CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
When it comes to teaching innovation, according to Bruce (2009), learning occurs in
the interaction between the learner and the learning environment; when the appropriate
strategies and skills are applied to technology use, making it a favourable tool for teaching,
then better teaching effectiveness can be developed. Wu pointed out that teaching
innovation (during the teaching process) is when teachers use multi-faceted and lively
teaching methods, and diversified and rich content to stimulate students’ inner interest in
learning, thus, developing positive student attitudes toward proactive learning and
enhancing students’ learning ability. Lin believed that teaching innovation involves
teachers having an open mind, having the ability to reflect on teaching and being able to
use the cogitative skills of reflection, questioning, deconstruction and reconstruction to
guide students to learn correctly and to develop students’ critical thinking and creative
capabilities.
Teachers can also apply the characteristics of moral virtue and positive traits that
they have experienced, to create a subtle effect on the students, thus establishing good
moral character and a positive outlook on life for students.
Broadly speaking, there are many similarities in the sense of teaching innovation and
creative teaching. Consolidating the views of the above-mentioned scholars, this study
regards creative teaching to be the same as teaching innovation and defines its conceptual
definition as teachers having creativity in the preparation before teaching, in the process of
teaching and student assessment, being able to reflect on, to design and apply new, diverse
teaching methods or activities, understanding individual differences of students, stimulating
students learning motivation and interest, and enhancing the effect of learning.
The broader societal challenges for schooling outlined earlier has resulted in an increased
recognition of the complex and demanding nature of teachers’ work, and requires radical
rethinking of how we teach, prepare and method teaching. There needs to be a rethink of
the aims and processes in initial teaching and of teacher professional development.
Strategies for maximizing the contributions of new knowledge from research and new
technologies, which pose challenges and create new possibilities, will need to be
considered. In the new landscape, both education and non-education communities, notably
parents, must be involved. The contributions of new partners will need to be negotiated.
The paramount change agent for our new learners is still the school, and the person to help
achieve that change will be the teacher.
The McKinsey report (Barber & Mourshed, 2007) identified teacher quality as being
crucial to high quality education. They cite at least three separate studies (Haycock, 2001;
Sanders & Rivers, 1996; Wright, Horn, & Sanders, 1997) that showed a direct relationship
between teachers’ creativity and student achievement. Interviews with head teachers of
schools in top-performing education systems revealed: That much of the wide variations in
classroom learning was a function of teachers creativity. Other studies, notably those by the
World Bank (Hanushek & Wosmann, 2007), the Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD, 2005) and Darling-Hammond (2000) have identified teacher
preparation and creativity as a critical dimension in improving teacher quality.
Darling-Hammond’s review notes that “quantitative analyses indicate that measures
of teacher sense of innovation are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in
reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and
language status”. It is also noted that changing the skills base and practice of existing
teachers is difficult, often producing only temporary effects. Consequently, there have been
calls for a rethink of teacher professional development to make it more effective.
Simultaneously, changes to the form and function of initial teacher education as a way of
creating a new generation of teachers is seen as vital. Educationists hope that new teacher
innovative models will equip new teachers with appropriate knowledge, skills and values,
which will in turn bring about professional teaching (Cho, 2008; Cochran-Smith, 2004;
Farrington, 2008). Global trends in teaching are hard to determine and even harder to
define, not only due to the sheer variety and number but also because each education
system is a function of the country’s own unique historical, social and political milieu.
Redefined Professionalism is Essential
Darling-Hammond points out that teaching in the context of an increasingly complex
and rapidly changing technology-based economy requires “immensely skillful teaching”
(1998, p. 6). Whitty (2006) observes that the challenges of the current context require a
rethink of the notions of teacher professionalism. Building on Whitty, we suggest that this
requires of teachers, individually and of the profession as a whole, a strengthened or
redefined its innovative contingencies, possessing specific 21st century characteristics that
are crucial enablers for teachers to continue to do intelligent and demanding work in the
classrooms.
In the 21st century information economy and knowledge society, the need for the
development of ICT literacy in teachers and students cannot be ignored. Choi, Han, Cho and Lee
(1996, as cited in Pang, 1999) define information literacy as the ability to adapt to an information
society and to use electronic equipment, including computers, multi-functional telephones and
other modern communication tools, in order to access information as needed. Developing ICT
literacy not only allows for the access and navigation of information but also self-directed learning,
as it has the potential to free students from the constraints of time and space. It includes the ability
to search for, manage and retrieve information rapidly and to work collaboratively with others. ICT
literacy also includes the ability to dialogue, learn and chat in cyberspace (Pang, 1999).
At a systemic level, ICT has the capacity to overcome the constraints imposed by distance.
Larger countries with considerable variance in educational access are constantly seeking new ways
of providing greater access.
Ministry of Education, 2008) access for poor students in elementary schools is being tackled
by innovative means such as using the National Net, videos and customized materials. In a similar
fashion uses remote teaching to expand and democratize access to quality instruction for technical
students. In order for teacher candidates to nurture such competencies in their students, they must
themselves be skilled in such competencies. Teachers need to be skilled in the production of
education materials in the form of hypermedia as these can improve classroom pedagogy and
learning. ICT also has the potential to impact the ways teachers collect and compile student work
and information, as well as to provide different avenues for student learning. In the area of
formative assessment, technology can provide teachers with data in a manner that will enable them
to offer better pedagogical choices and be better facilitators of learning. It has been noted that
communications technologies offer tremendous potential in addressing the theory-practice divide
and the division between universities and schools.
Information technologies allow students to access analyze and discuss research materials
from off campus sites (Husbands, 2008). Research in NIE, Singapore has shown how video
technology can be effectively used to mentor students doing their practicum in a number of schools
in real time (Sharpe, 2000).
Pathways Into and Preparation for Teaching
As knowledge, learning, teaching and technology continue to evolve, teacher education
likewise needs to continually evolve and respond to changing landscapes. Therefore, it is
fundamentally necessary for teacher education to continually innovate in order to respond to the
ever-changing needs. As in all professions, technology offers the potential to enhance practice.
Though technological innovation in teaching is relatively sparse, say in comparison to medicine or
engineering, it could be argued that the education sector has not generally used well and creatively
what has been available. The gap is evident when we realize how technologically savvy students
have become and how new and powerful patterns of informal learning are emerging. At the very
least, technology has the potential to release teaching and learning from the constraints of space
and time, allowing for "anytime anywhere" learning. One example of ICT’s potential is case-based
teacher education where multimedia cases stimulate teachers’ exploring classroom situations and
establishing principles and developing methods that operate from the principles
Issues in Teaching Effectively:
Influence of Technology
The rate of technological change, especially in information and communications
technologies (ICT), has also increased. This change provides new platforms for enhancing teaching
and learning, an opportunity poorly used so far despite the rise of several online universities. The
technology is also giving rise to new forms of social networking which in time will challenge the
notion of a brick-and-mortar school as a necessary site for teaching and learning to occur. Already,
young people today are learning a great deal in non-formal contexts, and it is possible to put the
contents of a year’s worth of textbooks into a tablet PC.
Needs of Students
The confluence of the two processes of globalization and technological change is having a
tremendous impact on the students who go to school today. On one hand, global economic
opportunities and the necessity to learn 21st century skills have raised the academic bar. The new
human capital paradigm is no longer just about having extended years of schooling to prepare
students for industrial jobs; it is about content mastery, deep disciplinary understanding as well as
acquiring the soft skills of communication, initiative, resilience, group dynamics and problem-
solving abilities, among others. The increasing mobility available to many young people, privately
funded opportunities to study abroad, and a weakening attachment to state and nation in some
countries, even a “civic deficit”, is alarming policy makers. The new distractions offered by new
technologies and entertainment platforms are putting pressure on educators and teachers to make
schooling both relevant and meaningful. These changes, more pronounced in some countries than
in others, call for a new type of teaching force. This necessarily implies new modes of teacher
preparation and new enabling conditions in schools to help teachers to tackle the complex
challenges of facilitating student learning.
New Expectations for Schooling
It is also the case that across different national contexts, and indeed within countries, there
are differences in expectations for schooling. Key stakeholders, employers and parents have
become more vocal about the skills and attitudes they expect schools to develop. This is, of course,
not unconnected to the challenges brought about by economic globalization. In countries with
mature economies, like the US, UK, Canada and Australia, there are concerns about skills at both
ends of the spectrum – a lack of adequate literacy and numeracy skills, especially among
disadvantaged groups; and insufficient high-quality science and mathematics graduates to fuel
technological change. In a country like China, access to good quality K-12 education in the rural
areas is a major policy concern.
Impact on Teaching
 In line with an acceptance that students will need new skills to cope with and prosper in the
new changing world of information technology there is now an increasing body of research that
indicates what it is about teachers’ attributes and skills that is learner oriented lead to desirable
student outcomes. Darling-Hammond (2000) notes that teaching quality is one of the most
important factors contributing to student achievement, more significant than just mere one way
transference of information. “Reform efforts in both developed and developing countries assume
that the most direct and effective way of raising instructional quality is to introduce changes in
teaching, to improve the knowledge and pedagogical skills of in-service teachers and to ensure that
the organizational conditions under which teachers work promote effective instruction and focus
on student learning outcomes” (World Bank, 2005, p. 103). An increasing body of rigorous research
and accumulated evidence enables teachers to claim that theirs is, like other established
professions, a learning profession whose practices are research informed. Teaching, it can be
asserted, is complex and demanding intellectual work. This in turn has led to calls to recognize that
effective and powerful teaching cannot be accomplished without careful and adequate preparation
(Cochran-Smith, 2004).
The issues detailed above inevitably lead into ongoing discussions about the status of
teaching as a profession. Given that we live in “new times” within a radically reshaped economic,
political, cultural and social environment, how should teachers position themselves? The United
States and United Kingdom are demanding greater accountability and performance and are
prepared to mandate changes, even at the level of pedagogy. With Elliott (1991), we argue against a
static view of professionalism, from one with an emphasis on autonomy to one in which the task of
preparing the young is shared collaboratively with other professionals
Traditional Teaching Method – An evaluation
The traditional or innovative methods of teaching are critically examined, evaluated
and some modifications in the delivery of knowledge is suggested. As such, the strengths
and weaknesses of each teaching methodology are identified and probable modifications
that can be included in traditional methods are suggested.
In the pre-technology education context, the teacher is the sender or the source, the
educational material is the information or message, and the student is the receiver of the
information. In terms of the delivery medium, the educator can deliver the message via the
“chalk-and- talk” method and overhead projector (OHP) transparencies. This directed
instruction model has its foundations embedded in the behavioral learning perspective
(Skinner, 1938) and it is a popular technique, which has been used for decades as an
educational strategy in all institutions of learning.
Basically, the teacher controls the instructional process, the content is delivered to
the entire class and the teacher tends to emphasize factual knowledge. In other words, the
teacher delivers the lecture content and the students listen to the lecture. Thus, the
learning mode tends to be passive and the learners play little part in their learning process
(Orlich, 1998). It has been found in most universities by many teachers and students that
the conventional lecture approach in classroom is of limited effectiveness in both teaching
and learning. In such a lecture students assume a purely passive role and their
concentration fades off after 15-20 minutes.

MESSAGE
SENDER RECIEVER
(TEACHER) MEDIUM (STUDENT)
Some limitations which may prevail in traditional teaching method are:
 Teaching in classroom using chalk and talk is “one way flow” of information.

 Teachers often continuously talk for an hour without knowing students response
and feedback.
 The material presented is only based on lecturer notes and textbooks.
 Teaching and learning are concentrated on “plug and play” method rather than
practical aspects.
 The handwriting of the lecturer decides the fate of the subject.
 There is insufficient interaction with students in classroom.
 More emphasis has been given on theory without any practical and real life time
situations.
 Learning from memorization but not understanding.
 Marks rather than result oriented.
Innovative methods in teaching:
(A)MULTIMEDIA LEARNING PROCESS
I hear and I forget.
I see and I believe.
I do and I understand. - Confucius
Multimedia, is the combination of various digital media types such as text, images,
audio and video, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or presentation to
convey information to an audience. Traditional educational approaches have resulted in a
mismatch between what is taught to the students and what the industry needs. As such,
many institutions are moving towards problem based learning as a solution to producing
graduates who are creative; think critically and analytically, to solve problems. In this
paper, we focus on using multimedia technology as an innovative teaching and learning
strategy in a problem-based learning environment by giving the students a multimedia
project to train them in this skill set.
Currently, many institutions are moving towards problem-based learning as a
solution to producing graduates who are creative and can think critically, analytically, and
solve problems. Since knowledge is no longer an end but a means to creating better
problem solvers and encourage lifelong learning. Problem-based learning is becoming
increasingly popular in educational institutions as a tool to address the inadequacies of
traditional teaching. Since these traditional approaches do not encourage students to
question what they have learnt or to associate with previously acquired knowledge (Teo &
Wong, 2000), problem-based learning is seen as an innovative measure to encourage
students to learn how to learn via real-life problems (Boud & Feletti, 1999).
The teacher uses multimedia to modify the contents of the material. It will help the
teacher to represent in a more meaningful way, using different media elements. These
media elements can be converted into digital form, modified and customized for the final
presentation. By incorporating digital media elements into the project, the students are
able to learn better since they use multiple sensory modalities, which would make them
more motivated to pay more attention to the information presented and retain the
information better.
Chart 1 - MULTMEDIA ELEMENTS

Creating multimedia projects is both challenging and exciting. Fortunately, there are
many multimedia technologies that are available for developers to create these innovative
and interactive multimedia applications (Vaughan, 1998). These technologies include
Adobe Photoshop and Premier to create edit graphics and video files respectively,
SoundForge and 3D Studio Max to create and/or edit sound and animation files,
respectively. They can also use an authoring tool such as Macromedia Director or Author
ware to integrate and synchronize all these media elements into one final application, add
interactive features, and package the application into a distributable format for the end-
user.
Another advantage of creating multimedia projects in the classroom setting is that
when students create multimedia projects, they tend to do this in a group environment. By
working in a group, the students would have to learn to work cooperatively and
collaboratively, using their group skills and a variety of activities to accomplish the
project’s overall objectives.
TRADITIONAL AND MULTIMEDIA LEARNING THE DIFFERNCE
Chart 2 - TRADITIONAL METHOD – A ONE WAY FLOW

TEACHER STUDENTS

Chart 3 - MULTIMEDIA LEARNING – AN INTERACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS

TEACHER

STUDENTS MULTI
MEDIA
(B)OTHER INNOVATIE TOOLS SUGGESTED
The researchers suggest some of the methods can very well be applied by the
modern teachers. As the researchers feel that basically the core objective of teaching
should never be deviated by the use of an innovative method. The following methods which
are suggested are an extension to the traditional methods of teaching.
(1) MIND MAP
Mind maps were developed in the late 60s by Tony Buzan as a way of helping
students make notes that used only key words and images, but mind map can be used by
teachers to explain concepts in an innovative way. They are much quicker to make and
much easier to remember and review because of their visual quality. The nonlinear nature
of mind maps makes it easy to link and cross-reference different elements of the map.
Mind Maps are also very quick to review, as it is easy to refresh information in your mind
just by glancing once. Mind Maps can also be effective mnemonics and remembering their
shape and structure can provide the cues necessary to remember the information within it.
They engage much more of the brain in the process of assimilating and connecting facts
than conventional notes.
The key notion behind mind mapping is that we learn and remember more
effectively by using the full range of visual and sensory tools at our disposal. Pictures,
music, color, even touch and smell play a part in our learning armory will help to recollect
information for long time. The key is to build up mind maps that make the most of these
things building on our own creativity, thinking and cross linking between ideas that exist in
our own minds.
As the recent research point that any particular information explained with the help
of graph charts make a high impact in the minds of the people and keeping this as the core
aspect the teachers may try to picturize the concepts and show the same to the students

Chart 4 - AN EXAMPLE OF MIND MAP FOR SCALAR QUANTITIES

This would bring very high impact on the minds of the students about a concept
 Creates clear understanding
 PowerPoint can be used widely.
  Innovative thinking improves
(2) TEACHING WITH SENSE OF HUMOUR – “HUMOUR AN EFFECTIVE
MEDIUM OF TEACHING”
Everyone loves a teacher with an infectious sense of humor. Looking at the lighter
side of life not only fosters cordial relations between professors and students, but also
provides welcome relief while trying to follow a difficult lecture on a complicated subject.
When there is a willingness to change, there is hope for progress in any field. Teaching is a
challenge. Learning is a challenge. Combining both effectively is a challenge. Being
humorous is a challenge. However, laughing is easy.
We are convinced both by experience and research that using humor in teaching is a
very effective tool for both the teacher and student.
Humor strengthens the relationship between student and teacher, reduces stress,
makes a course more interesting and if relevant to the subject, may even enhance recall of
the material. Humor has the ability to relax people, reduce tension, and thereby create an
atmosphere conducive for learning and communication.
Numerous studies in the field of advertising have noted that humor is the most
effective tool for enhancing recall of advertisements.
It is easy to create a humor in the classroom by reading books of jokes and to listen
to professional comics. The students should be encouraged to take notes, especially to learn
about the professionals’ use of such techniques as exaggeration, pauses, and timing.
Observe reality and exaggerate it - much humor lies in observations about real life and
truthful situations. In conclusion, humor not only plays an important role in the healing
process but is also very important in education.
(3) Z TO A APPROACH
This approach attempts to explain the application part of a particular concept first.
The teacher explains the application of a particular concept first and explains the effects of
such applications. For example in management subject - motivation is explained in a
manner that the organization get extensive benefits out of using some techniques like
promotions and awards. So here the use of promotion is explained first and later students
would get interest in knowing what are promotions and awards. The teacher starts
explaining what is promotion and explains what motivation theory in management is.
Another example we can try is that in accounting the Income statement and Balance Sheet
can be explained first and later drawing their attention to double entry system of book
keeping.
Strengths
 Makes a particular concept clear
 Students develop interest to know exactly the concept.
 Creates long lasting memory/correlation of a concept.
Weaknesses
 Take quite long time for a teacher to introduce a concept
 Initial difficulty in understanding a particular concept will be encountered.
(4) MNEMMONICS WORDS- WORDS –WORDS APPROACH
Here the teacher is not supposed to talk on a particular concept for a quite long
time. But to make it clear to the students he can just go on saying mnemonics or its
associated meaning in words. Here he goes on saying only words instead of sentence, and
once they come to a basic understanding of the meaning of a particular concept then the
teacher will explain in sentences. For example in teaching language courses this technique
can be used as an effective medium by the teacher to develop word power.
 Dictionary must be used widely
 Word power increases
 Teacher also gets to know many words pertaining to a particular concept.
(5) ROLE PLAYING AND SCENARIO ANALYSIS BASED TEACHING
Role playing and scenario analysis is mostly used in organizations that try to
analyze a problem pertaining to the organization, and this is also used in management
institutions. But the similar kind of practice can be tried in other specialization too like
science and engineering. Science and engineering courses have practical but in support of
those practical if students are given a scenario and other options to solve a particular issue,
then the students are exposed to decision making in a given environment.
For example, in teaching accounting the role of accountant can be explained by role
playing technique. Invoice and bills can be given to students and asked them to assume the
role of accountant. Here the real entries pertaining to transactions are made by the student
and this is more practical approach to teaching where theory is supplemented by proper
practical knowledge. Similar kind of technique can be applied in management, engineering
and science courses.
Learning Effectiveness
Learning effectiveness means the changes in knowledge, skills and attitude of the learners
after the completion of teaching. Jones indicated that learning effectiveness will be affected by
learning styles, course design, teaching and other factors. Loo also believed that learning
performance will be affected by learning styles, course design, teaching and other factors. As far as
the evaluation of learning effectiveness is concerned, whether the learning effectiveness is good can
be determined from students’ school grades, the ability to obtain professional certificates, and
performance in various external examinations. Therefore, the conceptual definition of learning
effectiveness in this study is to use the three explicit variables, such as the achievements of
student’s school grades after studying in school, professional skills demonstrated, and the
capability to participate in various external exams, etc, as the indicators of the measurement for
learning effectiveness.
Teaching Innovation and Learning Effectiveness
Teaching innovation means the teachers having creativity, being able to reflect on, to design
and to apply new, diverse teaching methods or activities, understanding individual differences of
students, stimulating students’ learning motivation and interests, enhancing the students’ learning
effectiveness in the preparation before teaching, in the process of teaching and in student
assessment. In short, teaching innovation means teachers having creativity and showing vivid and
lively teaching methods to make students interested in learning, thus enhancing the teaching
effectiveness. The purpose of teaching innovation for students involves:
1) Developing student capabilities for independent analysis, thinking and judgment;
2) Stimulating student interest and motivation for learning;
3) Tapping student potential in creativity and problem-solving; and
4) Enhancing students’ learning ability.
The purpose of teaching innovation for teachers involves:
1) Enhancing teaching quality and effectiveness;
2) Having rich and diverse teaching content and methods;
3) Having a diversified student assessment; and
4) Achieving educational goals and ideals
Learning satisfaction
 No matter whether considering the spirit of teaching, course design, teaching
methods, teaching materials and student assessment, today’s teachers all need to be
creative and to combine the application of information technology to innovative teaching
methods and strategies. Therefore, teachers should understand about integrating
information technology into teaching. Integrating information technology into teaching
requires the merging of information technology with course objectives, teaching materials
and teaching activities, thereby enabling information technology to become an
indispensable teaching or learning tool. It makes information technology become part of
the teaching activity in classrooms. In addition, information technology developments
provide a mean or a process that can find the solution to a problem at any time, any place.
Wang indicated that integrating information technology into teaching can make learning
more diversified and individualized. It enhances learning effectiveness. Furthermore, He
indicated that integrating information technology into teaching is a lively and creative way
of teaching.
Jones and Paolucci believed that technology can enhance students' motivation in
learning and achievement. According to the study of Hoffman, integrating information
technology into teaching is the best choice for teachers to improve teaching methodology
and teaching skills. It can also help teachers in problem-solving and innovative teaching.
Implementing the integration of information technology into teaching is not an easy task,
and it requires many co-operative conditions to be met. As a result, certain problems might
be encountered when implementing the integration of information technology into
teaching. These include man-made problems, environmental issues, funding issues, timing
issues, course issues and integration issues. If these problems can be overcome, there will
be a positive impact on teaching innovation and learning satisfaction.
In addition, the study of learning satisfaction by most scholars includes the four
dimensions of course materials, teaching, the learning environment and interpersonal
relationships. In distance teaching, Biner (2006) studied student learning satisfaction from
television broadcasting courses. The dimensions of their study of learning satisfaction
included teachers, technology, process management, the location of all personnel, the
agility of information delivery, support facilities and contact among teachers, etc.
Learning satisfaction refers to the learners’ focus on various factors in the learning
environment, while conducting evaluation of personal feelings and experience after
learning. Positive self-assessment of performance means that learners have the confidence
and the ability to acquire knowledge to demonstrate explicit behaviours. While Yen and He
believed the application of information technology to teaching can improve student
learning effectiveness, the main issue is still the course content and the teaching activities.
Information technology is only one of the supporting tools.
Types of Trends and Innovations in Education.
Trend 1: Evergreen Students
Adults ages 18–26 are typically the first to adopt new technologies. Many of these
early adopters are new, or “evergreen,” students who bring these technologies onto college
campuses. Because of this, students expect their schools to have the infrastructure to
support the latest technologies.
Some of the biggest trends in 2008 include the emergence of Web 2.0 and social net-
working phenomena such as blogs and wikis, as well as new online video repository and
delivery websites such as YouTube, iTunes U, and Big Think. The influx of smartphones,
such as the iPhone, and other intelligent devices has also enhanced mobile learning
(commonly referred to as m-learning), creating new channels for content delivery, video
expansion online, and podcasting. Finally, the adoption of virtual reality websites such as
Second Life has provided higher-education institutions with new venues for class
gatherings and learning.
Trend 2: Globalization
The demand for higher education globally has increased and will continue to grow.
There are more than 100 million college students worldwide, new campuses are being
built, and existing campuses are expanding. Universities are competing internationally for
resources, faculty, the best students, and education funding.
Overseas expansion creates opportunities for students and faculty in terms of
exchange programs and expanded campus environments. China, India, and the Middle East
have quickly become key areas for widespread campus growth. The learning model varies
by country and institution, ranging from replicating the home campus, to building local
capacity, to participating in faculty exchanges.
These global learning environments give students an opportunity to expand their
portfolios to include experience that is valued in today’s workforce. Universities in turn use
their foreign campuses to attract top research talent and build international relationships,
establishing a global presence and helping develop local capacity.
Trend 3: Technical and Information Literacy
Increasingly, college campuses are taking steps to enhance technical literacy and
create a campus culture that encourages faculty to use computers, smart devices, and other
innovative tools in their curricula.5
Information literacy is another topical area. While many students may be device-savvy,
they may not necessarily be information-savvy. Students today, having for the most part
grown up with technology, possess more technical abilities with computers and software,
yet many have not learned how to use technology for academic purposes. Universities are
addressing this through a variety of methods, such as library programs that include
workshops and instructional services. At the same time, universities are creating a
technology culture through a variety of venues—common areas, support desks, and
student employment programs.
Technical and information literacy continues to gain importance on campuses,
ensuring that students are viable candidates in the global workplace. Universities are
exploring methods for providing students with the capabilities required to use information
technology (IT) both critically and wisely.
Two other trends occurring at the same time are a wave of faculty retirements (24.5
percent of tenured professors above age 60 retired as of 2004) and an influx of
postsecondary teachers (an increase of 23 percent is expected between 2006 and 20167).
While many of these retirees tend to be less technical and more resistant to using
technology than students, universities expect that incoming teachers and other staff will be
technically proficient and open to innovation, thereby enabling universities to enhance
their technical and information literacy programs.
Trend 4: Branding, Enrollment, and Retention
Schools realize that the Internet is a viable way to market academic programs to
prospective students while enhancing the school’s brand. One example is Zinch.com, a
website targeted at high school students applying for college. Universities are also
establishing online parties and networking websites for newly admitted freshmen,
allowing them to interact virtually with campus services and the campus community before
they start school.
The presence of schools in virtual online communities such as Second Life helps
enhance the brand. YouTube’s education channels and iTunes U are effective not only for
teaching and learning, but also for marketing a university’s other, less-academic strengths.
Videos8 of sports rallies, seminars, concerts, and other events are posted to these sites,
effectively giving prospective students a glimpse of the university’s offerings.
Colleges are also using technology to help build an attractive brand—one that assures
prospective students and parents that upon graduation, students will be prepared to
participate in a technologically advanced, global economy.
To attract prospective students, some universities have developed student blogger
programs, where an assigned roster of current students blogs about their daily routines.
Some universities also have respective “fan pages” on Facebook to enable communications
with incoming freshmen. Voice-over-IP call centers and text messaging are two methods
being used not only to attract students, but also to retain them. For example, one secondary
school advertises on Google and routes leads to its central call center as prospective
students click on the advertisement. Another school uses call centers as a way to leave
voicemails for students who have missed a number of classes and to assist those who may
have health, work overload, or personal issues. This “personal approach” is effective in
keeping students from dropping out of school. Text messages are also being used in the
same manner.10
Trend 5: Mobility
College students today depend heavily on their mobile phones and PDAs. One-third
of the 97 percent of college students who own a cell phone no longer use land lines to make
voice calls. The freedom, convenience, and cost savings that mobile phones provide are
invaluable to students, whether they are living away from home or commuting daily to and
from school, home, and work.
With the proliferation of mobile phones on campus, colleges everywhere are
compelled to capitalize on feature-rich phones that are capable of much more than just
voice calls. Adoption of the BlackBerry, iPhone, and other smart devices that have Internet
access allows students and faculty to perform a wide range of tasks virtually anywhere they
have cell phone service. These tasks range from administrative (registration), to academic
(downloading class materials), to social (instant messaging), to functional (checking
transportation schedules). Mobile phones are also being used to access computer files from
a remote location. Students who have forgotten to bring an assignment to class can prove
to their professor that they have finished the assignment by using their cell phone to access
the completed work on their dorm-room computer.
Mobile applications such as Twitter and City Sense help students schedule meetings or
study dates remotely. For example, students can facilitate text blogging, helping mobile
classmates map each other’s location quickly.
Mobile learning is also on the rise on college campuses that are exploring using PDAs and
smartphones to deliver courseware, field data, short tutorials, and classroom polls.13
Trend 6: Safety and Security
The physical safety of college campuses has always been a top priority for schools,
but the prevalence in recent years of being “always on” has compelled educational
institutions to make security a top IT issue every year since 2003. Top of mind are
improving physical safety, protecting student records and key campus data, providing asset
tracking, increasing disaster recovery, and adding more security services to the network.
Trend 7: Pedagogical Centers and Innovative “Campus Commons”
In addition to new and renovated buildings, several higher-education institutions
have created areas called “campus commons.” These areas redefine how traditional
buildings, rooms, and spaces are designed, built, and used. High-traffic areas such as the
campus library or computer lab typically are the starting point for developing campus
commons. For example, many universities are transforming their libraries into campus
commons by building food courts, creating social gathering and computer gaming areas,
and adding collaborative seating arrangements.
Libraries have been at the forefront of this conversion as books are increasingly
digitized and space is reevaluated. Campus commons are evolving to become key locations
where technologies can be showcased and explored. Some institutions are reinventing
these spaces as pedagogical or innovation centers where faculty can learn how to integrate
technology into the curriculum, or where students can go to watch and make video
projects.
As institutions increase their use of technologies, applications, and smart services,
additional areas such as language labs will transition from the influx of technology.
Trend 8: Evolution of Teaching and Learning
The education process continues to evolve from one-to-one (teacher to student) to
collaborative learning. Web 2.0 and social networking tools such as blogs and wikis, and
online social gathering websites such as Flickr, are enhancing and facilitating collaborative
learning and are being used widely on many campuses. The delivery of content has evolved
dramatically, as many teachers opt to post all class material, including complete audio
and/or video recordings of lectures, on sites like iTunes U and YouTube. Because students
spend much of their time online, university professors see the value of posting academic
materials on these popular sites where students can download and interact with the course
materials in a location where they also seek entertainment. Open source course-
management systems such as Moodle and similar systems on Facebook are just some
applications being reconfigured to support more content and student collaboration.18
Trend 9: Collaboration
Collaboration is a distinguishing attribute of higher education. Educational
institutions are seeking ways to facilitate collaboration to enhance research, classes,
foreign exchanges, alumni relationships, and private sector partnerships. A variety of
venues have emerged to make collaboration easier and more accessible.
Virtual meeting-place and application-sharing tools such as Cisco® WebEx® are
efficient web-based collaboration solutions that help improve productivity and decrease
communication and travel. WebEx simulates the visual communications that occur
between students and teachers in the traditional classroom setting. For example,
professors use the WebEx “attention indicator” feature to monitor whether students are
giving the class their full attention. Professors can also require students participating in the
WebEx session to turn on “desktop sharing” to ensure that the students are actively
engaged in the class.
Trend 10: Edutainment
 Higher-education content and entertainment (edutainment) are becoming more
intertwined. The first indications of this took place on iTunes and YouTube, sites commonly
used for entertainment content only. Professors are now combining the two, using various
videos that contain both educational and entertainment value in podcasts and posting
course content on education channels to create a more engaging learning environment.
Computer gaming is emerging in teaching and learning33 as well, and more than 120
schools have a presence in Second Life, using these virtual spaces for socializing, teaching,
learning, and branding.
Television broadcasting companies such as the BBC, MTV, NBC, and ABC are quickly
developing methods to integrate broadcast media with higher education. This trend
supports the marked increase in the use of multimedia devices on college campuses where
content is accessible not only through computers, but also through TVs and smartphones.
Campuses are evaluating the benefit of broadcasting campus TV programs over IP network.