See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/12350221

Transportation of ostriches - A review

Article  in  The Veterinary record · December 1999

DOI: 10.1136/vr.145.25.725 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

22 1,352

2 authors:

Stephen Wotton Leisha Hewitt

University of Bristol Livestock welfare
93 PUBLICATIONS   1,558 CITATIONS    4 PUBLICATIONS   40 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Study to investigate non-penetrating percussive blow to the head as a humane killing method for piglets, kids and lambs up to 5 kg. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Stephen Wotton on 27 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
Transportation of ostriches - a review
S. B. WOTTON, L. HEWITT
The transport of farm animals has been the subject of much research in recent years; however, the
information available on ostrich transportation is limited. This paper draws together past and recent
scientific literature and practical experience. The current state of knowledge is summarised and areas
which require further research are identified.
THE expansion of the ostrich industry in the UK has led to the
development of abattoirs which can process ostriches, and a
need for humane methods of transporting them from the
farm to the abattoir. The increased need to transport the birds
over substantial distances has created problems for the indus-
try which have not been experienced by hauliers of other live-
stock, and there has been little research on the effects of
transport systems on the welfare of ostriches.
Ostriches are commonly transported either as day-old
chicks, three-month-old chicks, three- to six-month-old
chicks, yearlings ( 12 to 14 months old at slaughter weight), as
two year olds, or as two to two-and-a-half year olds (at point
of lay and sexual maturity). Each of these different age groups
has different requirements, and specialised transport systems
are therefore required for each group.
The difficulties encountered while ostriches are being
transported have been resolved in the Republic of South
Africa by carrying farm workers in the lorry compartments
with the birds, to protect their welfare during the journey.
This type of management is not possible in the UK and it is
therefore necessary to determine the optimum conditions for
the transport of ostriches to ensure the welfare of the birds.
The handling and transportation of ostriches in the UK iS
governed by the Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997
(MAFF 1998). Its general provisions make it an offence to
transport any animal in a manner which is likely to cause it
injury or unnecessary suffering. The regulations also prohibit
the transportation of ill, injured, infirm, fatigued or pregnant
animals (those likely to give birth or within 48 hours of giv-
ing birth). Ostrich farming is regulated by the Dangerous
Wild Animals Act 1976 (MAFF 1977), which has implications
for transporting the birds because it prescribes that they can
only be moved from the premises with the permission of the
local authority or as specified in the licence. Ostriches con-
trolled by the Convention of the International Transport of
Endangered Species (CITES) must be transported in accor-
dance with the CITES guidelines for the transport and ship-
ment of live animals (Harris 1996).
The following documents may be required when trans-
porting ostriches, depending on the nature of the journey
(Harris 1996): customs documents: T Form, certificate of ori-
gin, CITES, commercial movement record (CMR), EUR Form,
and export/transit/import peimits. In addition, a ferry book-
ing (if necessary), invoice, a route plan, lairage booking (if
required), a loading list, a veterinary health certificate, a vet-
erinary welfare certificate, and a weight ticket may be
required.
Veterinary Record (1999) There are, however, very few recommendations that relate
145, 725-731 solely to the transportation of ostriches and most of them are
included in on-farm Codes of Practice. Two such codes have
S. B. Wotton, HNC, been produced by the National Council of Societies for the
L. Hewitt, BSc, MSc, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) (NSPCA 1996) and
Division of Food Animal the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to animals
Science, School of (RSPCA)(RSPCA 1995). The code drawn up by the NSPCA sets
Veterinary Science, out clear guidelines for the transport of ostriches. The objec-
University of Bristol, tives of the code of practice are first, to ensure that the
Langford, Bristol ostriches are handled humanely at all times, secondly, to
BS40 7DU introduce reasonable operating standards by producers, spec-
The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999
PAPERS & ARTICLES
ulators, transport contractors, abattoirs and the law enforcers,
and thirdly, to aim for positive measures to prevent cruelty
and the financial losses associated with injuries caused by
poor handling and poor conditions of transport.
BEHAVIOUR AND HANDLING
Ostriches have an instinctive flight response, and they are
therefore easier to handle as a group than as individuals. The
birds remain calmer and easier to handle if they are kept in
their breeding groups while they are being handled and
loaded (Reiner and others 1996). Young ostriches have a par-
ticularly strong flocking instinct, which can result in flocks of
young birds running into wire fences if they are alarmed (S.
Birch, personal communication). As they grow, this flocking
instinct diminishes, and adult birds tend to react individually
when alarmed. However, the flocking instinct of ostriches can
be useful when they are being loaded or unloaded, or are
required to go through raceways, because the birds will fol-
low each other once a lead bird has been enticed forward.
An understanding of the flight zone of the ostrich and its
eyesight has implications for the type of handling procedure
that can be used. The binocular field of an ostrich is much
narrower than that of other birds. Martin and Katzir (1996)
reported that it extends to a maximum of 200 at the height
of the bill. The ostrich also has an extremely large blind spot
above, and to the rear of its head, which prevents it from view-
ing the sun directly when it is in its natural habitat.
Manual restraint of ostriches can be dangerous to both the
animal and the handler because the birds can deliver a pow-
erful forward kick. Chicks up to two months of age can be
picked up by supporting the chest with one hand and by plac-
ing the other hand on the back, leaving the legs to dangle free
(Sales and Smith 1995). Young birds up to four to eight
months of age can be guided by one person by grasping the
tail in one hand and a wing with the other, taking care not to
lift the bird by the wing. Alternatively, one person can
manoeuvre the bird by pressing on its rump from behind,
while a second person holds its neck and/or beak and directs
it from the front (Sales and Smith 1995). When possible,
ostriches should be enticed forward from the front, relying on
their inquisitiveness to encourage them into position, rather
than attempting to drive them from the rear. The hand and
arm, held up to mimic the head and neck of an ostrich,
together with calling the birds forward, can help to move
them in the required direction.
All movements should be made quietly because once the
birds become agitated, the whole procedure becomes stress-
ful for both the birds and the stockmen, and makes loading
or unloading extremely difficult.
Ostriches should be trained and conditioned to being han-
dled from an early age. Regular contact between birds and
their stockmen helps to reduce aggression (Reiner and others
1996).
Reiner and others (1996) surveyed conditions on a num-
ber of ostrich farms in Germany, and observed the birds'
behaviour in different situations. It was found that over 5 per
725
 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
PAPERS & ARTICLES

cent of ostriches were easily startled by the presence of peo- 1993). However, if ostriches are driven too hard, or if they
ple and would therefore be potentially difficult to handle. struggle excessively while being restrained or transported,
However, it was also found that the birds which were easily they can shown similar signs. Affected birds are often unable
startled had had less contact with the stockman, and found to stand or walk without difficulty.
human contact stressful. The more an ostrich is handled from The mortality of affected birds is high, and they may die
an early age, the easier it becomes to handle as it matures suddenly either within a few hours or up to two weeks after
(Church 1994). the stressful episode. Ostriches can be treated prophylactically
with anti-inflammatory drugs, such as Pexone or Tomanol
(Intervet), but the success rate is extremely low. The condi-
PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS tion may be prevented in some cases by injecting the birds
with vitamin E and selenium before a journey or other stress-
Ostriches are extemely prone to stress, particularly while they ful procedure (Foggin 1992).
are being transported. They show physical signs of stress by
fluffing out their wings, hyperventilating and keeping their
beaks permanently open. Some researchers believe that birds MORTALITY AND CARCASE DAMAGE
which show signs of stress should either be left alone or
sprayed with water to cool them down (Hallam 1992). This is In addition to being undesirable from the point of view of ani-
contrary to reports from abattoirs in South Africa which sug- mal welfare, poor handling and poor transportation condi-
gest that spraying hot birds with cold water while they are in tions can adversely affect the quality of the carcase and the
lairage may result in the sudden death of some birds (G. prevalence of mortality. In birds over three months of age,
Botha, personal communication). While they are being trans- trauma has been found to be the greatest cause of mortality
ported, ostriches should not be isolated because this increases during journeys in the UK. Fractures occasionally occur, pri-
the incidence of signs of stress. If physical separation is nec- marily in the long bones of the legs and wings (Foggin 1992).
essary to protect individual birds, they should remain within Long bone fractures in the legs cannot successfully be splinted
sight of other birds (W. Bryden, personal communication). owing to the nature of the bone, the force exerted by the mus-
In the UK, studies of the physiological stresses of road cles and the inability to rest the limb after surgery (Shakespeare
transport have been carried out by Mitchell and others 1996), and birds with this type of injury should therefore be
(1996). Fifty ostriches were transported under optimum con- humanely destroyed. Current casualty slaughter methods for
ditions, in compliance with Codes of Practice and the Welfare ostriches include manual dislocation of the neck and a blow
of Animals During Transport Order 1992 (MAFF 1993), in a to the head with a metal bar or wooden stick. The second
commercial livestock transporter. They were transported in method is not permitted by current UK legislation, although
groups of 10 and the journey lasted four-and-a-half hours. it is reportedly applied in practice. Fractures and dislocation
There was an increase in plasma glucose concentration of the wings often result directly from incorrect handling and
which was suggested to be due to stress-induced mobilisation can therefore be avoided. If they do occur while birds are being
of glycogen reserves, associated with fatigue. A particular transported, they can be treated successfully by a veterinary
problem with the transportation of ostriches is the mainte- surgeon (Foggin 1992). Ostrich producers on the continent
nance of balance. Ostriches are bipedal, with two-toed feet overcome the problem of fractured/dislocated wings by tap-
and a high centre of gravity and, unless they are penned sep- ing them to the sides of the bird before the journey. However,
arately (or have sufficient room to sit down), they have to this method is not recommended because it may cause undue
remain standing throughout the journey. Mitchell and others stress to the bird and affect its ability to balance.
(1996) measured the plasma activities of the intracellular Carcase damage also occurs if there is insufficient space for
enzymes, creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase. all the birds to sit down. Recumbent birds are susceptible to
After being transported, a group of ostriches showed an trampling by the other birds, which results in feather loss, lac-
increase in the plasma activity of these intracellular enzymes. eration and possibly broken bones (British Domestic Ostrich
It was concluded that the increase was due to changes in the Association [BDOA], personal communication). Problems of
integrity of the muscle cell membrane as a result ofthe forces this type are not always solved by penning the birds individ-
applied to the standing birds and their postural instability ually. It has been observed that some birds will rub their tails
during the journey. In a similar way, cattle have been shown and rump on the back of the compartment and damage both
to remain standing (Tarrant and others 1992) and suffer the skin and the feathers (J. Godwyn, personal communica-
dehydration and fatigue while being transported by road; it tion).
was also shown that cattle can lose their balance during a Ostriches are extremely prone to lacerations especially of
journey, particularly when the lorry brakes, changes gear or the neck and lower leg. A bird may cut its own neck and head
goes round corners. if it tries to kick forward while its head is being held down to
The bipedal ostrich is presumably less well equipped to restrain it (Foggin 1992). In South Africa, birds arriving in
cope with such circumstances than cattle. Because of this pre- lairage with open wounds are commonly returned to the farm
sumption, and because only small numbers ofbirds currently for the wounds to heal, and abattoir operatives are repeatedly
need to be transported, it is the practice in the UK to transport encouraged to handle birds with extreme care to prevent
birds either individually or in small groups in horseboxes. trauma within the abattoir (G. Botha, personal communica-
Recent UK practice has shown that birds can be transported tion). The welfare of the ostrich is economically important
in groups very successfully, if they have enough space to sit because of the high value of the skin (about 70 per cent of
down comfortably. There is anecdotal evidence that ostriches total carcase value in South Africa), and any damage to the
which sit down throughout a journey are less stressed than skin results in downgrading of the hide. There is a strong
birds that remain standing. financial inducement to maintain the birds' welfare (Mellett
1995). In the EU the value of the skin is less, about 50 per cent
Capture myopathy of total carcase value, and skins are exported 'green' from the
Capture myopathy, or exertional rhabdomyolysis, is a condi- UK to South Africa for tanning. Maintaining the birds' welfare
tion that involves the breakdown of muscle tissue as a result may therefore require a more positive approach. It has been
of exertion. It is often followed bybrain damage, paralysis and observed by Hallam (1992) that ostriches bruise easily; it is
death. The condition can occur in animals which are hunted therefore important that they are handled with extreme care
by a pack of hounds (United States Department of Agriculture and the use of sticks is discouraged. In the UK, birds arriving

726 The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999

 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
at the abattoir with evidence of bruising will be downgraded
(BDOA, personal communication).
From 10 to 12 months of age, ostriches are reasonably
resistant to extremes of temperature, humidity and wetness.
Unlike many birds, they appear comfortable in low temper-
atures, and can withstand high temperatures, provided there
is adequate ventilation (W. Bryden, personal communica-
tion). High temperatures combined with inadequate venti-
lation can greatly increase the incidence of mortality (BDOA,
personal communication). However, if the environmental
temperature is controlled, the incidence of birds 'dead on
arrival' at the abattoir is much lower than with other livestock
(E. Harper, W. Ashcroft, personal communication).
PREPARATIONS BEFORE DISPATCH
The Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997 (MAFF 1997)
requires that any haulier who transports vertebrate animals
(including ostriches) on a journey of over 50 km shall ensure
that the persons to whom the animals are entrusted include
at least one person who has had either specific training, or
equivalent practical experience which qualifies that person to
handle and transport the animals. It is therefore essential that
hauliers who are employed to transport ostriches are either
trained formally, or experienced and capable of handling such
large birds. One abattoir for ostriches provides an 'in-house'
training course for hauliers, which includes a large section on
handling the birds. However, the majority of hauliers and
handlers are trained by the ostrich producer before any jour-
ney (BDOA, personal communication), or the birds are trans-
ported by the farmer or owner themselves, who should be
experienced in their handling and behaviour.
Adult ostriches are very hardy birds and resistant to dis-
ease. The main problem associated with transporting them
is their susceptibility to trauma. Before any journey, the birds
should be inspected for any signs of injury, particular atten-
tion being paid to the legs and the neck. The eyes should be
free from discharge and the area under the tail should be clean
and dry. Birds which are injured or in poor health should not
be transported (MAFF 1997). The signs of the sick bird include:
a droopy head, poor appetite, listlessness and separation from
the flock, a peaked back, pinched abdomen, discoloured
urine, and the dung may either be absent, mucus-covered, or
soft, runny and pale (Foggin 1992).
For the birds to be fit to travel, they should not be diseased,
infirm, ill, injured or fatigued. Directives permit the transport
of animals that are 'slightly injured' but this is a judgement
that must be made by the farmer/owner, if necessary after
seeking veterinary advice. A driver has the absolute author-
ity to reject any animal which he or she considers unfit to
travel unless he or she is provided with an appropriate
veterinary certificate (Harris 1996).
Feeding and watering
There are different views about providing ostriches with food
and water before a journey. The BDOA (personal communi-
cation) consider that food and water should be withdrawn
completely, but the duration of the journey should be
restricted to less than six hours. Harris (1996) considered that
feed (but not water) should be withdrawn for the last four
hours before birds over 18 months of age made journeys
expected to last no more than 12 hours. In South Africa, it is
common practice to fast slaughter weight birds for 12 hours
before they are transported (G. Botha, personal communi-
cation). For journeys lasting more than 12 hours,W.Ashcroft
(personal communication) considers that birds should have
a light feed before departure and should be watered at inter-
vals of approximately four-and-a-half hours. It is evident that
this subject requires further scientific investigation.
The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999
PAPERS & ARTICLES
Ostriches have a scooping action when drinking, and it is
necessary that the water containers should have a surface area
of at least 12 square inches for them to drink freely. Buckets
must have their handles taped down to prevent the birds
putting their head through them (Harris 1996).
It has been observed that ostriches are very reluctant to eat
and drink at the rest intervals during long journeys. However,
it is widely held that this does not seriously affect the well-
being of the ostrich, because it can go without food and water
for two to three days as a result of its adaptation to its nat-
ural desert habitat. Dehydration in the ostrich can normally
be diagnosed if the urine is white (Yagil and others 1996).
However, a similar discolouration can be observed in laying
hens which are not dehydrated (Levy and others 1996), and it
should therefore not be used as a reliable indication of dehy-
dration.
Abnormal eating behaviour may be caused by stress and
can lead to impaction of the proventriculus. Ostriches do not
respond well to environmental change and may react by
overeating any available substrate, for example the bedding
used during a journey, which can cause serious impactions
and increase mortality. Stressed ostriches will pick up and eat
a variety of harmful materials, such as sticks, plastic bags, wire
and so on. (Foggin 1992). It is therefore vital that such mate-
rials are not available to the birds during a journey.
Loading and restraint
Several methods have been suggested for loading ostriches,
and ideas have changed over the years with increased practi-
cal experience. There is a need for the development of stan-
dardised techniques for loading them which would limit the
stress involved and minimise the incidence of injuries. It is
generally considered that, when catching the birds, they
should be herded into a restricted area before any attempt is
made to restrain them. Hallam (1992) recommended that
there should be a central holding pen (10 x 20 m). The birds
should be herded into a holding or squeeze pen and then
restrained individually. It has been found that it is possible
to drive a number of slaughter birds as a group into a vehicle
provided that the operation is carried out in a calm and con-
trolled manner. However, driving a group of mature birds,
particularly mature males, is virtually impossible and very
dangerous for the handlers; these birds are usually restrained
by using one or a combination of the methods described
below.
After being restrained, the birds are either led forwards up
the ramp, or more commonly reversed backwards. It has been
found that in the breeding season, mature males are easier to
handle if they are driven into a building and hooded indi-
vidually before being loaded into a vehicle (W. Ashcroft,
personal communication).
The following methods are commonly used to restrain
ostriches on rearing units, and they have all been observed by
the authors.
(1) Hooding. Placing a hood over the ostriches' heads dis-
orientates them and makes them easier to handle.
(2) Gripping the corner commissure of the mouth. The
head of the bird is caught and the handler grips each side of
its beak with one hand, while the other hand is placed at the
back of the head. It is essential that this procedure is per-
formed carefully, because if excessive force is exerted back-
wards on the head, the bird's neck can be dislocated and the
bird may be injured or even killed.
(3) Y-shaped fender, shield, and ostrich hook. These tools
have been designed to select an individual bird from a group
and move it to the transport vehicle. They can also be used
to protect the handler from particularly aggressive birds.
(4) Darkness. Like other birds, ostriches become placid in
subdued lighting. Vicious birds, for example adult males in
the breeding season, are relatively easy to handle if they are
727
 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
PAPERS & ARTICLES
caught at night. Darkness has a calming effect on birds and
usually encourages them to sit down. Transporting birds at
night or in the early hours of the morning has two major ben-
efits, first, the relative ease of loading birds that are not fully
active and, secondly, the lower night time temperatures which
help to reduce heat stress (BDOA, personal communication).
However, the inside of the transport vehicle should be well
lit (Grandin 1993) because, in general, animals tend to move
more readily from dimly lit areas to more brightly lit areas
(van Putten and Elshof 1978).
(5) Head shaking. Holding the bird's head tightly by the
beak and carefully, but vigorously, shaking it from side to side,
or moving the beak in circles for three to five seconds, dis-
orientes the ostrich and makes it easier to handle (G. Botha,
personal communication). This method should only be used
if a bird is particularly difficult to handle and is showing signs
of aggression towards the handler. Furthermore, it is not
effective with all birds.
The head of an adult bird can be pulled down to within 18
inches of the floor with the specially designed ostrich hook,
and a second handler behind the bird can prevent if from
moving backwards. The ostrich is unable to kick the handler
with its head held in this position. If the bird shows signs of
aggression it should be released, because it can damage its
head and neck with its claw if it attempts to kick while in this
position. The handler can grasp the bird's beak and hold it
shut with their free hand, and quickly pull a hood over the
bird's head. Manipulation of the tail feathers by the second
handler can position the bird ready for loading (S. B. Wotton,
J. Sparrey, unpublished observations). The Farm Animal
Welfare Council (FAwc) (1993) recommended that when
applying this method of handling, at least three people should
be present. The extra handler should restrain the bird by the
wings, taking great care not to dislocate them. It is thought
that the birds should not be hooded during the journey, and
the hoods used to facilitate loading should be removed once
the birds have been penned in the vehide. It has been found
that birds are less stressed by this procedure if all the hoods
are removed at the same time (BDOA, personal communica-
tion). Harris (1996) recommended that all birds should be
hooded during the loading procedure, but practical experi-
ence has shown that it is not usually necessary to sedate them.
Ostriches which have been kept together in a group should
not be separated and, when possible, birds from different
groups should not be mixed before or during a journey.
Young birds that have been reared together are sometimes
loaded by being driven on to the lorry. This method works
well, providing that it is carried out in a controlled manner
(E. Harper, W. Ashcroft, W. Bryden, personal communica-
tions).
Church (1994) observed ostriches in South Africa being
coerced with an electric goad, but reported that they did not
respond well. Electric goads are therefore not recommended
for handling ostriches.
Reiner and others (1996) found that the incidence of
aggressive behaviour in adult ostriches increased in propor-
tion to the number of people handling the birds. This obser-
vation indicates that ostriches should be loaded by a small
number of well trained personnel rather than by a large group
of handlers. It is likely that restricting the number of handlers
would promote their own safety as well as reducing the stress
imposed on the birds.
It has been shown that ostriches respond better to their
regular stockmen and they should therefore be involved with
the loading procedure whenever possible. Moving ostriches
into a building or a transport vehide may present some prob-
lems, particularly if the birds are unfamiliar with the proce-
dure or the surroundings.
Reiner and others (1996) found that stockmen sometimes
found if difficult to move ostriches into a shelter if they were
728
unfamiliar with the building, whereas the majority of the
birds (61.5 per cent) could be moved relatively easily into a
field shelter. Birds should be familiarised with a loading pro-
cedure before they are due to be transported, to decrease the
loading time and reduce stress. Ostriches are very inquisitive
and respond well to human contact, but birds of all ages can
become stressed by a change in routine (FAWC 1993). It has
been found that ostriches can be trained to respond to a dis-
tinctive call or inducement, such as a bucket of feed (FAWC
1993, S. B. Wotton, J. Sparrey, unpublished observations).
This type of handling practice should be encouraged
throughout the bird's life. The more frequently an ostrich is
handled from an early age, the easier it will be to handle as it
matures. When necessary, a feed bucket can be used to keep the
bird's attention and help to lead it into the transport vehide.
DESIGN OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES
Ramp design
It is advantageous if the birds are unloaded on to a horizon-
tal unloading bay. If ramps are to be used, the ramp angle
should be no greater than 330 (MAFF 1997). Little is known
about the ability of ostriches to negotiate ramps at different
angles and, therefore, horizontal loading bays, or ramps with
a very shallow incline, are recommended. Ramps must be
designed to prevent the bird from slipping and should be fit-
ted with floor battens and side railings of sufficient height to
prevent the birds from falling or jumping off. Steps at the top
and the bottom of the ramp should not exceed 21 cm in
height (Harris 1996).
The loading ramp should be at least 3 m wide to allow the
bird and three handlers sufficient space to negotiate it
(Hallam 1992). Ideally, the ramp should have solid sides to
prevent the birds from falling off and to prevent them from
getting their legs and heads trapped. In the absence of solid
sides, empty feed bags can be tied on to the poles of a barred
gate, giving the impression of a solid wall.
The vehicle should also be equipped with a woven mat
approximately 4 m2 in area, that can be placed on slippery
surfaces, or in areas where the birds have defecated. This will
allow the birds to disembark without slipping. If a group of
birds are to be driven on to the vehide, it is a good idea to cover
the ramp and the ground in front of it with bedding mater-
ial. This encourages the birds to walk up the ramp without too
much hesitation (W. Bryden, personal communication).
Compartment design
The compartments inside the vehicle should have no sharp
projections or edges on which the birds can injure themselves.
Sharp edges on dividing partitions have caused serious
injuries to birds (G. Taylor, personal communication). Spaces
in which birds can get their heads trapped are also a danger,
with uncovered ventilation slots and the gaps between the
sides of the vehicle and the partitions being particularly haz-
ardous (J. Godwyn, personal communication). There should
also be no gap between the ramp and the floor of the com-
partment, in which ostriches can get their toes trapped (BDOA,
personal communication). The floor of the compartment
should be made of a non-slip material, which should be cov-
ered with a thick layer of suitable bedding material (A.
Procter, personal communication).
Ventilation
The vehicles should prevent the birds from being exposed to
adverse weather conditions. Ostriches are generally not
adversely affected by low temperatures. It was observed on a
commercial ostrich farm, that birds will sit close together in
cold weather and face into the wind. During cold spells, birds
are less active and consume less water. However, only about
The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999
 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
20 per cent of birds will shelter during bad weather and the
majority will continue with their normal routine (Reiner and
others 1996). Ostriches are more severely affected by hot
weather, particularly when water is unavailable while they are
being transported. It is therefore essential that there is ade-
quate ventilation, both within the vehicle itself and in any
containers inside it. It is recommended that there should be
a large gap between the roof and the sides of the vehicle to
allow for good ventilation, but that it should be covered with
grills to prevent the birds getting their heads stuck in the slots;
their inquisitiveness leads the birds to stick their heads
through any openings.
Space requirements
Ostriches are usually transported in groups of between three
to eight. It has been observed that adult birds are best trans-
ported in groups of at most seven (Harris 1996). Most
ostriches are transported in modified cattle transporters, in
which the pens are usually 8 feet wide x 10 feet long. Some
producers have raised the height of the compartmentsl to
around 7 feet 6 inches to allow for the height of adult biids,
(A. Procter, personal communication), which prevents them
from being carried on double-decked vehicles (Harris 1996).
Unless the birds are penned individually, it is essential that
every bird has sufficient space to sit down. Provided that all
the birds can sit down for the duration of the journey, the
incidence of trampling is extremely low (BDOA, personal com-
munication). If the compartment does not provide sufficient
space for every bird to sit down, other provisions are essential
to prevent them from being trampled and smothered, for
example, by ensuring that recumbent ostriches can be cor-
doned offwithin the vehicle (S. B. Wotton, J. Sparrey, unpub-
lished observations).
In South Africa ostriches arrive at the abattoir in open-
topped vehicles, in penned groups of 10 to 20 birds, with up
to 90 birds on a single articulated trailer. Because the stock-
ing density is very high and there is insufficient room for
every bird to sit down, the birds are kept standing up through-
out the journey by having a farm worker (armed with a can-
vas sling to help get recumbent birds on to their feet) in every
compartment.
Young, flighty birds that have had little human contact
benefit from being penned individually. If transported as a
group, they can sometimes become stressed and gather into
the corners of the compartment, where they may be trampled
and smothered (W. Bryden, personal communication).
Mature males are also usually penned individually (unless
they have been reared together) (W. Ashcroft, personal com-
munication), and birds with a foot defect, for example, a
twisted or dub foot, but which are still fit to travel (J. Godwyn,
personal communication). If birds are penned individually,
it is essential that they remain in sight of other birds (W.
Bryden, A. Procter, personal communication).
In the wild, the number of ostriches living in a group
varies widely. Occasionally groups of 10 or more birds can
be found, but pairs and groups of three are more common
(McKeegan and Deeming 1997). Adult birds are best trans-
ported in groups of no more than seven, unless they have been
reared together. They must not be overcrowded because they
tend to crowd into corners when in large groups, and can be
asphyxiated or dislocate their necks. Young birds aged from
three to 18 months can be transported in groups of eight to
12 (Harris 1996).
Bedding
Ostriches excrete large amounts of urine and faeces, sepa-
rately, but usually in close sequence (Skadhauge and others
1996). The faeces are very viscous and can form a slippery
layer on the ground. If sand is used as bedding, then it should
be thick enough to absorb the droppings produced during the
The VeterinaryThe Veterinary
Record, December
Record,
December 18/25,
18/25, 1999
1999
PAPERS ARTICLES
&
journey. Straw has been found to be the most suitable bed-
ding, but it should not be chopped or the birds will ingest it.
JOURNEY TIME
There is a wide variety of journey times currently being prac-
tised in the UK They can range from less than three hours, to
over two days (for birds exported to the continent). The
effects of such long journeys have not been investigated, but
several producers and hauliers report that ostriches appear to
travel well and the incidence of birds dead on arrival is
extremely low.
The small number of abattoirs operating in the UK means
that the majority of ostriches have to travel for six to eight
hours. Owing to the inherent problems, it would be desirable
to reduce the transport time to less than one hour, or avoid
having to transport them altogether. One method would be
to develop mobile slaughtering facilities, based in the regions
where most ostriches are produced. This could reduce the
need for transporting ostriches and the high capital invest-
ment in centralised abattoirs, and stimulate the design of a
slaughterhouse adapted specially for the slaughter and dress-
ing of ratites.
UNLOADING
Unloading ostriches is a less complicated procedure than
loading. It is usually carried out in one of two ways. If the
birds are being unloaded into a field or a large open space,
then it is common for the stockman to open the tailgate and
allow the ostriches to walk off the vehicle unaided (E. Harper,
W. Ashcroft, personal communication). This method is not
suitable if the birds are very young and flighty or if they are
being unloaded into an enclosed area. In these circumstances,
it is normal practice to hood the birds and lead them off the
vehicle individually. Some ostrich producers prefer to lead
all their birds off the lorry individually so that they can be
weighed and their identity can be checked.
TRANSPORTATION OF CHICKS
Handling and restraint
Chicks should be caught with the left hand at the base of the
neck and the right hand slipped between the legs (Foggin
1992). The handler should support the chick underneath its
body and place their arms over the bird's wings. On no
account should ostrich chicks be inverted, or grasped by the
neck or legs, because they may be injured or unduly stressed.
When the chick reaches 12 weeks old, it can be restrained by
the handler standing astride the bird, with their legs behind
its wings; it can be prevented from moving forwards by
extending the arms around the bird's chest or the base of its
neck (FAWC 1993).
Loading
Chicks are usually caught individually and placed in wooden
transport crates. They are normally penned in small groups
because there is a danger of birds being smothered if they are
kept in large groups (A. Procter, personal communication).
There are no recommendations available on stocking densi-
ties for the transport of chicks.
Bedding and fodder
It is advisable not to bed chicks on chopped straw while they
are being transported because they may suffer gut impaction.
If chicks are left without food for long periods they will con-
sume foreign material (Foggin 1992), and during the absence
729~~~~~~~~~
729
 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
PAPERS & ARTICLES

of the parent bird or in other stressful circumstances, such as high monetary value makes it possible to provide them with
transportation, some chicks consume large quantities of individual transport crates so that great care can be taken of
straw, sand or other foreign material. It has been common individual breeding birds. However, the increasing demand
practice to use soft sand as a bedding material, but as a result for the transport of ostriches for slaughter has resulted in the
of scientific research and observation it is no longer recom- need to transport birds in groups rather than individually,
mended. If sand is used, it must be changed if it gets unduly because the value of a slaughter weight ostrich is far less than
wet because ostrich chicks have been found to ingest wet sand that of a breeder bird. In addition, ostrich farmers require
(Sales and Smith 1995). methods for transporting birds from farm to farm without
their welfare being compromised.
Temperature and ventilation Formal training and certification of ostrich handlers and
Chicks are very sensitive to overcrowding, overheating and hauliers could be introduced by the industry to ensure that the
poor ventilation, which all contribute to stress (Smith 1993) requirements of current animal transport legislation are met.
and may increase the incidence of mortality. Deeming and The practical experience gained in this country and abroad
others (1996) found that temperature fluctuations have a sig- should be evaluated by experienced animal behaviourists.
nificant effect on the success of rearing ostrich chicks. Young Careful documentation of any downgrading conditions
chicks should be kept at a constant temperature of 350C for observed on the dressed carcases at the abattoir that could be
the first week; the temperature may then be reduced by 3°C ascribed to stress or trauma during transportation, could be
per week, until the fourth week, when they become more used to suggest improvements in the methods employed by
resistant to slight fluctuations in temperature (Hallam 1992). the industry. In the poultry industry, this type of investiga-
It is essential that the temperature of the transport vehicle can tion of downgrading conditions has significantly improved
be controlled accurately, especially in inclement weather con- the handling of live birds by reducing stress and trauma.
ditions, to prevent mortality. The welfare of larger groups of birds could be improved
by monitoring them with closed circuit television from the
Journey time driver's cab. Bird handlers travelling with the driver could be
Owing to the susceptibility of young chicks to fluctuations alerted to problems and prevent the accidental death of birds.
in temperature, transportation times should be kept to a min- If it is decided that the transportation of live ostriches for
imum. However, there are no recommendations for the max- slaughter is unacceptable, an on-farm slaughter method may
imum journey times for chicks. need to be developed. The birds could be stunned electrically
and exsanguinated under veterinary supervision (Schedule
19) and the undressed carcase transported to the abattoir.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS This practice may be an alternative to the use of mobile
slaughterhouses, if they should prove too costly.
There is very little scientific evidence about the optimum Gregory and Wotton (1990) demonstrated that neither neck
conditions for the transportation of ostriches. In the popu- dislocation nor percussion of the head results in the effective
lar press, the transportation of these large birds is both sup- stunning of chickens, and alternative methods for the humane
ported and condemned. In general, they appear to travel well slaughter of casualty birds are therefore under investigation
when transported in small numbers but, if the ostrich indus- (Wotton and Hewitt 1997). The use of neck dislocation for
try continues to expand and the number of slaughter weight killing casualty ostriches should therefore be discouraged and
birds increases substantially, transportation conditions could an alternative, more humane method investigated.
change radically. Research is required to develop objective and
subjective indicators of physiological and psychological stress
in ostriches, so that detailed studies of the effects of trans- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
porting them could provide effective codes of practice and/or
legislative control. Ostriches have been transported around The authors wish to thank the Ministry of Agriculture,
the world for breeding purposes for a considerable time. Their Fisheries and Food who funded this work.

References
CHURCH, N. (1994) A report into the welfare of farmed ostriches. Agricultural
Development and Advisory Service
DEEMING, D. C., DICK, A. C. K. & AYRES, L. L. (1996) Ostrich chick rear-
ing. A stockman's guide. Oxfordshire, Ratite Conference
FAWC (1993) Guidelines on the welfare of farmed ostriches
FOGGIN, C. M. (1992) Veterinary problems of ostriches. In The Topaz
Introduction to Practical Ostrich Farming. Zimbabwe, Superior Print
GRANDIN, T. (1993) Livestock Handling and Transport. Ed T. Grandin.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
GREGORY, N. G. & WOTTON, S. B. (1990) Comparison of neck dislocation
and percussion of the head on visual evoked responses in the chicken's brain.
Veterinary Record 126, 570-572
HALLAM, M. G. (1992) The Topaz Introduction to Practical Ostrich Farming.
Zimbabwe, Superior Print
HARRIS, T. C. (1996) AATA - Manual for the Transport of Live Animals by
Road. Redhill, Animal Transportation Association
LEVY, A., MARKOWITTZ, E., VAN CREVELD, C. & TAGIL, R. (1996) Water
metabolism of laying ostriches. In Improving our Understanding of Ratites
in a Farming Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite
Conference. pp 127-129
McKEEGAN, D. E. F. & DEEMING, D. C. (1997) Effects of gender and group
size on the time-activity budgets of adult breeding ostriches (Struthio camelus)
in a farming environment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 51, 159-177
MAFF (1977) Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976. London, The Stationery Office
MAFF (1993) The Welfare of Animals During Transport Order 1992. London,
The Stationery Office
MAFF (1998) The Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997. London, The
Stationery Office
MARTIN, G. R. & KATZIR, G. (1996) Visual fields, foraging and sunshade in
ostriches. In Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming
Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite Conference. pp 10-12
MELLETT, F. D. (1995) Ostrich Products. In Practical Guide for Ostrich
Management and Ostrich Products. Republic of South Africa, Stellenbosch
University Printers
MITCHELL, M. A., KETTLEWELL, P. J., SANDERCOCK, D. A., MAXWELL,
M. H. & SPACKMAN, D. (1996) Physiological stress in ostriches during road
transportation. In Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming
Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite Conference. pp 79-80
NSPCA (1996) Draft Code of Practice for the Transport and Handling of
Ostriches. Republic of South Africa
REINER, G., SEITZ, K. & DZAPO, V. (1996) A survey of farming environment
and ostrich behaviour in Germany. In Improving our Understanding of
Ratites in a Farming Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite
Conference
RSPCA (1995) RSPCA Welfare Standards. The Ostrich Farming Corporation
Ltd Annual Publication
SALES, J. & SMITH, W. A. (1995) Incubation and Management. In Practical
Guide for Ostrich Management and Ostrich Products. Republic of South

730 The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999

 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com
PAPERS & ARTICLES

Africa, Stellenbosch University Printers
SHAKESPEARE, A. S. (1996) Clinical cases illustrating causes of recumbent
ostriches. In Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming
Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite Conference. pp 55-57
SKADHAUGE, E., DAWSON, T. J., PRYS-JONES, R. & WARUI, C. N. (1996)
The role of the kidney and the gut in osmoregulation. In Improving our
Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming.
Oxfordshire, Ratite Conference. pp 115-122
SMITH, G. A. (1993) Ostrich chick survival presents challenge. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 203, 5
TARRANT, P.V., KENNY, E J., HARRINGTON, D. & MURPHY, M. (1992) Long
distance transportation of steers to slaughter; effect of stocking density on phys-
iology, behaviour and carcass quality. Livestock Production Science 30,223-238
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (1993) Supplement to
the draft environmental impact statement. Animal Damage Control
Program. Washington DC, USDA
VAN PUTTEN, G. & ELSHOF, W. J. (1978) Observations on the effect of trans-
port on the well-being and lean quality of slaughter pigs. Animal Regulation
Studies 1, 247-271
WOTTON, S. B. & HEWITT, L. (1997) The humane destruction of large poul-
try flocks. Proceedings of the 5th Symposiumm of Poultry Welfare.
Wageningen, The Netherlands
YAGIL, R.,VAN CREVELD, C., MARKOWITZ, E. & LEVY,A. (1996) Urine pro-
duction and health status in ostriches. In Improving our Understanding of
Ratites in a Farming Environment. Ed D. C. Deeming. Oxfordshire, Ratite
Conference. p 59

Epidemiological characteristics and financial

costs of the 1997 foot-and-mouth disease
epidemic in Taiwan
P. C. YANG, R. M. CHU, W. B. CHUNG, H. T. SUNG
Between March and July 1997, a devastating outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), serotype 0, occurred
in pigs in Taiwan. A total of 6147 pig farms with more than 4 million pigs were infected, and 37-7 per cent of
the pigs in Taiwan either died (0-18 million pigs) or were killed (3-85 million pigs). The epidemic reached its
peak during the fifth week after it was first recognised. During the eighth and ninth weeks, a two-dose
blanket vaccination programme was instituted which led to a large reduction in new outbreaks. Except for
two cities, the whole of Taiwan was declared an FMD-infected zone. During the four months in which new
farm outbreaks occurred, 21-7 per cent of the pigs on infected farms showed clinical signs, and there was an
overall mortality of 3-95 per cent. During the early stages of the epidemic, the incubation period was as short
as 24 hours and the case fatality rates for suckling piglets reached 100 per cent. The financial cost of the
epidemic was estimated at usS 378-6 million, including indemnities, vaccines, carcase disposal plus
environmental protection, miscellaneous expenses, and loss of market value. Owing to the ban on exports of
pork to Japan, it is estimated that the total economic cost to Taiwan's pig industry will be about us$ 1-6 billion.

Veterinary Record (1999)
145, 731-734
P. C. Yang, DVM, PhD,
Department of
Comparative Medicine,
Pig Research Institute
Taiwan, Chunan Miaoli
35046, Taiwan
R. M. Chu, DVM, PhD,
Department of Veterinary
Medicine, National
Taiwan University, Taipei
106, Taiwan
W. B. Chung, DVM, PhD,
Department of Veterinary
Medicine, National
Pingtung University of
Science and Technology,
Pingtung 912, Taiwan
H. T. Sung, DVM, PhD,
Bureau of Animal and
Plant Health Inspection
and Quarantine, Council
of Agriculture, Taipei 100,
Taiwan
FOOT-AND-MOUTH disease (FMD) is a highly contagious
viral disease affecting cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and other
cloven-hoofed domestic and wild animals (House and House
1992, Fenner and others 1993). Two previous epidemics of
FMD have occurred in Taiwan (Ryu 1984), the first between
1913 and 1916, and the second between 1924 and 1929.
Following the eradication of FMD after the second epidemic
Taiwan remained free of the disease for over 68 years.
The latest epidemic of FMD was identified in pigs in March
1997 (Donaldson 1997) and within four months had spread
over the entire island, leading to the immediate closure of the
export market and heavy economic losses (Shieh 1997).
The first suspected case of FMD was observed on a pig farm
on March 14,1997. Samples of vesicular fluid, epithelium, and
serum from clinically sick pigs were sent to the Taiwan Animal
Health Research Institute for diagnosis (Shieh 1997) and FMD
was confirmed on March 19. Samples ofvesicular epithelium
were promptly dispatched to the World Reference Laboratory
(wRL) for FMD at Pirbright, UK, for further confirmation, and
serotype 0, referred to as 0 Taiwan, was confirmed and
reported on March 25 (Donaldson 1997).
Outbreaks due to the same strain of FMD virus continued
and the epidemic lasted about four months, with the last new
outbreak being reported on July 15. This paper describes the
epidemiological characteristics and financial cost of this epi-
demic of FMD.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Control strategies
A policy of depopulating each infected farm and vaccinating
all the pigs on farms at high risk was adopted immediately
after each farm outbreak of FMD was confirmed. As the dis-
ease continued to spread, it was decided during late April to
vaccinate every pig in Taiwan. Vaccines made from strains of
0 4174, O, Campos and O-Manisa were recommended by
the wRL on the basis of the evaluation of r, values (Kitching
and others 1989). When every pig in Taiwan had received at
least one dose of the FMD vaccine, the eradication policy was
changed from the complete depopulation of infected farms
to destroying only clinically ill pigs (Shieh 1997).
Restrictions on the movement of pigs from infected farms
were implemented on March 20, to halt the spread of the dis-
ease. In addition, on March 22, the central government
announced a shipping ban on all cloven-hoofed animals and
their meat products to the three counties along the eastern
coast of Taiwan and to all the offshore islands.
To minimise the spread of FMD in the eastern part of
Taiwan, a protection zone with a radius of 3 km and a sur-
veillance zone with an additional radius of 3 km were declared
around each infected premises. Owing to the shortage of vac-
cine between late April and early May, it was decided to vac-
cinate all animals in the surveillance zone first. When more

The Veterinary Record, December 18/25, 1999 731

 Downloaded from veterinaryrecord.bmj.com on July 14, 2011 - Published by group.bmj.com

Transportation of ostriches - a review

S. B. Wotton and L. Hewitt

Veterinary Record 1999 145: 725-731

doi: 10.1136/vr.145.25.725

Updated information and services can be found at:

http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/145/25/725

These include:
References Article cited in:
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/145/25/725#related-urls

Email alerting Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article. Sign up in
service the box at the top right corner of the online article.

Notes

To request permissions go to:

http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions

To order reprints go to:

http://journals.bmj.com/cgi/reprintform

To subscribe to BMJ go to:

http://group.bmj.com/subscribe/

View publication stats