Department of Energy

Politecnico di Milano

Milan, 21st June 2018

Exam – Advanced Thermodynamic and Thermoeconomics

Session of 21-06-2018

Exercise 1. (8pt)
Consider a process made by the following sequence: 1. an adiabatic combustion chamber where a complete
and isobaric combustion of acetylene with excess air takes place. 2. after combustion, flue gases enter a
counter-flow heat exchanger and are cooled at constant pressure heating a flow of water that enter as liquid
and exit as superheated steam

The main hypotheses and data are below described:

- Acetylene , C2H2 has LHV=1256460 kJ/kmol and exch=1269310 kJ/Kmole;
- Air and Acetylene enter the combustion chamber @ 353 K and environmental pressure.
- The adiabatic flame temperature results 2250 K and is associated to the given excess air.
- Flue gasses in the heat exchanger are cooled down @ 673 K,
- Water enter the heat exchanger @ 323 K and 500 kPa (h=209.3 kJ/kg, s=0.7027 kJ/kg-K)
- The superheated steam exits then @ 873 K and 500 kPa (h=3701 kJ/kg, s=8.3513 kJ/kg-K).
- Environmental temperature and Pressure are assumed to be T0=298 K and p0=101.3 kPa,
- For products P and reactants R useful data are below given:

ΔhR ΔhP ΔhP exph,R exph,P exph,P

(353 K) (2250 K) (673 K) (353 K) (2250 K) (673 K)
kJ/kmol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol
C2H2 3101 260
N2 1600 65205 11121 132 45905 3944
CO2 106640 16450 76029 5995
H2O 86162 13164 61636 4697
O2 1622 68771 11647 134 48453 4164

a. (2pt) Write the analytical formulation of the energy balance for the combustion process and derive the
analytical expression for the excess air λ. Then calculate it. Do you expect any change in the excess air
with the variation of the pressure within the combustion chamber? Please justify your answer [in case you
are not able to proceed with this question, use λ=1,478]
b. (2pt) Write the exergy balance (per kmol of C2H2) for the combustion process, identifying all the necessary
hypothesis and simplify it accordingly. Derive the analytical formulation for the rational exergy efficiency
and then calculate it. Are these values functions of the reactants’ temperature and pressure? Neglect the
chemical exergy of products of combustion.
c. (2pt) Write the exergy balance to the heat exchanger, evaluate the exergy destructions (per kmol of C2H2)
and the functional exergy efficiency considering water the useful product. And evaluate the mass flow rate
of acetylene required to produce 180 kg/h of superheated steam. Neglect the chemical exergy of products
of combustion.
d. (2pt) In case they were not given, please explain how you could calculate theoretically the chemical exergy
for C2H2.

Author E. Colombo
Pag.1 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Exercise 1. Solution
a. Write the analytical formulation of the energy balance for the combustion process and derive the
analytical expression for the excess air λ. Then calculate it. Do you expect any change in the
excess air with the variation of the pressure within the combustion chamber? Please justify your
answer? [in case you are not able to proceed with this question, use λ=1,478]

The combustion reaction can be written as follows:

C2 H 2    2.5  O2  3.76 N 2   2CO2  H 2 O    2.5  3.76 N 2     1  2.5  O2

Assumptions for the application of the energy balance:

- The combustion chamber is adiabatic and rigid;
- Steady state operation is assumed throughout;
- The balance is written per unit of kmol of acetylene;

dE
  W    Q    N R hR   N P hP
dt

The energy balance states that

hR  hP [eq1]

Enthalpies of reactants and products can be evaluated as follows:


hR TR , p0   1 h f  h  C 2H 2
 
  2.5  1 h f  h  O2 
3.76 h f  h  N2


hP TP , p0   2 h f  h   CO 2 
1 hf  h  H 2O 
  2.5  3.76 h f  h  N2 
    1  2.5  hf  h  O2

So we obtain
h f  h  C 2H 2   2.5  1 h  O2 3.76 h   N2  
  2 hf  h  CO 2 
 hf  h  H 2O  
  2.5  3.76 h N2  
   1  2.5  h O2

By aggregating the remaining heat of formation we recognize the LHV

h f ,C 2 H 2  2  h f ,CO 2  hf , H 2O  h

  C 2H 2  
  2.5  1 h O2 3.76 h  N2


LHVC 2 H 2

 2 h   CO 2  
 h H 2O   2.5  3.76 h   N2     1  2.5  h   O2

LHVC 2 H 2   hC 2 H 2 TR     2.5   hO 2 TR   3.76   hN 2  TR   

 2  hCO 2 TP   hH 2O TP     2.5  3.76  hN 2  TP      1  2.5   hO 2 TP 

LHVC 2 H 2  hC 2 H 2 TR   2  hCO 2  TP   hH 2 O TP   2.5  hO 2 TP  

    2.5  3.76  hN 2 TP   2.5  hO 2 TP   2.5  hO 2 TR   2.5  3.76  hN 2 TR  

In the last equation, all the enthalpy differences can be derived from the table, and the only unknown is the
excess air:

LHVC 2 H 2  hC 2 H 2  2.5  hO 2 TP   2  hCO 2 TP   hH 2O TP 


2.5  3.76  hN 2 TP   2.5  hO 2 TP   2.5  hO 2 TR   2.5  3.76  hN 2 TR 

Author E. Colombo
Pag.2 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

1256460  3101  2.5  68771  2 106640  86162

  1.478
2.5  3.76  65205  2.5  68771  2.5 1622  2.5  3.76 1600

An increase in temperature of reactants results in an increase in the enthalpies of them: if the adiabatic flame
temperature is kept constant, the excess air will decrease and the composition of the products will change.
A change in pressure do not affect the combustion process and the composition of the products.

As a reminder, recalling the definition of Lower Heating Value for a stoichiometric combustion reaction in air:

C2 H 2  2.5  O2  3.76 N 2   2CO2  H 2 O  2.5  3.76 N 2

  
LHVC 2 H 2  h f ,C 2 H 2  2.5  O 2 h f ,O 2  N 2 h f , N 2   CO 2 h f ,CO 2  H 2O h f , H 2O  2.5  N 2 h f , N 2 
LHV   h
R
i f ,i   j h f , j 
P
LHVC 2 H 2  h f ,C 2 H 2  CO 2 h f ,CO 2  H 2O h f , H 2O
LHVC 2 H 2  h f ,C 2 H 2  2  h f ,CO 2  1  h f , H 2O

b. Write the exergy balance ((per kmol of C2H2) for the combustion process, identifying all the
necessary hypothesis and simplify it accordingly. Derive the analytical formulation for the rational
exergy efficiency and then calculate it. Are these values functions of the reactants’ temperature
and pressure? Neglect the chemical exergy of products of combustion.

Assumptions for the application of the exergy balance:

- The combustion chamber is adiabatic and rigid;
- Steady state operation is assumed throughout;
- The balance is written per unit of kmol of acetylene;

dEx A  A    m A  ex   Ex
  Ex
 A   Ex
W ,j Q ,k

des  exR TR , p0   exP TP , p0   exD , comb  0
dt j k i
i

exR TR , p0    exch  ex ph TR , p0      2.5   ex ph ,O 2 TR , p0   3.76  ex ph ,N 2 TR , p0    1271821.5 kJ kmolC 2 H 2
C 2H 2

exP TP , p0    P  i ex ph,i TP , p0    874781.1 kJ kmolC 2 H 2

exP
exD ,comb  397040.4 kJ kmolC 2 H 2  ex, r   0.6878
exR

Differently from the previous question, both temperature and pressure of reactants affects values of exergy
destruction and exergy efficiency, since physical exergy of ideal gases is a function of both temperature and
pressure.
Specifically, exergy destructions increase if temperature and pressure increase.

c. Write the exergy balance to the heat exchanger, evaluating the exergy destructions (per kmol of
C2H2) and the functional exergy efficiency. Neglect the chemical exergy of products of combustion;

Before applying exergy balance, it is required to derive the ratio between the mass flow rate of water and the
molar flow rate of flue gases. The heat released per molar unit of fuel is equal to:

hfg  2250K  673K , p0    i  h  2250K   h  673K   1073257 kJ kmolC 2 H 2

i
P

The heat absorbed by a mass unit of water in the heat exchanger is equal to:

hw  873K  323K , pw   hw,OUT  hw,IN  3491.9 kJ kg w

Author E. Colombo
Pag.3 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Therefore by applying the energy balance

N  hfg  2250K  673K , p0   M hw  873K  323K , pw 

M
We do not need to calculate both M and N since, by defining r  we get
N

hfg  2250K  673K , p0 

r  307.4kgw kmolC 2 H 2
hw  873K  323K , pw 

Assumptions for the application of the exergy balance:

- The heat exchanger is adiabatic and rigid;
- Steady state operation is assumed throughout;
- The balance is written per unit of kmol of acetylene;

N  ex fg  2250 K  673 K, p0   M  exw  873K  323 K, pw   N  exD ,HE  0

ex fg  2250 K  673 K, p0   r  exw  873K  323 K, pw   exD ,HE  0

ex fg  2250 K  673K, p0    i  ex  2250 K , p0   ex  673K , p0   i  833072.5 kJ kmolC 2 H 2

P

exw  873 K  323 K, pw    hw ,OUT  hw,IN  T0  sw,OUT  sw ,IN   kJ kg w  1211.5 kJ kg w

exw  r  372352.7 kJ kmolC 2 H 2

exD ,HE  460719.7 kJ kmolC 2 H 2

exP r  exw  873K  323K, pw 
ex ,f    0.4470
exF ex fg  2250 K  673 K, p0 

Evaluate the mass flow rate of acetylene required to produce 180 kg/h of superheated steam.

1 1 kg 1 h 1 kmolC 2 H 2 kgC 2 H 2 kg
m C 2H 2  m w    MWC 2 H 2  180 w    26  0.0042 C 2 H 2
3600 r h 3600 s 307 kgw kmolC 2H 2 s

Author E. Colombo
Pag.4 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Exercise 2. (7pt)
Consider the power plant depicted in the figure with a boiler, a turbine and a condenser. The Boiler is fed by
fuel and air and it produces steam which enter in the turbine. The turbine produces power for the grid and
gives power to the pump. The condenser condenses the steam by using a second stream of cooling water.
The pump close the cycle and allow the water to enter the boiler again.
Flue gases water (flow number 6) are released to the environment without any added cost.
Thermodynamic data, Physical data and Economic data are given in the below tables
Flue gas
ĖxFG = 150 kW
T P h s
# ⁰C bar kJ/kg kJ/kgK

1
1 520 100 3426.37 6.66
Boiler
Fuel,Air 2 0.9 0.08 2335.97 7.46
ĖxF/A=14700 kW
3 0 0.08 173.84 0.59
4 43 100 188.83 0.61
4
5 20 - 83.91 0.30
Ẇpump Turbine Ẇnet 6 35 - 146.63 0.51
Pump

3
Fuel,Air mass flow rate [kg/s] 1
2 Fuel,Air Exergy rate [kW] 14700
Flue gas Exergy rate [kW] 150
Condenser Net Power [Kw] 4208
Cooling water 5 6
T_0 [⁰C] 20
P_0 [atm] 1

unit cost of Fuel,Air (cF/A)[€/GJ] 1

Z_boiler (Investment, O&M) [€/s] 0.25
Z_turbine (Investment, O&M) [€/s] 0.5
Z_condenser (Investment, O&M) [€/s] 0.15
Z_pump (Investment, O&M) [€/s] 0.05

It is requested to:
a. (1pt) Calculate the mass flow rate of steam and cooling water.
b. (1pt) Write the exergy balance for each component of the plant and for the whole system, and compute
analytically, the exergy destruction rate, and fraction of exergy destruction, the rational exergy
efficiency and the functional exergy efficiency (and make comment on their differences)
c. (3pt) Write the Thermoeconomic system of equations for each component and by making the proper
assumption for auxiliary equations, derive the analytical cost structure for the product of each
components. Then derive the analytical expression for the relative cost difference and the
exergoeconomic factor for all the components.
d. (3 pt) Now you can calculate the specific cost of the product for each component, the relative cost
difference and the exergoeconomic factors making some comments on the obtained results.

Author E. Colombo
Pag.5 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Exercise 2. (Solution)

a. Calculate the mass flow rate of steam and cooling water.

These can be derived by applying energy balance to turbine and condenser.

W net  m st  ( h1  h2 )  ( h4  h3 ) 

m st  3.91 kg/s

m st (h2  h3 )  m cw (h6  h5 )

m cw  134.89 kg/s

b. Write the exergy balance for each component of the plant and for the whole system, and compute
analytically, the exergy destruction rate, and fraction of exergy destruction, the rational exergy
efficiency and the functional exergy efficiency (and make comment on their differences)

Boiler
   Ex
Ex    Ex
Ex 
 ExF / A  Ex4  Ex1  ExFG  ExD ,boiler  ex , r ,boiler  
    1 FG
 0.4015  ex , f ,boiler  1 4
 0.3892
Ex  
Ex 
Ex
 F/A 4 F/A
    
 ExD ,boiler  ExF / A  ( Ex4  Ex1 )  ExFG

 ExD ,boiler  ExF / A  m st  (h4  h1 )  T0 ( s4  s1 )   ExFG  8829.3kW
 


Turbine
   W  W
Ex Wnet
pump  ExD , turbine   ex , r , turbine   0.8413  ex , f ,turbine 
  Ex
 Ex   W  W  2 net pump
 0.8119
1 2 net 
Ex   Ex
Ex 
 1 1 2
   Ex  )  W  W
 ExD ,turbine  ( Ex 1 2 net pump

 ExD ,turbine  m st  ( h1  h2 )  T0 ( s1  s2 )   Wnet  m st ( h4  h3 )  916.44kW




Condenser
   Ex
Ex  
Ex
 Ex2  Ex5  Ex3  Ex6  ExD , condenser  ex , r , condenser  
    3 6
 0.376  ex , f , condenser  3  0.02
Ex2  Ex  
Ex
 5 2
    
 ExD ,condenser  ( Ex2  Ex3 )  ( Ex5  Ex6 )

 ExD ,condenser  m st  (h2  h3 )  T0 ( s2  s3 )   m cw  (h5  h6 )  T0 ( s5  s6 )   368.58kW


Pump:
 
Ex   Ex
Ex 
 Ex3  Wpump  Ex4  ExD , pump  ex , r , pump    0.7472  ex , f , pump  4
   4 3
 0.6940
Ex  W  W 
 3 pump pump
   Ex  )  W
 ExD , pump  ( Ex3 4 pump

 ExD , pump  mst  (h3  h4 )  T0 ( s3  s4 )  m st (h4  h3 )  17.95kW




Whole plant

Author E. Colombo
Pag.6 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

    W
Ex FG  Ex6  Wnet
 ExF / A  Ex5  ExFG  Ex6  Wnet  ExD , plant  ex , r , plant 
      0.3107  ex , f , plant  net  0.2863
  
 Ex F / A  Ex5 Ex F/A
     
 ExD , plant  ExF / A  ( Ex5  Ex6 )  ExFG  Wnet

 ExD , plant  ExF / A  m cw  (h5  h6 )  T0 ( s5  s6 )   ExFG  Wnet  10132.27 kW
  


Component ηex,r ηex,f ExD yD

Boiler 40.15 38.92 8829.30 0.87
Turbine 84.13 81.19 916.44 0.09
Condenser 37.60 36.27*** 368.58 0.04
Pump 74.72 69.40 17.95 0.00
Plant 31.07 0.29 10132.27 1

*** not sure of the definition of functional efficiency for a condenser..

c. Write the Thermoeconomic system of equations for each component and by making the
proper assumption for auxiliary equations, derive the analytical cost structure for the product
of each components. Then derive the analytical expression for the relative cost difference
and the exergoeconomic factor for all the components.

For each component it is required to derive the analytical cost structure for the product ;

Boiler:
 ExF / A  Ex   Ex   Ex  
4 1 FG  ExD , boiler

C F / A  C 4  Z boiler  C1  C FG
 
C  c  Ex


cF / A  Ex    
F / A  c4  Ex4  Z boiler  c  Ex1  cFG  ExFG

  c Ex
c4 Ex 
 cin, B  4 F/A F/A

Ex 
 Ex
F/A 4
   Z
 c Ex 
c Ex boiler  cFG  ExFG
c  F/A F/A 4 4

Ex1


 Ex 
 Ex  Z boiler
c  c in , B  c in, B   FG D , boiler
  
 
Ex (
 1  Ex1

c  c in, B 
 Ex 
 Ex  Z boiler
rboiler    FG D , boiler
 
  
c in , B  Ex 1  c in , B  Ex1

Z  c in , B  Ex

FG  ExD , boiler 
 Z 
fturbine  boiler   boiler 
Ex  
Ex Ex 
1
 1 1


Author E. Colombo
Pag.7 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Turbine

  Ex
 Ex   W  W 
1 2 net pump  ExD , turbine

C1  Zturbine  C 2  C elec
 
C  c  Ex

  Z
c  Ex   
1 turbine  c  Ex2  celec  Wnet  celec  W pump

c  Ex1
   Z
  Ex
2 turbine
 celec 

W W 
net pump

 Ex
D , turbine
 Zturbine
celec  c  c  
 
 W  W 
 net pump  Wnet  Wpump

celec  c  Ex
D ,turbine
 Zturbine
rturbine    
 c Wnet  W pump 
c  W  W  
 net pump

Zturbine  c  Ex
 Zturbine 
f turbine   D ,turbine
 
Wnet  W pump   Wnet  W pump Wnet  W pump  
 

Condenser:

  Ex
 Ex   Ex   Ex  Ex 
2 5 3 6 D , condenser

    
C2  C5  Z condenser  C3  C6
 
C  c  Ex

0
  c  Ex
c  Ex   Z  
2 5 5 condenser  c  Ex3  c6  Ex6

  Z
cEx
 c3  2 condenser

Ex3

 
Ex D , condenser  Ex6 Z
c3  c  c  condenser

Ex 
Ex
3 3

 
c3  c Ex D , condenser  Ex6 Z
rcondenser    condenser
c 
Ex 
c  Ex
3 3

Z condenser  c   Ex

D , condenser  Ex6 
 Z 
f condenser    condenser 

Ex  
Ex 
Ex 
3
 3 3


Pump:

Author E. Colombo
Pag.8 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

  W
 Ex  
3 pump  Ex4  ExD , pump

C3  C elec  Z pump  C 4
 
C  c  Ex

  c  W
c3  Ex  
3 elec pump  Z pump  c4  Ex4

  c W
c3 Ex3 elec pump
 c in , pump 
  W
Ex 3 pump


Ex Z pump
D , pump
c4  cin, pump  c in , pump 

Ex 
Ex
4 4

c4  c in , pump 
Ex Z pump
D , pump
rpump   
c in , pump 
Ex 
c in , pump  Ex
4 4

Z pump  
Ex D , pump Z 
f pump   c in , pump   pump 

Ex Ex4 
Ex
4  4 

d. Now you can calculate the specific cost of the product for each component, the relative cost
difference and the exergoeconomic factors making some comments on the obtained results.

We can write the 4 exergy cost balances for the 4 components:


cF / A  Ex    
F / A  c4  Ex4  Z boiler  c1  Ex1  cFG  ExFG
   Z   
c1  Ex 1 turbine  c2  Ex2  cnet  Wnet  c pump  W pump
     
c2  Ex2  c5  Ex5  Z condenser  c3  Ex3  c6  Ex6
c  Ex c   
 3 3 pump  W pump  Z pump  c4  Ex4

Exergy cost balance composed by 4 equation and 10 unknowns. Therefore, in order to close the system of
equations, (n-m) numbers of auxiliary relations are required:
n: Number of exergy flows = 10
m: number of components = 4
n-m = 10 - 4 = 6
1) cFG  0
2) c
 F / A  given
3) cnet  c pump  celec.
Auxiliary relations 
4) c5  0
5) c  0
 6

6) c1  c2  c

Now substituting auxiliary relations in the economic cost balance:

Author E. Colombo
Pag.9 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano


cF / A  Ex   
F / A  c4  Ex4  Z boiler  c  Ex1
 
c  Ex1  Z turbine  c  Ex
  c  (W  W
2 elec . net pump )
   
c  Ex2  Z condenser  c3  Ex3
c  Ex  c  W  
 3 3 elec . pump  Z pump  c4  Ex4

we have 4 equations and 4 unknowns (c,c4, c3, and celec.).

By coupling the third and the fourth equation we get

  Z
c  Ex   
2 condenser  celec.  W pump  Z pump  c4  Ex4

By inserting this last equation into the first equation in the system we get


cF / A  Ex      
F / A  c  Ex2  Z condenser  celec.  W pump  Z pump  Z boiler  c  Ex1

By using the second equation


cF / A  Ex       
F / A  Z condenser  celec.  W pump  Z pump  Z boiler  Z turbine  celec.  (Wnet  W pump )

celec.Wnet  cF / A  Ex
    
F / A  Z pump  Z boiler  Z condenser  Z turbine


cF / A  Ex    
F / A  Z pump  Z boiler  Z condenser  Z turbine
celec. 
W net

Please note that This equation is also coherent with the TE system written for the whole aggregate plants
and would also lead to


Ex  
DTOT  ExFG  Ex6
Z pump  Zboiler  Z condenser  Z turbine
celec.  cF / A  cF / A 
Wnet W net

e. Compute the values making some comments on the obtained results

celec. [€/kWh] 0.82531

c [€/kWh] 0.33211
c3 [€/kWh] 59.70660
c4 [€/kWh] 18.18325

Cost structure for each component:

Cost of fuel Cost of Cost of

Specific for the given destruction Investment
cost of the component and (d)
product (a) (b) Losess (c)
celec. [€/kWh] TOT 0.82531 0.0036 0.00898 0.81274
celec. [€/kWh] 0.82531 0.33211 0.07133 0.42187
c [€/kWh] 0.33211 0.06897 0.10726 0.15588
c3 [€/kWh] 59,70660 0.33211 15.57724 43.79726
c4 [€/kWh] 18.18325 11.05050 3.73956 3.39319

Author E. Colombo
Pag.10 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Relative cost Exergoeconomic factor

difference [(a)- (d)/[(c)+(d)]
(b)]/(b)
Or
[(c)+(d)]/(b)
TOT 228,2538 0,98908
Boiler 3,81533 0,59238
Turbine 1.48509 0.85537
Condenser 178.78182 0.73764
Pump 0.64547 0.47572

Author E. Colombo
Pag.11 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Exercise 3. (5pt)
Consider the energy statistics of Canada for 2015 in the tables below (IEA). The right end side table tis the
overall energy balance , while the left end side is the electricity balance

Please calculate the

a. (1pt) The share of renewable energy in both the primary mix and in the electricity production mix
b. (2 pt) primary energy devoted to electricity production and the electric penetration.
c. (2 pt) The average efficiency of the electric system in Canada

Author E. Colombo
Pag.12 of 13
Date 26/06/2018
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano

Exercise 3. Solution
a. (1pt) The share of renewable energy in both the primary mix and in the electricity production mix

Renewable Primary Energy

Share in the primary mix   0.18
TPES

Share in the electricity production mix

question 1 prod [GWh] share

coal 65977 0.10
oil 8148 0.01
gas 67181 0.10
biofuel 12511 0.02
waste 265 0.00
nuclear 101423 0.15
hydro 380717 0.57
geothermal 0 0.00
solar pv 2895 0.00
solar thermal 0 0.00
wind 26446 0.04
tide 13 0.00
other sources 5275 0.01

total fossil fuels 242729 0.36

total RES 428122 0.64
total 670851 1.00

Share of renewable in the energy production mix = 0.638

b. (2 pt) primary energy devoted to electricity production and the electric penetration

Primary energy devoted to electricity production: 96468 ktoe

TPES = 270192 ktoe

Electric penetration: the ratio between the primary energy devoted to electric energy production and the TPES
 EP ,i
EP  i  0.357
TPES

c. (2 pt) The average efficiency of the electric system in Canada

Average efficiency of the electric system: the ration between the electricity production in ktoe and the primary
energy devoted to electricity in ktoe.
Average efficiency = 0.6

Author E. Colombo
Pag.13 of 13
Date 26/06/2018