R.ALBU, Natural/Logical/Semantic Categories vs.

Grammatical Categories: (1) Reference and Countability; Number

REFERENCE AND COUNTABILITY; NUMBER

Reference (criterion: structure of object referred to):

(a) divided - unique
- repeatable
(b) undivided
(a) 'Divided' and (b) 'undivided' are Weinreich's terms (Uriel Weinreich, 1966, The semantic structure of language, in J. Greenberg, ed.,
1966, Universals of Language, the MIT Press, p. 161)
- (a) = reference to objects which form entities in space or in time and
- (b) = reference to amorphous, shapeless objects.
(a) n. table, v. hit;
(b) n. oil, v. know
This distinction can also be expressed in other terms as a distinction between bounded and unbounded objects, which concerns their
limits in space or in time; thus table is bounded, and oil is not bounded.

Philosphers' approach: -bounded vs. continuous entities in the dimension of space and/or time--> sortal vs. non-sortal terms
Mereological logic (the logic of the part-whole relation) - the relation between the whole and its parts is defined in two properties:
-subdivisibility (versus anti-subdivisibility)
-additivity (versus anti-additivity)

MASS NOUNS/COUNT NOUNS

MASS NOUNS Semantically, mass nouns have undivided reference; instead they have the properties called subdivisibility and
additivity.
The syntactic characteristic of mass terms reflect their semantic ones:
- they have mass quantifiers; they cannot take the indefinite article a/an or the cardinals;
- they trigger singular agreement with the verb and the singular anaphoric pronoun it;
- they do not have plural form;
- in point of their morphological structure, morphologically complex nouns that contain in their structure the suffixes -ware, -ness, -ity,
-hood are, generally, mass nouns.

COUNT NOUNS At the semantic level, they are considered to be sortal terms. They designate entities that are bounded in space, i.e.
they are characterised by a certain special shape. No division of a sortal term in the spatial area can yield the entity as a whole; instead
there will be only parts of it.
Countable nouns like boy, rabbit, flower, house are syntactically distinguished by the following criteria:
- they take count quantifiers many, few, each, every and they are individuated by the definite article a/an; in addition they co-occur with
cardinal numerals
- besides having a plural form, countable nouns used in the plural trigger plural agreement with the verb and plural anaphoric pronouns

But many nouns and noun phrases cut across the mass-count distinction. Here is Jespersen's list:
an alloy of copper and tin a tin of sardines
a little more cheese two big cheeses
crust or crumb many small crumbs
a table made of oak a tall oak
There is no ice on the pond. Have you had an ice?
the relation of matter and space serious matters were discussed.
a parcfel in brown paper state papers
a good deal of noise various noises
much talk confidential talks
some sorrow (joy, pleasure) some sorrows (joys, pleasures)
there is little or no danger all these dangers are past
little talent few talents
much experience many experiences
I have no time now a delightful time
(mass nouns - signalled by the (count nouns - have the plural marker
presence of mass quantifiers or and other count characteristics such as
singular agreement with the verb, count quantifiers, the indefinite article,
but absence of indefinite article) plural agreement with the verb)
R.ALBU, Natural/Logical/Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: (1) Reference and Countability; Number

NUMBER

The category of number is the grammatical expression of a long generalizing and conceptualizing
process. It is connected with the logical category of plurality and with the notion of countability, which
is inherent in the lexical structure of all human language, that is, it is a semantic universal category.

NOTE: Inherent categories are an intrinsic part of the semantic information associated with a word. (Other
categories are triggered in the whole context of a sentence and are called contextual categories.)

COUNTABILITY
 uncountable nouns
 countable and uncountable nouns (collective)
 countable nouns

NOTE: There is no obvious logical reason for the assignment of certain English nouns to the count or mass noun
class. Compare with Romanian and other languages.
I dislike homework on Sundays.
The workmen are making slow progress.
Think also about: applause, courage, research, information, advice, nonsense, evidence...
What do you think weather is, count or mass? Give reasons.
What are the typical partitives of the following mass nouns: bread, chalk, chocolate, coal, furniture, grass, land,
paper, rice, rubbish, sugar, news, evidence, fever, passion, research? (See QUIRK, pp.131-2)

NUMBER Nouns:
singular invariables
-invariables
plural invariables
regular plurals
-variables (almost regular plurals)
irregular plurals
(For a detailed classification see QUIRK, the table on p.166)

CONCORD (a syntactic problem)

General definition: the relationship between two grammatical elements such that if one of them contains a
particular feature (eg plurality) then the other also has to have that feature
Types of concord:
- Subject-Verb Concord -grammatical
-notional
-proximity principle (attraction)
- Subject-Complemet Concord
- Subject-Object Concord
Also: - Pronoun Concord (see QUIRK pp.366-371)
(Areas of difficulty: (a) collective noun head (b) coordination (c) an indefinite expression of amount - see details in
QUIRK, pp.360-6) + The problem of selection restrictions - see QUIRK pp. 371-2

Individual task (for the seminar): present Concord in English on the basis of QUIRK ET AL, A Grammar of
Contemporary English (CUP, 1972) pp. 359-367, 367-372

GRADABILITY [C] and [U] nouns are subject to gradability in two respects: quality and quantity.
 Quality -kind of, sort of.
 Quantity - "partitives" (with mass nouns): general partitive, typical partitives, measures.

Home assignment: Make your own list of typical partitives

QUIRK 1972:166 – Number classes:

R.ALBU, Natural/Logical/Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: (1) Reference and Countability; Number

NUMBER CLASSES
A. INVARIABLE

singular invariables mass nouns: concrete gold

mass noun: abstract music
proper nouns Henry
some nouns ending in -s news
abstract adjectival heads the beautiful

plural invariables summation plurals scissors

other pluralia tantum in -s thanks
some proper nouns the Netherlands
unmarked plural nouns cattle
personal adjectival heads the rich

B. VARIABLE

regular plurals +/iz/ horse horses

+/z/ boy boys
+/s/ cat cats

irregular plurals
VOICING /T/-->/D/+/z/ bath baths
/f/-->/v/+/z/ calf calves
/s/-->/z/+/iz/ house houses

MUTATION foot feet

EN PLURAL ox oxen

ZERO sheep sheep

Chinese Chinese
series series

FOREIGN -us--> -i radius radii

-ora corpus corpora
-era genus genera
-a--> -ae larva larvae
-um--> -a stratum strata
-ex
--> -ices matrix matrices
-ix
-is--> -es thesis theses
-on--> -a criterion criteria
-eau--> -eaux tableau tableaux
zero corps corps
(spelling only)
-o--> -i tempo tempi
base +-im cherub cherubim