actinomyces Enterobacter
Streptococcus Chlamydia
Streptomyces Vibrio
Lactobacillus Hermophilus
Corynebacterium

Table 03: Examples for Gram negative and positive bacteria(Laboratorium Life Science SRL, 2015)

Leishman’s staining

Leishman staining is basically used to stain

blood and bone marrow cells. The Leishman
stain contains methylene blue and eosin. By
the use of this method we can recognize
leucocytes, malaria parasites and
trypanosomes. It takes almost five long years
to stabilize a Leishman solution. The
Leishman solution is prepared using the
Leishman powder. This is then dissolved in
100ml of acetone-free methyl alcohol then
heated at 50 0C for half an hour while shaking
and stirring well. (Malaria, 2015)

Protocol
Figure 57: blood sample stained with the Leishman solution
 Prepare the slide by heat fixing and under the microscope (labmedia, 2017)
add the Leishman solution and keep it for about 2 minutes.
 Pour buffered water drop by drop.

P a g esolution
Figure 58: blood sample stained with the Leishman 25 | 41
under the microscope (labmedia, 2017)
 CELLS AND TISSUES

 Mix thoroughly by shaking for around 8-10 minutes.

 Then rinse with water for 1-2 minutes.
 Finally air dry the slide and observe it under the oil immersion lens of the microscope.(Malaria,
2015)

Leishman staining gives out the following results in a blood stain.

 Red blood cells (RBC) – Red to yellowish red.

 Neutrophils – dark purple nuclei, pale pink cytoplasm and reddish granules.
 Eosinophils – Blue nuclei, pale pink cytoplasm and reddish orange large granules.
 Basophils – Purple to dark blue nuclei, dark purplish black granules.
 Lymphocytes – dark purple nuclei and a sky blue cytoplasm.
 Platelets – Violet purple.(Malaria, 2015)

Conclusion

Since the main type of cells in the sample are blood cells Nikil can use electron microscope to visualize
them. Out of the two types of electron microscopes the transmission electron microscope is the most
suitable one since it gives a more detailed image about the cells both externally and internally. Scanning
electron microscope only gives a detailed image about the surface of the cell.

The compound microscope cannot be used since its magnification and resolution is very low compared to
electron microscopes. Blood cells are much smaller and a clear observation cannot be made.

Gram-staining method can be used to observe the layers of cell wall and identify the prokaryotic cell,
According to his observation it must be a gram- positive or gram negative bacteria which shows three
layers of cell wall. And when it is gram stained; gram positive bacteria remains the purple Counterstaining
with safranin stains will show turn gram negative bacteria to pink color.(Gram, 1884)

Leishman staining can be used to identify the blood cells specifically since this staining method gives out
colors for all types of blood cells. (Malaria, 2015)

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Task 03

Introduction
The human body is made out of many systems that helps in the regulation of various body functions.
These systems contains many organs that are made out of many types of tissues. All these tissues are
made out of cells that forms them. These many types of cells are created through cellular differentiation.
Stem cells plays a major part in this regard(National Institute oh Health, 2016)

Stem cell theory

Stem cells are cells that has the ability to divide
and differentiate into many types of cells. These
cells will then form all the other organs and tissues
in the body. These cells can divide exponentially
for a long period of time.

There are several types of stem cells that that

differentiates into several cell lineages that
performs various functions in the body. These
stem cells divides themselves through meiosis and
mitosis which are the cell division type. Mitosis
occurs in cellular growth or when cells are
damaged while meiosis mainly happens during
reproduction.(National Institute oh Health, 2016)
Figure 59: Various types of stem cells (American regenerative
clinic, 2013)
Stem cells originates from two main sources.
o Embryonic stem cells - These stem cells are formed after the fusion of the male and
female gametes and then will replicate through mitosis and form the blastocyst. These
Figure 60: Various types of stem cells (American regenerative
cells are pluripotent stem cells and all the specialized tissues are2013)
clinic, formed from these cells
in the human body.
o Adult stem cells - These cells divides after embryonic development and forms
different types of tissues and organs like brain and skin. Adult stem cells are important
when regenerating injured cells.(Murnnaghan, 2000)

Stem cells can be classified into three main groups.

Totipotent stem cells - Totipotent stem cells have the ability to form into any type of cell found in the human
body. So they are one of the major stem cells in the human body. In human development, the ovum and
the sperm meet together to form a single cell named the zygote. This zygote divide into trillions of cells to
form a human body. So the small cell can develop into a specialized cell types. Cells from early (1 to 3
days) embryos are example for totipotent stem cells(National Institute oh Health, 2016)

 Pluripotent stem cells - Pluripotent stem cells can form any type of cells. Until the development of
embryo, pluripotent stem cells can produce large number of cells. But after dividing into other cell
types pluripotent stem cells will not be active again. Some cells of blastocyst is example for
pluripotent cells. Normally after four days from fertilization, totipotent cells forms a rod of cells called
P a g e 27 | 41
 CELLS AND TISSUES

the blastocyst. These cells are pluripotent cells. Those pluripotent cells cannot make a full
organism. (Murnnaghan, 2000)

 Multipotent stem cells – These has similar characteristic to all stem cells. Among the type of stem
cells, multipotent cells are unspecialized cells. These cells are different and can form number of
other tissues. Multipotent stem cells
can create different types of cells in the
human body. They can form blood,
fetal, neural and muscle cells but they
cannot make brain cells. Multipotent
stem cells give out three type of cells.
Those are hematopoietic stem cells,
neural stem cells and mesenchymal
stem cells. From these stem cells
different type of body cells will be
created. So multipotent stem cells
produce specific functioning cells
Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to
all type of blood cells: red blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets
Mesenchymal stem cells forms bone
marrow that gives rise to variety of
cells: bone cells, cartilage cells,
stromal cells and fat cells. Neural Stem
cells gives rise to nerve cells, and two
non-neuronal tissue:-astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes. Epithelial stem cells
give rise to the various types of skin
cells. (Murnnaghan, 2000)
.
Figure 61: Different types of stem cells (Oerpub.github.io, 2017)

Cellular
Figure 62:differentiation
Different types of stem cells (Oerpub.github.io, 2017)

In a multicellular organism there are many types of cells that does various functions. Cellular differentiation
is the specialization of cells to perform different types of functions unique to their type. There are three main
types of cells in the mammalian body.(Boundless, 2016c)

1. Germ cells
2. Somatic cells
3. Stem cells

The human body contains more than 100 trillion cells which are products of these three types of cells. This
cellular differentiation process is handled by transcription factors, growth factors and on/off genes. When
these on/off genes express themselves it is known as gene expression. This gene expression plays a vital
in cellular differentiation. The main cell differentiation takes place during embryonic
development.(Boundless, 2016c)
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 CELLS AND TISSUES

Proliferation of embryonic cells differentiate into many types of cells and make up the tissues and organs.
Placenta that has short life span undergoes several divisions and as it fully differentiates it ceases
proliferation. There are few types of cells that will never divide but most of the cells are able to proliferate
and replace the damaged tissues. Cell proliferation maintains the cell death and a constant number of cells
in adult tissues and organs.
Ex: - Stem cells in bone marrow usually divide and repair the torn out or damaged tissue but certain tissues
present in heart pancreas only divide under special condition.(Boundless, 2016c)

Different cell types and their functions

There are different types of cells in the human body that forms tissues that does different functions.
 Bone cells
 Cartilage cells
 Nerve cells
 Epithelial cells
 Muscle cells
 Blood cells

Bone cells

Bones are the components that gives support and strength to the body. The bones matrix is mainly made
out of Ca2+ ions and phosphates. There are mainly three types of cells in the bones.
 Osteoblasts – these are the cells that are
responsible for the formation of bones
and bone matrix. These cells are
incapable of mitosis. These are situated
in the deep layers of periosteum and the
marrow. Secretes calcium salts.
 Osteoclasts - these are the cells that are
responsible for cell respiration and
breakdown. These contains multiple
nuclei and are produced from
macrophages and monocytes. Maintains
the shape of the bone.
 Osteocytes- these cells maintains the
mineral concentration of the bone
Figure 63: Types of bone cells with their functions. (Boundless,
through enzyme secretion. Forms from 2016)
calcified osteoblasts. This is the primary
cell of mature bone and the most common of all the bone cells. These cells are also incapable of
mitosis. Osteocytes communicates with each other through canaliculi channels.
 Osteogenic cells - these are the only bone cells Figure
that64:
canTypes of bone
divide cellsmakes
which with their functions.
them (Boundless,
the bone stem
2016)
cells. They have high mitotic activity. They differentiate and creates osteoblasts(Boundless, 2016b)
P a g e 29 | 41
 CELLS AND TISSUES

Cartilage cells

Cartilage tissue provides flexibility throughout the body and smoothens the movements
between adjacent tissues. The base substance in cartilage tissue
is chondroitin sulfate. The tissue lacks blood vessels and
relies on diffusion for nutrients. There are three types of
cartilages. (Boundless, 2017b)
 Hyaline cartilage – the most common type of cartilage.
Can be seen in rib tips and in parts of the skull as well.
Collagen fibers are vastly consisted in this cartilage.
 Fibro cartilage – this is a mixture of white fibrous tissue
and cartilaginous tissue. Only cartilage that contains
type II collagen. Can be seen in pubic symphysis,
annulus fibrosus and intervertebral disks.
 Elastic cartilage – consists of elastic fibers which are Figure 65: Structure of Chondrocyte and chondroblast (University of
made of elastin protein. Has greater flexibility. Can Leeds histology guide, 2005)
be found in epiglottis and the pinnae.
There is only one cell type in the cartilage tissue which is the chondrocyte cell. These are first formed as
chondroblast cells that produces the collagen ECM.(Boundless, 2017b)
Figure 66: Structure of Chondrocyte and chondroblast (University of
Leeds histology guide, 2005)

Nerve cells

Nerve cells are specialized cells that are situated inside the brain and spinal cord. These cells transmits
impulses throughout the body. There are three types of nerve cells or neurons.(Purves et al., 2001)

 Sensory neuron –
these neurons takes
the signals from the
receptors and transmits
them towards the
central nerves system
 Inter neuron – these
neurons acts as the
connecting center for
sensory neurons and Figure 67: Structure of a neuron cell (hyperphysics.phy-astra.gsu.edu, 2015)
motor neurons. These situated inside the central nerves system.
 Motor neuron – these neurons takes the impulses from the interneuron or the sensory neuron and
transmits them towards the effector
Figureorgan.(Boundless, 2016f)
68: Structure of a neuron cell (hyperphysics.phy-astra.gsu.edu, 2015)

The basic structure of the neuron can be described using a motor neuron.

Cell body / Soma contains all the organelles and the nucleus. Dendrites receives signals and sends them
towards the axon. Axon hillock is where action potential is generated Axon is the longer part which
conducts the action potential. Myelin Sheath is produced by Schwann cells. These sheaths insulates the
P a g e 30 | 41
 CELLS AND TISSUES

axon and makes the action potential travel faster. Axon terminal is the mall branched portion situated at the
end of the axon which contains the synapses Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the axon not covered by
myelin. These are the origin place of action potential.(Purves et al., 2001)

Epithelial cells

The tissue that

covers the
internal and
external
surfaces of the
body of an
organism is
called epithelial
tissue. There is
a bottom layer
called
basement
membrane
which is
comprised of
collagen fibers.
There is no
blood supply Figure 69: Epithelial tissue types (opentextbc.ca.np, 2017)
into this tissue.
But nerve endings are there. Epithelial tissues are divided into two major types according to their number of
cells and the shape of the individual cells. They are simple epitheliums and stratified
Figure 70: Epithelial tissue types (opentextbc.ca.np, 2017)
epitheliums.(ScienceDirect, 2017)

1. Simple squamous epithelium - these cells forms the outer covering of certain organs, blood
capillaries and alveoli in lungs also
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium - these cells are wide and tall. There main function is absorption and
secretion. These are found in collecting ducts of kidney, pancreases thyroid and salivary glands.
3. Simple columnar epitheliums - these cells are comprised of tall packed cells in rows. They are
found in gall bladder, urine tubes and villi in small intestine which absorb nutrients into the body.
4. Stratified epithelium - consists of one or more cell layers and one layer is connected with the
basement membrane it includes all the simple squamous, cuboidal and columnar epitheliums.

 Stratified squamous epitheliums are located on the surface of the skin, the lining of mouth,
esophagus and rectum. They help to regulate the body temperature and gives protection
from infections.
 Stratified cuboidal epitheliums are found in lining of pharynx, ducts of sweat glands and
mammary glands.
 Stratified columnar epithelium are found in pharynx, male urethra and lining of some
glandular ducts.

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 CELLS AND TISSUES

5. Transition epitheliums are found in tissues that can stretch and relax. Can be found in bladder,
uterus and urethra.
6. Pseudo stratified Columnar epitheliums are located in lines of trachea and upper respiratory tract.
Their main function is to produce mucous.(ScienceDirect, 2017)

Muscle cells

Muscle cells are formed to do the contractile activity of the human body. Basically 40% of our body is
consisted of muscle. It has some main qualities. Such as contractility, extensibility and excitability.
Vertebrates have three type of muscle tissues. They are cardiac tissue, smooth tissue and skeletal tissue.
(Boundless, 2016f)

 Cardiac Muscles (heart muscles) - As the name itself presents these muscles can only be seen in
the heart. These are
comprised of branched
striated muscle fibers. Each
muscle fiber has a
cytoplasm that is known as
the sarcoplasm and these
are surrounded by the
sarcolemma. These are
long and cylindrical in
Figure 71: Structure of cardiac muscle (BioNinja, 2014)
shape and has a single
nucleus which is situated in the middle of the fiber. There is a line that separates adjacent cardiac
muscle cells which is called intercalated disc. This muscle is involuntary which means the person
cannot control its movements and these are influenced
Figure by the
72: Structure autonomic
of cardiac muscle nervous
(BioNinja, system.
2014) Cardiac
muscles contracts rhythmically and doesn’t get tired during the life span of a human being. The
main function of these muscles are to continue heart beat which helps to pump blood throughout
the body and to maintain blood pressure.(Boundless, 2016f)

 Smooth muscle – these are spindle shaped and

contains a single nucleus situated in the center.
Constriction of these muscle are involuntary and they
are done by the autonomic nervous system. These
are called non- striated muscle since these muscles
doesn’t have the banded like feature in both skeletal
and cardiac muscles. These muscles are situated in
blood vessels, the digestive tract and in the tubes of
the reproductive system. Their contractions moves
food through the digestive tract and pushes blood
through vessels.(Boundless, 2016f)
Figure 73: Structure of smooth muscle (Socratic,
2014)

Figure 74: Structure of smooth muscle (Socratic,

2014)
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 CELLS AND TISSUES

 Skeletal muscle – These muscles

are very much striated because of
the way of arrangement of the
contractile proteins actin and
myosin. These muscles contracts
because of the attachment of
myosin to actin filaments. Then the
actin filaments will be pulled to the
center of the muscle thus
contracting it. Skeletal muscles are
long in proportion and has multiple Figure 75; Structure of skeletal muscle (bio1152.nicerweb.com, 2012)
nuclei as well. These muscles can be moved voluntarily and they are under the control of the
somatic nervous system. These muscles are found in the legs and hands.(Boundless, 2016f)
Figure 76; Structure of skeletal muscle (bio1152.nicerweb.com, 2012)

Figure 77: Comparison of muscle tissues (Pinterest, 2015)

Blood cells
Figure 78: Comparison of muscle tissues (Pinterest, 2015)

Blood is a special connective tissue. Blood flows the blood vessels in the body which are the arteries and
the veins. Blood is the main transportation vehicle in the body. Blood takes enzymes, proteins, hormones
and many other products throughout the body. There are three main parts in the blood. The plasma is the
main and largest part of blood. It contains almost 80% of water, minerals and gases. Then we have the
fibrous part which can only be seen when blood clotting occurs. The next part is the blood cells. There are
three main types of blood cells(WebMD, 2016)

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 CELLS AND TISSUES

1.Red blood cells/Erythrocytes – These

cells gets their red color from an iron
containing protein named hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen throughout the
body and also carbon dioxide to the lungs.
Erythrocytes doesn’t have any organelles.
These are biconcave in appearance. In
birds and non-avian reptiles red blood cells
contains a nucleus. The average lifespan
of a red blood cell is 120 days. When the
time comes the liver and the spleen breaks
down them for recycling. Red blood cells
are produced by the red bone marrow
Figure 79: Red blood cells (LeavingBio.net, 2013) where the production of red blood cells is
overlooked by the hormone erythropoietin
produced by the kidney.(Boundless, 2016g)
Figure 80: Red blood cells (LeavingBio.net, 2013)
2. White blood cells/Leukocytes – These blood cells contains a nucleus. There are two types of
leukocytes which are granulocytes and agranulocytes.(Boundless, 2016g)

Granulocytes – Contains granules inside the cell

 Neutrophils - They are made up about 70% out of the total number of white blood cells. Most
commonly, they arise between the cells of the capillary walls and comes into the intra cellular
spaces. Neutrophils comes to infected areas of our body. Their main function is to engulf and
digest disease causing bacteria. So they are actively phagocytic.
 Eosinophils - Usually they arise 1.5% out of the total number of white cells. Allergic conditions such
as asthma or hay fever cause them to increase their number. They guard the anti-histamine
properties. The hormones which produce in adrenal cortex, control the amount of eosinophils
present in blood stream
 Basophils - Basophils percentage is 0.5% out of the white blood cells. We can see one lobe of
granule in basophils. These cells produce heparin, an anti-clotting protein and histamine. More and
more production of histamine creates some allergies, such as hay fever.(Boundless, 2016g)

Agranulocytes – doesn’t contain granules inside the cell

 Monocytes - They represent 4% of the white blood cells. Monocytes are produced in bone marrow
and they have a bean shaped nucleus. They have a different way of living. Monocytes live 30-40
hours in blood and enters the tissues as macrophages. They engulf large particles and bacteria.
Also help the immune system by producing certain antigens.
 Lymphocytes - They represent 24% of the white blood cells. Lymphocytes can be found in the
thymus gland and lymphoid tissues. These cells looks round shaped and has a small cytoplasm.

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There are two types of lymphocytes. Those are T cells and B cells. T cells and B cells helps in
immune actions such as antibody production and destroying tumor cells.(Boundless, 2016g)

Figure 81: White blood cell types (Boundless, 2016)

Fat tissue Figure 82: White blood cell types (Boundless, 2016)
Fat tissue is also known as adipose tissue. There are large amounts of adipose cells in the matrix. Those
adipose cells are used as nutrient storages. Loose connective tissue also contains adipose cells. We can
find adipose tissue under the skin, in bone marrow, and around the kidneys in human body. (Raven and
Johnson, 2002)

Figure 83: Adipose tissue (Regeneration center of Thailand, 2014)

Figure 84: Adipose tissue (Regeneration center of Thailand, 2014)

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Loose connective tissue

Areolar connective tissue is another name for loose connective tissue. Loose connective tissue contains
some fibroblasts and macrophages. There are less number of collagen fibers and elastic fibers present in
loose connective tissue. Those elements are placed in the matrix. In every blood vessel, we can see the
loose connective tissue. It helps to keep the vessel in place. And also it is located around and between
most body organs.(Raven and Johnson, 2002)

Figure 85: Areolar connective tissue under microscope (2015)

Figure 86: Areolar connective tissue under microscope (2015)

Dense connective tissue

Dense connective tissue is also called as fibrous connective tissue. There are large number of collagen
fibers and less amount of cells and other material in the matrix. Those fibers are arranged parallel to each
other. Examples of its occurrence are dermis of the skin, tendons and ligaments. There are two types of
dense connective tissues. Dense regular and dense irregular.(Boundless, 2016d)

Figure 87: Dense regular and irregular connective tissue (HourlyBook, 2011)

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Conclusion

All the living creatures are formed by a small unit called cell. Cell gives rise to tissue, tissue converts in to
organisms, and collection of organisms formed the living being. This process occurs due to the cell
differentiation.

Stem cells are the key component in cell differentiation. Differentiation is happening the help of
regenerative stem cell theory. First stem cells give rise to specialized cell types. And then those cell types
divides and forms some other specialized cells that will then form tissues. So finally we can find various
types of tissues such as blood, neural, bone, muscle and etc. (National Institute oh Health, 2016)

So according to my view, without cell differentiation we cannot survive or live as a living being in this world.
Because if cell differentiation is not occurred, tissue will not rise from the cells. The fusion of gametes paves
the way to creating new cells.

Stem cell technology can be used to cure many diseases. Cloning of a living being can be achieved
through stem cell technology. If we can collect stem cells form a person at the blastocyst stage we can
harvest any kind of organ that he needs in the future. Stem cell banks in this matter will come to pass.
There are many more applications as well. In the future the medical field will greatly leap forward with the
stem cell technology as there are many possibilities of curing diseases through stem cells than the normal
procedures used today.(National Institute oh Health, 2016)

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