Introduction To Grounding System Design

Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part
One
1- Differences between Grounding and Earthing Terms
 “Grounding” is a term used rather exclusively in North American to

indicate a direct or indirect connection to the planet Earth or to some
conducting body that serves in place of the Earth.
 Or, "Grounding": A conducting connection, whether intentional or
accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the
Earth, or to some conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in
place of the Earth.
 “Earthing” is a term developed by the United Kingdom and part of
the British Electrical Code and is employed in Europe or other countries that
employs International Electric Commission (IEC) standards.
 so, The term “earthing” in European or IEC countries is synonymous
with the term “grounding” in North America.
2- Differences between Grounded and Grounding systems
 Grounded system refers to a system where a conductor is grounded

and is intended to or may carry current in the normal operation. The neutral
on a wye system is a prime example of a grounded conductor.
 The grounding conductor system is not intended to carry
operationalcurrent in its design. This path is intended to carry unwanted
and fault currents for protection.
3- Differences between Bonding and Grounding
 The terms “bonding” and “grounding” are often employed

interchangeably as general terms in the electrical industry to imply or mean
that a specific piece of electrical equipment, structure, or enclosure is
somehow referenced to earth.
 In fact, “bonding” and “grounding” have completely different
meaning and employ different electrical installation methodologies.
 Comparison between bonding and grounding is given in the following
table:
s/n Bonding Grounding

1 Connection between non-live Connection between live or non-
conductive objects live conductive objects to earth
2 Bonding is achieved by Grounding is achieved by using a
usingbonding conductors, rod or other
metallic raceways, connectors, suitable groundingelectrodes.
couplings, metallic-
sheathed cable with fittings,
and other devices approved by
the authority having
jurisdiction as recognized for
this purpose
3 Bonding for grounded system Grounding provides the safety
provides the safety during during fault current for
faultcurrent for persons equipments without a need
forbonding its enclosure
4 Bonding objects Grounding is independent
without groundingone of them onbonding it gives equipment
gives no protection from stray protection disregard it is bonded
currents but it protect from to its enclosure or not.
static charges
4- Grounding system definitions
What is “Ground”?
The ground is now simply the planet earth.
What is “Effectively Grounded”?
The 2005/2008/2011 National Electrical Code defines effectively grounded

as:
“Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or

connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-
carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltage that may result in undue
hazards to connected equipment of persons."
What is “Grounded”?
 The 2005 NEC defines “Grounded” as: “Connected to earth or to

some conducting body that serves in place of the earth."
 The 2008 NEC defines “Grounded” as: “Connected to earth.”
 The 2011 NEC defines “Grounded” as: “Connected (connecting) to
ground or to a conductive body that extends the ground connection.”
What is “Solidly Grounded”?

“Connected to ground (earth) without inserting any resistor or impedance
device."
What is “Grounded Conductor”?
 A grounded conductor is the conductor of an electrical system that is

intentionally connected to earth via a grounding electrode conductor and
a grounding electrode at the service of premises, at a transformer secondary, or
at a generator or other source of electric power. It is most commonly a neutral
conductor of a single-phase, 3-wire system or 3-phase, 4-wire system but may be
one of the phase legs—as in the case of a corner-grounded delta system.
 A “grounded conductor” carries current during “normal” operations of
the powerdistribution system.
 (The “grounded conductor” is commonly referred to as the neutral
conductor.)
Grounded conductor in different system types:
 In 3-wire, single-phase systems (see fig.1) the midpoint of

the transformer Winding, the point from which the system neutral is derived, is
grounded.
Fig (1): 3-wire, single-phase systems

 For grounded 3-phase, 4-wire wiring systems (see fig.2) the neutral point
of the wye-connected transformer(s) or generator is usually the point connected
to ground.
Fig (2): grounded 3-phase, 4-wire wiring systems
 In delta-connected transformer hookups (see fig.3) grounding of the

system can be effected by grounding one of the three phase legs, by grounding a
center-tap point on one of the transformer windings (as in the 3-phase, 4-wire
“red-leg” delta system), or by using a special grounding transformer which
establishes a neutral point of a wye-connection which is grounded.
Fig (3): delta-connected transformer hookups
The need for a grounded conductor:
 It limits the voltage upon the circuit that might otherwise occur through
exposure tolightning or other voltages higher than that for which the circuit is
designed.
 It limits the maximum voltage to ground under normal operating
conditions.
 It provides automatic opening procedure of the circuit if an accidental or
fault ground occurs on one of its ungrounded conductors.
What is “Grounding Conductor”?
 “A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a

wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes."
 A “grounding conductor” is intended to only carry current during an
“abnormal” operation of the power distribution system or a faulted
condition.
What is the “Equipment Grounding Conductor”? (see fig.4)
 Equipment grounding is the intentional electrical interconnection of all

metal enclosures that contain electrical wires or equipment with
the grounding electrode conductor (all systems) and with the grounded
conductor of the system (grounded systems only).
Fig (4): Equipment ground
 The term equipment grounding conductor includes bare or insulated

conductors, metal raceways [rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit,
electrical metallic tubing (EMT)], and metal cable jackets where the Code
permits such metal raceways and cableenclosures to be used for
equipment grounding—which is a basic Code-required concept.
Equipment grounding function:
 When the insulation failure occurs on a grounded system,

equipment grounding serves to ensure adequate current flow to cause the
affected circuit’s over-current protective device to “open,” . This prevents the
enclosures from remaining energized, which would otherwise constitute a shock
or fire hazard.
What is “Grounding Electrode”?
 The grounding electrode is any one of the building or structural elements

that is in actual physical contact with the earth, such as: see fig.5
1. Metal Underground Water Pipe.

2. Metal Frame of the Building or Structure.
3. Concrete-Encased Electrode.
4. Ground Ring.
5. Rod and Pipe Electrodes.
6. Plate Electrodes.
7. Other Local Metal Underground Systems or Structures (such as
piping systems and underground tanks).
fig (5): grounding electrode Types
What is “Grounding Electrode Conductor”? See fig.5
 It is the connection between either the grounded conductor of a

grounded electrical system (typically the neutral) and
the grounding electrode system, or the connection between the equipment
ground bus and thegrounding electrode system for ungrounded systems.
 The conductor that runs from the bonded neutral block or busbar or
ground bus at service equipment, separately derived systems, or main
building disconnects to the system grounding electrode is clearly and
specifically identified as the “grounding electrode conductor.”
What is “Bonding Jumper”? See fig.6
 This is the connection between noncurrent-carrying metallic components

of the electrical system that are provided to ensure continuity.
 They may be bare, covered, or insulated conductors, or it may be a
mechanical device, such as screws often provided to connect a neutral terminal
bar to a service enclosure.
 The primary function or purpose of a bonding jumper is to provide a low
impedance electrically conductive connection between separate enclosures,
conduits, raceways, structures, or equipment frames.
 It must be properly sized to effectively carry any and all current likely to
be imposed on it.
fig (6): Bonding Jumper

What is Equipment Bonding Jumper? See fig.7
 These are bonding connections made between two portions of the

equipment groundingsystem.
fig (7): Equipment Bonding Jumper
 The purpose of the equipment bonding jumper is to provide the low-

impedance fault-current path necessary to facilitate the operation of
overcurrent protection devices in order to remove dangerous voltage potentials
between conductive parts of building components and electrical systems
What is “Main Bonding Jumper (MBJ)”? see fig.8
 A main bonding jumper provides the Code-required connection between

the grounded system conductor and the equipment ground bus at the service
equipment for a building or structure.
 The MBJ must be adequately sized to effectively carry all phase-to-ground
fault currentlikely to be imposed on it.
Fig (8): Main Bonding Jumper
 The connection between equipment ground and the grounding electrode

system in ungrounded services is a “bonding jumper,” but not a
“main bonding jumper.”
What is “System Bonding Jumper”? see fig.9

 The conductor, screw or strap that bonds the
equipment bonding conductor (metal parts of a separately derived system) to
one of the system conductors or terminal.
Fig (9): System Bonding Jumper
 The system bonding jumper provides the low-impedance fault-

current path to the source neutral for fault current.
 The primary function or purpose of the system bonding jumper is to
provide for an applicable reference to earth for the system voltage at the origins
of the specific and separately derived system. The system bonding jumper is a
connection between the Xo terminal of a transformer, generator, or UPS output
terminals and earth. This jumper is not normally sized to carry ground
fault current.
In the next Article, I will continue explaining An Introduction to Grounding System
Design. Please, keep following.
Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part Two
In Article " Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part One ", I explained the
following points:
 Differences between Grounding and Earthing Terms,
 Differences between Grounded and Grounding systems,
 Differences between Bonding and Grounding,
 Grounding and bonding systems definitions.
Today I will explain the Second Part of the Introduction to Grounding System Design as
follows.
1- How Earthing system works
 The grounding system is essential to complete an electrical path to ground

if there is non-designed or unanticipated above-normal potential current or
voltage surges during operating conditions. Personal injury, death or equipment
damage can result if the grounding system is not designed and installed properly
to guide these potentially dangerous charges safely to ground.
 The grounding systems under normal conditions carry NO current. The
only time they carry current is under abnormal conditions when an electrical
appliance or piece of electrical equipment is faulty and has become a potential
shock or fire hazard. Under a fault condition the grounding conductor that is
connected to the outer shell or sheet metal of the equipment or appliance must
be able to provide a very low resistance path back to the source of the power
(utility company's transformer) so that enough current will flow causing a
breaker or fuse to open the circuit and automatically disconnect the hazard from
the system.
 It is NOT the purpose of grounding system to send current through the
ground. Sending equipment fault currents through the earth can be a fatal
misunderstanding of how a grounding system works. For the most part, the only
time you intentially send current into the earth is during a lightning strike or line
surge due to a nearby lightning strike.
2- Construction of the Earthing System
The following factors must be considered in the construction of the earthing

system:
 Function,
 Type,
 Electrical properties,
 Construction material.
2-A Functions of Earthing Systems
The principle purposes for an “effectively bonded grounding system via a

low impedance path to earth” are intended to provide for the following:
 Provide for an applicable reference to earth to stabilize the system
voltage of a power distribution system during normal operations.
 Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in
a relatively controlled path.
 Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in
order for overcurrent protective devices and any ground fault protection
systems to operate effectively as designed and intended.
 Limit differences of potential, potential rise, or step gradients
between equipment and personnel, personnel and earth, equipment and
earth, or equipment to equipment.
 Limit voltage rise or potential differences imposed on a power
distribution system from lightning, a surge event, any phase-to-ground fault
conditions, or the inadvertent commingling of or the unintentional contact
with different voltage system.
A detailed explanation for each Function of Earthing System will

be discussed in below paragraphs.
2-A-1 Functions of Earthing Systems: Provide for an applicable reference to

earth to stabilize the system voltage of a power distribution system during
normal operations.
 The system voltage is determined by how the secondary winding of any
power or distribution transformer is actually configured as well as how the
windings are referenced to ground or earth.
 The primary function or purpose of the system bonding jumper is to
provide for an applicable reference to earth for the system voltage at the origins
of the specific and separately derived system to stabilize the voltage. (i.e.,
600Y/347V, 480Y/277V, or 208Y/120V, 3 Phase, 4 Wire, Solidly Grounded,
“WYE” Systems).
 The system bonding jumper is employed as a direct connection between
the Xo terminal of a supplying transformer, generator, or UPS output terminals
and earth.
 The system bonding jumper is usually connected within the same
enclosure as the power supply terminals and the jumper is not normally sized to
carry large magnitudes of phase-to-ground fault current.
2-A-2 Functions of Earthing Systems: Create a very low impedance path for
ground fault current to flow in a relatively controlled path.
 The exact point and time where a phase-to-ground fault might occur
cannot be determined.
 Depending on the exact point of the phase-to-ground fault within a
specific power distribution system, multiple return paths are likely to occur
between the point where the fault conductor makes contact with a conductive
surface and the Xo terminal of the supplying transformer or local standby
generator.
 It is desirable and preferred that the majority of the ground fault current
flow primarily in the specific equipment bonding jumpers and equipment ground
conductors directly associated with the fault circuit.
 If the impedance in the equipment bonding jumpers and equipment
ground conductors associated with the faulted circuit is too high, then
significant magnitudes of phase-to ground fault current will likely take various
other parallel paths in order to return to the source winding of the power
supply.
 Other uncontrolled and unexpected return paths can subject facility
personnel to dangerous touch potential differences which can cause death,
injury, or permanent damage to internal organs.
 Other unaffected equipment could be negatively affected or damaged by
potential rises and unintended flow of current.
2-A-3 Functions of Earthing Systems: Create a very low impedance path
for ground fault current to flow in order for overcurrent protective
devices and any ground fault protection systems to operate effectively as
designed and intended.
 During the time of the phase-to-ground faulted condition the

subjected equipment bonding jumpers and the equipment grounding
conductors are intended to function as a very low impedance path between
the point of the fault and the ground bus within the service equipment or
the stand by generator equipment.
 These affect equipment bonding jumpers and the equipment
grounding conductors constitute 50% of the total power circuit during the
period in which phase-to-ground fault current is flowing.
 If the impedance in the ground fault return path is not effective low
enough, then the overcurrent protective devices employed in the circuit as
fuses and thermal-magnetic circuit breaker will be ineffective to prevent
substantial equipment damage. If the impedance in the ground fault return
path is too high, then the resulting flow of phase-to-ground fault current
might actually be lower than the rating of the fuses and thermal-magnetic
circuit breakers installed to protect the affected circuit.
 Per NEC® 250-4(A)(5) in order to meet the requirements of an
effective ground-fault current path “electrical equipment and wiring and
other electrically conductive material likely to become energized shall be
installed in a manner that creates a permanent, low-impedance circuit
facilitating the operation of the overcurrent device or ground detector for
high-impedance grounded systems.”
 The ground fault current path must be capable of effectively and
safely carrying the maximum ground-fault current likely to be imposed on it
from any point in a specific power distribution system where a ground fault
may occur to the return to power supply source.
Notes:
 Earth can not be considered as an effective ground-fault current

path.
 Randomly inserting individual ground rods into the soil to connect to
remote electrical equipment will not provide an effective return path for
phase-to-ground fault current.
 The primary function or purpose of the main bonding jumper (or MBJ)
located within the service equipment is to provide a low impedance return
path for the return of phase-to-ground fault current from the ground bus in
the service equipment to the respective power supply source such as service
transformers, stand by generators, or the output terminals of onsite UPS via
the neutral conductors.
 The MBJ must be adequately sized to effectively carry all phase-to-
ground fault current likely to be imposed on it. In addition, the MBJ is
another bonding jumper that is often employed to stabilize the system
voltage with respect to ground or earth.
 The MBJ is only a small portion of the ground fault return path for
phase-to-ground fault current to return to the Xo terminal of the respect
power source.
2-A-4 Functions of Earthing Systems: Limit differences of potential, potential

rise, or step gradients between equipment and personnel, personnel and
earth, equipment and earth, or equipment to equipment.
 It is extremely important that all conductive surfaces and equipment
enclosures associated with any power distribution system be effective bonded
together via a low impedance path. Without a very low impedance path for
ground fault current to flow in a relatively controlled path potential rises or step
potential differences (touch and step voltages) are likely to occur at other
locations within the power distribution system.
 During non-faulted conditions part of the normal load current will flow
through the conductive surfaces, equipment enclosures, and earth if any current
carrying conductor is connected to earth at more than one location.
 If any grounded conductor (neutral) were to become connected to any
conductive surface or equipment enclosure downstream of the MBJ, then part of
the load current will flow through the conductive surface, equipment enclosure,
or the earth because a parallel path will have been created.
2-A-5 Functions of Earthing Systems: Limit voltage rise or potential

differences imposed on a power distribution system from lightning, a surge
event, any phase-to-ground fault conditions, or the inadvertent commingling
of or the unintentional contact with different voltage system.
 When lightning strikes an asset, facility or structure the return stroke
current will divide up among all parallel conductive paths between attachment
point and earth.
 The division of current will be inversely proportional to the path
impedance Z, (Z = R + XL, resistance plus inductive reactance).
 The resistance term should be very low, assuming effectively bonded
metallic conductors.
 The inductance and corresponding related inductive reactance presented
to the total return current will be determined by the combination of all the
individual inductive paths in parallel.
 The more parallel paths that exist in a bonding and grounding system will
equate to lower total impedance.
Types of Earthing System – Part One

In Article " Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part One ", I explained the
following points:
 Differences between Grounding and Earthing Terms,

 Differences between Grounded and Grounding systems,
 Differences between Bonding and Grounding,
 Grounding and bonding systems definitions.
Also, In Article " Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part Two ", I listed the
Factors that must be considered in the construction of the earthing system, which were:
1. Function,
2. Type,
3. Electrical properties,
4. Construction material.
And, I explained the Functions of the Earthing System in this Article.
Today I will explain the different Types of Earthing Systems as follows.
Types of Earthing System (on LV Systems and Within Premises)

Different Types Of Earthing Systems
the Earthing systems can be divided according to the following factors:
1. Function,
2. System size,
3. Neutral point connection to earth,
4. Neutral point connection to earth + the connection method of
the electrical installations exposed conductive parts.
Types of Earthing Systems according to its Function
Generally, the earthing systems can be divided to Six types according to

function as follows:
1. Static grounding,
2. Equipment grounding,
3. System grounding,
4. Lightning grounding,
5. Electronic (including computer) grounding,
6. Maintenance safety grounding.
All of these systems are installed similarly. However, their purposes are
quite different. Some of the systems carry little or no current. Others carry
small to moderate currents at 50 or 60 Hz. Still others must be able to carry
currents over a very broad range of frequencies in order to be considered
effective. In the following paragraphs, I will discuss each type in detailed.
1- Static Grounding
 A static grounding is a connection made between a piece of equipment

and the earth for the purpose of draining off static electricity charges before a
spark-over potential is reached.
 The Static grounding is applied for more than just the comfort of the
equipment operator.
 The possibility of an explosion ignited by an electrical spark must be
considered.
 Dry materials handling equipment, flammable liquids pumps and delivery
equipment, plastic piping systems, and explosive storage areas all need static
grounding protection systems installed and functioning properly.
 Static grounding systems are generally not called upon to conduct much
current at any given frequency.
 Smaller gauge, bare conductors, or brushes with metallic or conductive
bristles make up most parts of the static grounding system.
2- Equipment grounding "Safety grouding"
 An equipment grounding pertains to the interconnection and connection

to earth of all normally non-current carrying metal parts. This is done so the
metal parts with which a person might come into contact are always at or near
zero volts with respect to ground thereby protecting personnel from electric
shock hazards.
 Equipment grounding consists of grounding all non-current carrying metal
frames, supports, and enclosures of equipment. All these metallic parts must be
interconnected and grounded by a conductor in such a way as to ensure a path
of lowest impedance for the flow of ground fault current from any line to ground
fault point to the terminal at the system’s source.
 An equipment grounding conductor normally carries no current unless
there is an insulation failure. In this case the fault current will flow back to the
system source through the equipment grounding conductors to protect personnel
from electrical shock.
 The equipment grounding conductor must never be connected to any
other hot lines. Equipment grounding systems must be capable of carrying the
maximum ground fault current expected without overheating or posing an
explosion hazard.
 Equipment grounding may be called upon to conduct hundreds to
thousands of amperes at the line frequency during abnormal conditions.
 The Equipment grounding system must be sized and designed to keep the
equipment surface voltages, developed during such abnormal conditions, very
low.
 An example of this system is the bare copper wire (green conductor)
connected to the frames of electric motors, breaker panels, outlet boxes, etc.
Electrical supporting structures such as metal conduit, metal cable trays, or
metal enclosures should be electrically continuous and bonded to the protective
grounding scheme. Continuous grounding conductors such as a metallic raceway
or conduit or designated ground wires should always be installed from the
ground grid system to downstream distribution switchboards to ensure adequate
grounding throughout the electrical distribution system. Part of the equipment
ground is also formed by the switchgear ground bus.
3- System grounding "Functional earthing"
 A system ground refers to the condition of having one wire or point of an

electrical circuit connected to earth. This connection point is usually made at
the electrical neutral although not always.
 The purpose of a system grounding is to protect the equipment. This
ensures longer insulation life of motors, transformers, and other system
components.
 A system grounding also provides a low impedance path for fault currents
improving ground fault relaying selectivity.
 In a properly grounded system the secondary neutral of a power
transformer supplying a building or facility is connected to a transformer
grounding electrode. The transformer neutral is a part of the service entrance
point that bonds to the grounding electrode system of the building.
 According to the National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70, articles 250-81
and 250-83, metal underground water pipes, metal building frames, encased
electrodes, rods, and plates are among the items that can make up the
grounding electrode system of a building.
 The NEC article 250-83 requires that the size of the grounding electrode
iron or steel rod must be at least 5/8 inches in diameter and driven eight feet
deep.
 The resistance of the electrode to ground cannot exceed 25 ohms (NEC
250-84). Otherwise a second electrode should be added, and the distance
between the two electrodes must be at least six feet. However, in some systems
the 25 ohms resistance value cannot achieve the goals of grounding. They
require ground resistance values below ten ohms.
 If the main building load is composed of computers or sensitive electronic
equipment, the earth ground resistance should not exceed five ohms.
4- Lightning protection grounding

Main lightning protection grounding requirements are dependent upon the
structure, component, or system to be protected. This system will be discussed
later in separate Articles.
5- Electronic and computer grounding

 Grounding for all electronic systems, including computers and computer
networks, is a special case of the equipment ground and the system ground
carefully applied. In fact, grounding systems for electronic equipment are
generally the same as for system ground with an additional requirement, which
is the degree of performance required.
 Electronic equipment grounding systems must not only provide a means of
stabilizing input power system voltage levels, but also act as the zero voltage
reference point. However, the need to do so is not restricted to a low frequency
of a few hundred hertz. Grounding systems for modern electronic installations
must be able to provide effective grounding and bonding functions well into the
high frequency megahertz range. Effective grounding at 50-60 Hz may not be
effective at all for frequencies above 100 kilohertz.
 There are several aspects to the requirement for good grounding
performance for electronic equipment, all of which are due to electrical circuit
behavior.
 Good electronic system grounding performance is achieved with a
properly laid out distribution of multipoint, well bonded grounding connections.
This system can use bare, braided, sheet, or stranded copper conductors for
grounding or bonding functions. This system requires conduit and equipment
enclosure bonding at all junction points. In other words, simple metallic contact
between the enclosures, wiring conduits, and power panels is not enough. The
multipoint bonding provides low impedance grounding for the electronic
equipment. The low impedance between the separate items of electronic
equipment keeps the noise voltages at or near zero between them and,
therefore, provides an “equipotential plane.”
 This system is much easier to inspect and test. No special requirements
must be met during modifications or expansion of the electrical system.
 All power panels and all supply transformers feeding an installation with
this type of grounding system must be grouped and bonded together using short
lengths of bare, braided, sheet, or stranded copper conductors in order to
achieve the effective high frequency grounding performance described above.
 A single area of power entry with a large equipotential ground plane and
short equipment grounding conductors forms the preferred grounding system for
large automated data processing (ADP) and computer applications.
6- Maintenance safety grounding

 Grounds used for maintenance work are usually intentional, but
temporary, connections between equipment power conductors and ground.
These connections are always applied after the power source has been
turned off and the circuit(s) have been tested and are known to be de-
energized. The ground is intended to protect maintenance personnel from
an inadvertent re-energization of the circuit. The ground is removed after
maintenance operations have been completed.
Types Of Earthing Systems According To Its Size
Generally, the earthing systems can be divided to Two types according to

system size as follows:
1. simple
2. complex.
1- Simple Earthing Systems
Simple consist of a single ground electrode driven into the ground. The use of a
single ground electrode is the most common form of grounding and can be found
outside your home or place of business. This single electrode can be:
1- Single Ground Rod

One single ground electrode may be sufficient for an electrical installation in a
built up area where the local supply authority utilizes a multiple or common
multiple earth neutral system. However, it may not provide adequately low
impedance for lightning current injection.
2- Single Strip End Connected

This is a common option for installations where, because of rock, driving an
electrode is impractical.
It is not recommended for lightning protection systems as there is only one path.
Very high ground voltages will be experienced at the injection point.
3- Single Strip Center Connected

Since the connection to the strip is at the center, any fault/injection current
travels in two directions.
This layout has lower impedance, but it is generally not adequate for lightning
protection systems.
2- Complex grounding systems
Complex grounding systems consist of multiple ground rods connected, mesh or

grid networks, ground plates and ground loops. These systems are typically
installed at power generating substations, central offices and cell sites. Some
types of complex grounding system are:
1- Radial Grounding, Single Radials

A design that is well suited to lightning protection in areas of medium resistivity.
The radials can run to 100 feet in length.
2- Radial Grounding, Multiple Radials

Crows foot design. Well suited to lightning as it allows energy to diverge as each
conductor takes a share of the current, offering lower impedance. Voltage
gradients leading away from the injection point will be lower, reducing danger
from step potentials.
3- Equipotential Mesh Electrodes

Minimize the risk of step and touch potential hazard by positioning a mat and
bonding it to the structure or operating handle at locations where personnel may
be required to operate switchgear or stand in the course of their duties. Low
ground impedance.
4- Grid Electrodes
Grounding for installations where there is concentration of electrical equipment,
such as electrical substations, are often designed to meet a specific value of
resistance (typically 1 ohm).
Under fault conditions, a grid can dissipate currents over a large area.
5- Grid with Ground Rods

It may be advantageous to add ground rods to the grid. In doing so, it may be
possible to access a low resistivity soil layer. Care must be taken to ensure each
ground rod is spaced at least twice the installation depth.
6- Ring Electrode
Installations, including communications huts, pad mount transformers and fences
surrounding high voltage installations, are generally surrounded by a ground ring.
This practice also reduces the hazard of step and touch potential.
In the next Article, I will continue explaining Other Types of Earthing Systems. Please,
keep following.
Back To Course EE-5: Grounding System Design Calculations

Types of Earthing System – Part Two
In Article " Types of Earthing System – Part One ", I listed the Different Types of Earthing
Systems which can be divided according to the following factors:
1. Function,
2. System size,
3. Neutral point connection to earth (Neutral Grounding),
4. Neutral point connection to earth(Neutral Grounding) + the connection
method of the electrical installations exposed conductive parts (Frame Grounding).
And I explained the first two categories in this Article, showing that:
 Types of Earthing Systems according to its Function can be divided to Six types as
follows:
 And Types of Earthing Systems according To Its Size can be divided to Two types as
follows:
1. simple.
2. complex.
Today I will explain the Last Two Types of Earthing Systems as follows.
You can preview the following Articles for more info:
 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part One

 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part Two
Types of Earthing System (on LV Systems and Within Premises)
Different Types Of Earthing Systems

the Earthing systems can be divided according to the following factors:
1. Function,
2. System size,
4. Neutral point connection to earth + the connection method of
the electrical installations exposed conductive parts.
Types Of Earthing Systems According To Neutral Point Connection To

Earth (Neutral Grounding)
The Earthing systems can be divided to Five Types according to neutral

point connection to earth as follows:
1. The solidly (or directly) earthed neutral,

2. The unearthed neutral,
3. High impedance-earthed neutral,
4. Resistance earthing,
5. Reactance earthing,
6. Petersen coil earthing.
Types of Neutral Point Connection To Earth

1- Solidly earthed neutral
An electrical connection is intentionally made between the neutral point and
earth.
2- Unearthed neutral
There is no electrical connection between the neutral point and earth, except
for measuring and protective devices.
3- High impedance earthing

A high impedance is inserted between the neutral point and earth.
4- Resistance earthing
A resistor is inserted between the neutral point and earth.
5- Reactance earthing
A reactor is inserted between the neutral point and earth.
6- Petersen coil earthing

A reactor tuned to the network capacitances is inserted between the neutral
point and earth so that if an earth fault occurs, the fault current is zero.
Comparison between Neutral Grounding Methods
The performance characteristics of each neutral grounding method discussed

above can be compared as in below table:
Types Of Earthing Systems According To Neutral Point Connection To

Earth + The Connection Method Of The Electrical Installations Exposed
Conductive Parts.
According to Neutral point connection to earth + the connection method of

the electrical installations exposed conductive parts, The Earthing systems
can be divided to Five schemes as follows:
 3 Main Earthing Schemes,

 3 Sub-Main Earthing Schemes.
(3) Main Earthing Schemes
Each one of the 3 Main Types is defined by two letters as follows:
The First Letter:

It defines the situation of the neutral point in relation to earth, like:
T : solidly earthed neutral

I: unearthed or high impedance earthed neutral.
The Second Letter:

It defines the connection method of the electrical installation's exposed
conductive parts, like:
T : the exposed conductive parts are interconnected and solidly earthed,

regardless of whether the neutral point is earthed or not
N: the exposed conductive parts are directly connected to the neutral
conductor.
So the three main earthing systems will be:

IT (Unearthed transformer neutral, earthed frame),
TT (Transformer neutral earthed, and frame earthed),
TN (Transformer neutral earthed, frame connected to neutral).
(3) Sub-Main Earthing Schemes
The Three sub-main earthing system are derived from the main TN earthing
system as follows:
TNC (If the N and PE neutral conductors are one and the same (PEN))
TNS (If the N and PE neutral conductors are separate),
TNC-S (Use of a TN-S downstream from a TN-C (the opposite is
forbidden).
Where:
C : N and PE Combined,
S : N and PE Separate,
PEN: (Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor.
Note:
Each system earthing can be applied to an entire LV electrical installation;
however several system earthings may be included in the same installation.
IT earthing system
First letter I:
The neutral is unearthed or earthed via a high impedance, An impedance
between 1000 and 2000 Ω is frequently used.
Second letter T:
The exposed conductive parts of loads are interconnected, either altogether, or
in groups. Each interconnected group is connected to an earth electrode. It is
possible for one or several exposed conductive parts to be separately earthed.
Notes:
 Where possible, it is advisable to interconnect all the exposed conductive

parts of the same installation and connect them to the same earth electrode. It
is nonetheless possible for exposed conductive parts which are far away from
each other, or located in different buildings, not to be. In this case, each group
of exposed conductive parts connected to the same electrode and each
individually earthed exposed conductive part must be protected by a residual
current device.
 The earth electrodes of the exposed conductive parts and the neutral may
or may not be interconnected or the same.
 It is not advantageous to distribute the neutral which results in the
maximum length of wiring systems being reduced.
 Installing an overvoltage limiter between the neutral point of the MV/LV
transformer and earth is compulsory. If the neutral is not accessible, the
overvoltage limiter is installed between one phase and earth. It protects the low
voltage network against rises in voltage due to flashover between the
transformer medium voltage and low voltage windings.
TT earthing system
First letter T:
The neutral point is directly earthed.
Second letter T:
The exposed conductive parts of the loads are interconnected, either altogether,
or in groups, or individually, and are earthed. Protection is ensured by residual
current devices. All the exposed conductive parts protected by the same
protective device must be connected to the same earth electrode.
Note:
The neutral earth electrode and that of the exposed conductive parts may or
may not be interconnected or the same. The neutral may or may not be
distributed.
TN earthing system
First letter T:
The neutral point is directly earthed.
Second letter N:
The exposed conductive parts of the loads are connected to the neutral
conductor.
the TN earthing system can be divided to 3 sub-main earthing schemes as

follows:
1- TNC earthing system
Third letter C:
The neutral and protective conductors form a single conductor called the PEN.
Notes:
 It is advisable to regularly connect the PEN to earth.

 This system must not to be used for cross-sectional areas below 10 mm²
for copper or 16 mm² for aluminium, as well as for mobile wiring systems. It is
also forbidden downstream of a TNS system.
2- TNS earthing system
Third letter S: The neutral conductor and protective conductor are separate.
3- TNC-S earthing system

In TNC-S earthing system, both TNC and TNS earthing systems can be used in the
same installation. But the TNC earthing system (4 wires) must never be
downstream of the TNS earthing system (5 wires).
In the next Article, I will explain the Selection Criteria for the Best Earthing System.
Please, keep following.
Back To Course EE-5: Grounding System Design Calculations

How to Select the Best Earthing System
In Article " Types of Earthing System – Part One ", I listed the Different Types of Earthing
Systems which can be divided according to the following factors:
1. Function,
2. System size,
4. Neutral point connection to earth + the connection method of the electrical
installations exposed conductive parts.
And I explained the first two categories in this Article, showing that the Types of Earthing
Systems according to its Function can be divided to Six types as follows:
And the Types of Earthing Systems according To Its Size can be divided to Two types as
follows:
1. simple,
2. complex.
Also, In Article " Types of Earthing System – Part Two ", I explained the Types of Earthing
Systems according To Neutral point connection to earth, which were:
1. The solidly (or directly) earthed neutral,

2. The unearthed neutral,
3. High impedance-earthed neutral,
4. Resistance earthing,
5. Reactance earthing,
6. Petersen coil earthing.
And the Types of Earthing Systems according To Neutral point connection to earth + the
connection method of the electrical installations exposed conductive parts, which were:
1. IT (Unearthed transformer neutral, earthed frame),

2. TT (Transformer neutral earthed, and frame earthed),
3. TNC (If the N and PE neutral conductors are one and the same (PEN))
4. TNS (If the N and PE neutral conductors are separate),
5. TNC-S (Use of a TN-S downstream from a TN-C (the opposite is forbidden).
Today I will explain How to select the best earthing system for a new construction from
the above types as follows.

How to select the best earthing system for a new construction
Who decide which Type of Earthing Systems to be used?
For any new construction, three parties share in the Choice of earthing
system:
1. Electrical power users,

2. Network operators (electrical service),
3. Installation’s design engineering firms.
Experience shows however that the choice is mainly made by the

engineering firms designing the installation.
Criteria For Selection Of The Best Earthing System
the criteria used to make the best choice will be according to:
1. Country Regulations,
2. Country development,
3. Type of building,
4. Type of networks and building Loads,
5. Availability of Electrical Service,
6. Costs,
7. Complexity of design.
1- Country regulations
 The regulations or standards applied in the country in some cases impose

certain types of earthing system arrangements (SEA).
 The most common systems in most countries are TT and TN; a few
countries, in particular Norway, use the IT system.
 The table in below figure#1 lists some examples for LV earting systems
for public distribution (LV consumers) for different countries. This table shows
that Anglo-Saxon countries mainly use the TN-C, whereas the TT is used in the
rest of the world.
Fig.1: examples for LV earting systems for public distribution (LV
consumers) for different countries
2- Country development
 The degree of development of the country should also be taken into

consideration, as should be national practices, climate, etc.
 If we plot an axis from North to South, as regards public distribution,
we find the IT earthing system in Norway, TN-C in Germany, TT in France
and in most African countries.
 In temperate, industrial countries, all three earthing systems are
used in private installations.
3- Type of building
1- In a certain number of countries, for some buildings or parts of a building, the

choice is laid down by legislations or standards, e.g. for hospitals, schools, navy,
worksites, mines, etc. In other cases, certain earthing systems are strictly
prohibited, for example the TN-C in premises with explosion risks.
2- The required level of dependability should determine which earthing system is

chosen for a specific building type.
Dependability means that electrical power should thus always be available and
be completely risk-free, i.e. «out of sight, out of mind». The elements making
up installation dependability:
 Safety;
 Availability;
 Reliability;
 Maintainability,
 Proper operation of low current communicating systems
These elements must therefore be optimised. The table in below figure#

2 reviews the strong and weak points in each earthing system:
Fig.2: Comparison of system earthing arrangements
Note:
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements

(SEA) are equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed.
Consequently, selection does not depend on safety criteria.
4- Type of networks and building Loads
The particular characteristics of the network and the loads will affect the
selection of earthing system arrangements as in below table in figure#3.
Fig.3: Influence of networks and loads on the selection of
system earthing arrangements
5- Availability of Electrical Service

 The decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer
(MV subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-
winding transformer).
 If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken
following discussions with the network designer (design office,
contractor), The discussions must cover:
1. First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of

continuity of service) and the operating conditions (maintenance
ensured by electrical personnel or not, inhouse personnel or
outsourced, etc.)
2. Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the
loads as in fig.3.
6- Costs
 The TN-S is the least costly to install, for example if the neutral is
neither protected nor switched. But be warned: the cost of curative
maintenance can be high.
 The IT is slightly more costly to install (insulation monitoring and
insulation fault tracking devices). Search for maximum availability of
electrical power requires the presence of an electrical engineer, whose
action will minimize curative maintenance.
 The TT, if enough discriminating RCDs are installed, is slightly more
costly to install than the IT, but fault tracking is simple and curative
maintenance less costly than in TN.
Note:
In terms of complete cost over 10 to 20 years, all three earthing systems are
equivalent.
7-Complexity Of Design
 Designing is simpler in TT, the same for extensions (no calculations).

 Designing complexity is equivalent in TN-S and IT.
Steps For Choosing The Best Earthing System
Step#1: Firstly do not forget that the three system earthings can all be included
in the same electrical installation: This guarantees the best possible answer to
safety and availability needs (see below figure#4).
Fig.4: several earthing system included in the same LV installation.
Step#2: check that the choice is not specified or stipulated by standards or

legislation (decrees, ministerial decisions)
Step#3: dialogue with the user to get to know his requirements and resources,
and Generally (see table in figure#5 ):
1- Need for continuity of service and Whether or not there is a maintenance

service:
 Continuity of service and maintenance service: the IT will be chosen.

 Continuity of service and no maintenance service: No fully satisfactory
solution: Prefer the TT whose discrimination on tripping is easier to implement
and which minimises damage with respect to the TN. The installation of
additionnal output is easily achieved without the necessity of further
calculations.
 Continuity of service not essential and compent maintenance service:
prefer the TN-S (rapid repairs and extensions performed according to rules),
 Continuity of service not essential and no maintenance service: Prefer the
TT
2- Fire hazard
 IT if maintenance service and use of 0.5 A RCD or TT.
3- Safety
 The TT is the best.
4- Availability
 The IT is the most suitable.
5- Maintenability
 Fault tracking is fast in TN (thanks to the SCPD) but repair time is often
long.
 Conversely, in IT, tracking of the first fault may be more difficult, but
repairs are quicker and less costly.
 The TT is a good compromise.
6- Reliability
The protection devices used are reliable, but reliability of the installation and
loads may be affected:
a- In TN-C by the fact that the PEN, not protected, may be damaged by
harmonic currents;
b- In TN-C and TN-S:

 By insufficient rigour for extensions,
 By use of replacement sources with low short-circuit power,
 By the effects of electrodynamic forces;
c- In IT, on a double fault, the risks inherent in TN described above also exist.
However if tracking and elimination of the 1st fault are rapid, installation
reliability is excellent.
d- in TT, by disruptive breakdown by return of the loads due to a fault in the

HV/LV transformers. However the likelihood of this fault occurring is small and
preventive solutions are available, e.g. use of surge arresters between one of
the live conductors and the load earth connection.
7- Disturbance
 The TT is to be preferred to the TN-S whose high fault currents may be
the source of disturbance.
Fig.5: Comparison of system earthing arrangements according to its

dependability
Step#4: Finally allow for the special features of network and loads as follows:
 Very long network or, even more important, leakage current: Prefer the
TN-S,
 Use of replacement or standby power supplies: Prefer the TT,
 Loads sensitive to high fault currents (motors): Prefer the TT or IT,
 Loads with low natural insulation (furnaces) or with large HF filter (large
computers): Prefer the TN-S,
 Supply of control and monitoring systems: Perfer the IT (continuity of
service) or the TT (enhanced equipotentiality of communicating devices).
Earthing System Components – Part One

In Article " How to Select the Best Earthing System ", I explained the following points:
 Criteria for Selection of the Best Earthing System,

 Steps for Choosing the Best Earthing System.
Today I will explain The Construction and Components of Earthing Systems as follows.

 Types of Earthing System – Part One
 Types of Earthing System – Part Two
Earthing System Components
Earthing system in an installation is normally comprised of the following

components:
1. Earth wells and accessories,

2. Earthing grid conductors,
3. Marshalling earth buses (earthing distribution buses),
4. Earthing wires and cables.
1- Earth Wells and Accessories
 Earth wells for a specific building or installation are actually the location,
where the pure zero potential is provided and practically act as drain pits for
any rush current which accidentally appears in the earthing system grid in the
event of an earth fault (connection of electrical live parts to the earthing
system).
 There are different types of components can be used to set up an earth
well Depending on the following factors:
1. Soil conductivity of the location in which the earth wells are

installed,
2. The required technical specifications of the earthing system.
 However, the prime components and accessories of an earth well will be:
1. Earth Rod,
2. Earth Plate,
3. Earthing Clamp,
4. Earthing Rod Coupling,
5. Earthing Rod Tip,
6. Earthing Rod Driving Head with driving sleeve,
7. Earth Access Pit,
8. Earth Pit Cover,
9. Earth Enhancement Materials.
1.1 Earth Rods
 Depending on the design for a specific earth well, a number of rods

are driven into the ground by means of hammering or driving to form the
main earthing electrode in the earth well.
 The earth rod have three types:
1. Non-Sectional Ground Rods: have unthreaded top.

2. Sectional Ground Rods: have externally threaded top.
3. Sectional Ground Rods: have internally threaded top.
Notes:
 In Cases where two or more earth rods are to be driven, the

individual rods are coupled to each other by means of “earth rod coupling”.
 Ground rods coupling process are used to help reduce ground
resistance in poor soils such as sand and gravel.
 Doubling rod length theoretically reduces ground resistance about
40%.
1.1.1 Methods for Driving Earth Rod into Ground
Two methods are used to drive the rod into the ground:
1. Hammering: by using a hammer, a drive stud and rod tip.

2. Driving: by using a Driving Hammer Tool and Ground Rod Drive
Bit or using a Driving Hand Tool.
Notes:
 During the hammering or driving of rod into the ground, and to

protect the earth rod against impact of hammering, a “driving head” is
screwed onto the top of the rod.
 For easy and convenient driving of the earth rod into the ground an
earth rod tip with sharp point is screwed to the first rod.
 Earth rods are used in installation of plain earthing well where, based
on design specification of the earthing system, the carbon bedding is not
necessary and applicable.
1.1.2 Earth Rod Material
 UL467- 9.2.1 states that the solid rod electrode of copper or other
suitable non-ferrous metal, or a solid rod electrode of iron or steel with a
copper or other suitable non-ferrous metal or stainless steel jacket, shall
have a diameter not less than ½ inch thick.
 Also, UL467-9.2.2 states that the stainless steel jacket shall not be
less than 0.015 inches thick at any point.
 And UL467-9.2.6 states that the stainless steel jacket mentioned
above on a stainless steel rod shall be formed of an austenitic stainless steel
of the 18% chromium, 8% nickel type. And stainless steel ground rods are
used in corrosive soil conditions.
 Usually in Europe and Middle East, Earthing rod and the associated
accessories (coupling, tip and head) are made of both steel and copper. A
steel core, coated with pure copper to the appropriate thickness, provides
the sufficient rigidity for the earthing rod to help driving it straightly into
the ground without any harm and bending. The copper coating of the earth
rod provides the sufficient conductivity for the earthing system.
1.2.3 Earth Rod Dimensions
a- Diameter:
 Depending on the design specification of the earthing system and the

corresponding earthing wells, various earth rods of different dimensions
would be incorporated.
 As per UL467- 9.2.1, the solid rod electrode shall have a diameter not
less than ½ inch thick.
 In Europe and middle east, The range of diameter for the earth rods
vary from 13 mm to 25mm (13mm,16mm, 20mm, 25mm).
b- Length:
Different lengths of earthing rods are used in design and installation of earth
wells, The standard lengths are:
 In North America: 2, 3, 5, 8 and 10 feets.

 In europe and middle east: 1200mm, 2400 mm (2 × 1200 mm), 3600
mm (3 × 1200 mm) and 4800 mm (4 × 1200 mm).
1.2 Earth Plate
In earth wells with carbon beddings, earthing plates are normally used instead
of earthing rods. The earth plate is made of copper and shaped in the following
forms:
1. Flat rectangular copper plate,

2. Perforated rectangular copper plate (Earth Mat).
Copper ground plates are used instead or with the ground rods in the following
situations:
 In areas having little or no top soil,

 If it is required to enhance ground grid systems,
 In conjunction with earth enhancements materials.
For securing good electrical connections with the ground plate, ground plate
use:
1. One cable connector,

2. Two dual cable connectors,
3. 18 or 24 inches (depending on the plate size) copper conductor
exothermically welded to the plate cable connectors
Earth Plate Size:
The common sizes of ground plates are:
 In North America: 18 x 18 inches or 24 x 24 inches.

 In Europe:
1. The flat rectangular earth plate is normally 100 × 100 × 3 mm.

2. The standard cross section area for the copper rod or copper strips
used in construction of the perforated rectangular earth plate is normally
75 sq-mm.
Differences between Earth rods and Earth Plates

Earth rods and plates or any combination thereof can be used to achieve an
effective earth depending on the site conditions. The main difference
between Earth rods and Earth Plates is as follows:
 Earth rods take advantage of lower resistivity soils at greater depths

than normal excavation will allow.
 While, Earth plates are used to attain an effective earth in shallow
soils with underlying rocks or in locations with large amounts of buried
services. They can also provide protection at potentially dangerous places
eg HV switching positions.
1.3 Earthing Clamp
 Earthing grid conductors are connected to the earth rods, already driven
into the ground, by means of earthing clamps.
 This Connection between earth rod and Earthing grid conductors is
essentially made by tightly clamping of the grid conductor to the rod by one of
the two following methods:
1. Mechanical Clamps,
2. Exothermic Welding Clamping.
1- Mechanical Clamps:
 They are Used Where permanent connections are not appropriate,
mechanical clamps offer the ideal solution. These are typically used on smaller
scale installations where periodic disconnection for testing is required.
 The mechanical earhing clamp may come with one bolt or two bolts, the
two bolts give more good electrical connection with the earh rod.
 Mechanical Earthing clamps and associated bolts nuts, washers, etc. are
made of brass, bronze or copper.
 The mechanical earth clamps sizes shall be selected to accommodate the
diameters of earh rod and grounding conductors.
Types Of Mechanical Earthing Clamps:
1. Light duty type: this type is acceptable for electrical grounding

but not for lightning protection.
2. Heavy duty type: this type is acceptable for lightning protection
and requires 1-1/2 inches of surface contact between conductor and earth
rod.
2- Exothermic Welding Clamping:
 A simple, self-contained method of forming high quality electrical

connections which requires no external power or heat source. Connections are
made using the high temperature reaction of powdered copper oxide and
aluminium.
 Exothermic Welding connections allow conductors to carry higher currents
than other types of connections. They will never loosen, are highly conductive
and have excellent corrosion resistance.
 The Exothermic Welding will be explained later in separate aricle.
1.4 Earthing Rod Coupling
 In some cases, Depending on the design for a specific earth well, there is
need to drive two or more earth rods into the ground, the individual rods are
coupled to each other by means of “earth rod coupling”.
 There are three types of rod couplers according to the used type of
ground rods as follows:
1. Unthreaded Coupler for Non- sectional ground rods,
2. Threaded Coupler for sectional ground rods externally threaded,
3. Coupling Dowel for sectional ground rods internally threaded.
 The coupling material is essentially the same as the material for the earth
rod with respect to the rigidity and the required conductivity.
 Earth rod coupling shall have the same diameter of the earth rod.
1.5 Earth Rod Tip
 The earth rod tip is used for easy and convenient driving of the earth
rod into the ground because it secures a sharp head for the first rod driven
into ground.
 The earth rod tip material is not necessarily the same as the earth
rod itself, as only a rigid quality is essentially required for the tip other than
conductivity. Therefore the earth rod tip is primarily made of steel with
slight coating of the copper for conductivity purpose as well as protection
against corrosion reasons.
 Earth rod tip shall have the same diameter of the earth rod.
1.6 Earth Rod Driving Head with Driving Sleeve
During the hammering or driving of rod into the ground, and to protect the earth
rod against impact of hammering, a “driving head” is screwed onto the top of
the rod with a driving sleeve.
 So, the main function of driving sleeve is to prevent Mushrooming top of

ground rod while driving into ground.
 And, the main function of a driving head stud is to prevent damage to the
coupler or ground rod threads when driving the ground rods.
 The driving head material is not necessarily the same as the earth rod
itself, as only a rigid and robust quality is essentially required for the driving
head to withstand the impact of hammerings. Driving head is practically
discarded when the earth rods are all driven and installed in the ground.
Earthing System Components – Part Two
In Article " Earthing System Components – Part One ", I indicated that:

components:
1. Earth wells and accessories

2. Earthing grid conductors
3. Marshalling earth buses (earthing distribution buses)
the prime components and accessories of an earth well will be:
1. Earth Rod,
2. Earth Plate,
3. Earthing Clamp,
8. Earth Pit Cover,
Also in this Article, I explained the first six items; Earth Rod, Earth Plate, Earthing Clamp,
Earthing Rod Coupling, Earthing Rod Tip and Earthing Rod Driving Head with driving sleeve.
Today I will explain continue explaining other Components of Earthing Well and Earthing
Systems as follows.

 How to Select the Best Earthing System
Earthing System Components – Part Two
1.7 Earth Access Pit
 To provide access to the earth rod and its corresponding connection to

the earthing grid at the top section of the rod, a small pit-like space is
fabricated over the earth well, which is referred to as “earth pit”.
 For periodically measuring the electrical resistance of a buried ground
system, inspection pits are used as a means of access to the ground conductor.
To make electrical resistance measurements, remove the cover and attach a
lead from a resistance measuring instrument to the ground conductor.
1- Earth Pit Sizes:

Inspection pits are available in various sizes and materials.
2- Earth Pits Main Types:
A- According to location:
a- Light Weight Duty

Light-duty units are generally used. For example Plastic Light weight duty earth
pits are schedule 40 PVC.
b- Heavy Duty
For areas of high vehicular traffic, you should use heavy-duty inspection wells.
For example PlasticHeavy duty earth pits are schedule 80 PVC.
B- According to Material
Earth pit’s side walls are constructed of insulating material to appropriately

isolate the earth rod’s top connection from the surrounding soil and protect it
for furture reference test and maintenance practices.
The materials used for fabrication of Earth Pits are:
1. Polymer Concrete: Polymer Concrete reinforced with heavy weave

fiberglass resulting in high strength and minimal weight. Enclosures and
covers rated for 10,000 lbs. maximum load.
2. Light weight Polymer Concrete,
3. HDPE (High Density Polyethylene).
Note:
 Earth pits are essentially, constructed flush with respect to the
surrounding finished ground.
1.8 Earth Pit Cover
To protect the earth pits against ingression of foreign material, an appropriate

concrete cover is provided to be placed atop the earth pit.
The cover is equipped with a rigid handle for convenient removing and
replacement practices.
1- Earth Pit Cover Sizes:

Inspection pits covers are available in various sizes to accommodate the size of
their earthing pits.
2- Earth Pit Cover Materials:

The materials used for fabrication of Earth Pits Covers are:
 Cast iron grated cover,

 Flat steel cover,
 Plastic covers,
 Concrete covers.
the ASTM specifications for Earth Pit Covers are as in the below image.
1.9 Earth/ Ground Enhancement Materials (GEM)
 Only rarely do grounding system designers and contractors get to work on

a site with good grounding conditions.
 Even under ideal circumstances, soil structure can vary and make it
difficult to achieve uniform, low levels of resistivity across a wide area. Under
almost all soil conditions, the use of a ground enhancement material will
improve grounding effectiveness. Some are permanent and require no
maintenance.
1- Where and when Earth Enhancement Materials should be used?
Earth Enhancement Materials improves grounding effectiveness regardless of soil

conditions and provides excellent permanent conductivity:
 For areas with high resistance, such as rocky ground, mountain tops, and
sandy soil,
 As a backfill when you have to drill because the ground is too hard to
drive, or where ground rods cannot be driven, when used as a backfill for earth
electrodes, soil conditioning agents effectively act to increase the electrodes
surface area thus lowering its resistance to earth.
 Where limited space makes adequate grounding difficult by conventional
methods.
2- Types of Earth Enhancement Materials
Many types of Earth Enhancement Materials are used improves grounding

effectiveness regardless of soil conditions and provides excellent permanent
conductivity, Like:
A- Carbon and Salt Bedding

Depending on the technical design specification of the earthing system and
primarily for soil conductivity reasons of the area where the earth wells are to
be installed, the earth rods are embedded in carbon bedding. To install the
carbon bedded earth wells, pre-excavation of the ground, to sufficient size and
dimension, would be carried out to provide room for the carbon bedding and the
earthing components (rods, plates, etc.). To achieve the maximum conductivity
for the earth well, an appropriate amount of salt is added to the carbon and
mixed before charging into the earth well.
B- Marconite Compound
Marconite forms a permanent solution when mixed with cement and is used
when certain ground conditions make it difficult to obtain a reliable earth
resistance or installation might require a low resistance.
C- Bentonite Compound:
Bentonite can be supplied in powder or granular form and is a moisture retaining

clay which is used to reduce soil resistivity. It has two types:
1- Granular:
It’s easier to handle in granular form, the powder can cause dust in windy
conditions and below away, granular is the preferred option for filling trenches
where the conductor is covered with bentonite and the water poured over and
mixed in the trench.
2- Powder
Powder is the preferred method for pouring into bore holes to ensure the
mixture is a thin enough to reach the bottom of the bore hole, if diamond
drilling is required for deep holes possibly 40 meters and deeper and the
bentonite is to be pumped through the core into the hole, powder will be the
preferred option.
The above image clearly shows, GEM has a resistivity factor more than 20 times
lower than bentonite clay.
3- How to Specify GEM?
1. Ground enhancement material must be permanent and

maintenance-free (no recharging with salts or chemicals which may be
corrosive) and maintain its earth resistance with time.
2. It must set up firmly and not dissolve or decompose or otherwise
pollute the soil or the local water table.
3. The ground enhancement material shall be suitable for installation
in dry form, or in slurry form.
4. The ground enhancement material shall not depend on the
continuous presence of water to maintain its conductivity.
5. Ground enhancement material in its set form shall have a resistivity
of not more than 20 ohm-cm.
Note:
 When selecting a ground enhancement material be sure it is compatible

with the ground rod, conductor and connection material.
4- GEM Installation
GEM is supplied in easy-to-handle bags for one-man installation. GEM can be
installed dry or wet (recommended). GEM quickly absorbs moisture from the soil
when used dry, to reach its maximum conductivity in days. To accelerate curing
time, water can be added after GEM is installed, or it can be pre-mixed with
water.
A- Trench Installation
1. Dig a trench at least 4 inches wide x 30 inches deep or below the

frost line, whichever is deeper. Spread out enough GEM to uniformly cover
bottom of trench-about 1 inch deep.
2. Place conductor on top of GEM.
3. Spread more GEM on top of conductor to completely cover
conductor about 1 inch deep.
4. Carefully cover the GEM with soil to a depth of about 4 inches,
making sure not to expose the conductor. Tamp down the soil, and then
fill in the trench. For various trench widths and GEM thicknesses, see the
below table.
B- Ground Rod Backfill Installation
1. Auger a 3 inch or larger diameter hole to a depth of 6 inches less
than the length of the ground rod.
2. Place ground rod into augered hole and drive one foot (if possible)
into bottom of the hole. The top of the ground rod will be approximately
6 inches below grade. At this time, make any connections to ground rod
using CADWELD connections.
3. Pour the appropriate amount of GEM around the ground rod. To
ensure the GEM material completely fills the hole, tamp around the
ground rod with a pole.
4. Fill remainder of augered hole with soil removed during augering.
For various augered-hole diameters and depths, see the below table.
Notes:
 If premixing GEM into a slurry form, use a standard cement mixer or hard-
mix in a mixing box, wheelbarrow, etc. Use 1-1/2 to 2 gallons of clean water per
bag of GEM.
 Excess standing water must be removed from the hole.
Enhanced Ground Rod
 An Enhanced Ground Rod is a conductive hollow tube ground rod, usually

manufactured from 300 stainless steel or copper. They contain special
hygroscopic, electrolytic salts. These salts form a saline solution by absorbing
moisture out of the atmosphere. This saline solution leaches out of the bottom
of the rod, which gradually lowers resistivity of the surrounding soil, forming
"electrolytic roots" over time.
 To increase the efficacy of the Enhanced Ground Rod, a very low
resistance ground enhancement material is placed around the rod.
 A conductor is exothermically attached to the enhanced ground rod. This
conductor is called the tail. The tail direction is very important.
 Enhanced Ground Rod design allows the current, either lightning or
electrical fault, to maintain a downward sloping path to ground.
 There are two basic styles, vertical and horizontal (L-shaped) as in above
image. Enhanced Ground Rod includes a variety of lengths, sectionals and
different kits to meet many specific requirements.
Earthing System Components – Part Three
In Article " Earthing System Components – Part One ", I indicated that:

components:
1. Earth wells and accessories

2. Earthing grid conductors
3. Marshalling earth buses (earthing distribution buses)
the prime components and accessories of an earth well will be:
1. Earth Rod,
2. Earth Plate,
3. Earthing Clamp,
8. Earth Pit Cover,
Also in this Article, I explained the first six items of Earth Wells and Accessories; Earth
Rod, Earth Plate,Earthing Clamp, Earthing Rod Coupling, Earthing Rod Tip
and Earthing Rod Driving Head with driving sleeve.
And in Article " Earthing System Components – Part Two ", I explained the last three
items of Earth Wells and Accessories; Earth Access Pit, Earth Pit Cover and Earth
Enhancement Materials.
Today I will continue explaining other Earthing Systems components as follows.

2- Earthing Grid Conductors
All electrical earth wells in a specific residential, commercial and industrial

installation should essentially be interconnected to plant earthing systems with
cables, wires and tapes that form the main earthing grid.
First: Different Types of ground Grid Conductors:
Interconnecting conductors used for the grid are in the following forms:
1- Cable and wire system
The available conductors may be soft-drawn (copper wire that has been heat
treated) or hard-drawn (copper wire that has not been annealed after drawing),
the available grounding conductors are in the following forms:
1.1 Stranded Copper Conductors:
 Concentric Lay Soft-Drawn Bare Copper,

 Green Insulated Conductors (Concentric Lay Soft-Drawn Bare Copper with
PVC sheath or THW insulation),
 Tinned stranded copper conductor.
1.2 Solid Copper Conductors:
 Solid Single Soft-Drawn Bare Copper,

 Solid Single Soft-Drawn Bare Tinned Copper.
1.3 Flexible Copper Conductors: used as flexible earth bonding leads

 Bare copper round braids,
 Tinned copper round braids.
2- Flat tape system:
it give Low impedance than equivalent sized round conductor and it will be in
the following forms:
 Bare copper tapes,
 Tinned copper tapes,
 Bare Copper Flat Braid Conductors,
 Tinned Copper Flat Braid Conductors.
Note:
There are other types of grid conductors used especially for lightning protection
system and will be explained later in lightning protection system Articles.
Second: Selection criteria for the best grounding conductor for certain case:
There are two basic criteria for grounding conductor selection:
1- Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of the conductor must be of a robust nature,

sufficient for the environment as follows:
 The most common ground conductor is a soft drawn,

stranded copper conductor which used for direct buried grid in dry and
noncorrosive grounds.
 Flat copper strip / tape is also popular because it offers a large surface
area and usually used for direct buried grid in dry and non-corrosive grounds
(soils).
 PVC-Covered copper strip conductor: for direct buried grid in wet or
corrosive ground.
 Single core stranded copper conductor with PVC sheath: for direct buried
grid in wet or corrosive grounds.
Note:
When site conditions are corrosive towards copper (eg. sulphurous soil), a
tinned copper conductor is often the first choice.
2- Maximum Fault Current
 The cross sectional area of the conductor must be of sufficient size, so

that it shall successfully conduct the maximum fault (surge) current for a period,
which allows the operation of protection equipment (or the dissipation of this
energy).
 In some circumstances, the maximum fault current for the installation is
small. While a conductor of correspondingly small size could be used, a minimum
cross section often set by the governing authority or applicable Standards body
(to minimize potential damage likely to occur from any future excavation on the
site), is applied.
 Where higher fault conditions exist, the conductor size is determined by
considering the circumstances required to avoid fusing (melting) the conductor.
The accepted industry Standard is IEEE 80, Guide for Safety in
Substation Grounding.
Third: Ground Grid Conductors sizing
 Ground Grid Conductors sizing will be explained later in the Articles

for grounding system design calculations.
3- Marshaling Earth Bus

 To provide easy access to the earthing grid, particularly to make proper
and convenient connections of the equipment to the grid, several common
connection points in the form of a flat bar of copper material are established
and erected through out the grid and referred to as “earthing marshalling
points” or “earthing marshalling bus”, or simply as “earth bus”.
 The main incoming earthing cable connected to the earth bus is branched
off from the main earthing grid.
 The outgoing earthing cables, connected to the earth bus in one end, shall
be connected to the corresponding equipment on the other end.
 All the connections of the main incoming and outgoing earth cables shall
be made to the earth bus by means of appropriate:
1. Cable lugs the compression type and zink coating, using bolts, nuts,
flat washers and spring washers for well-tight connections,
2. Exothermic Welding process.
4- Earthing Wires (Cables)
 Connections between the marshalling earth buses and the equipments are
carried out by means of single wires or cables of appropriate size, which are
referred to as “earthingwire”, or “earthing link”. The connection between
the earthing buses and the earthinggrid is also made by means
of earthing cables.
 Connections of earthing wires (cables) on both ends is made by
appropriate:
1. Cable lugs the compression type and zink coating, using bolts, nuts,
flat washers and spring washers for well-tight connections,
2. Exothermic Welding process.
1- earthing wires (cables) Types
 Earthing wires and cables are used either bare or PVC-covered (preferably
bare) and are normally single core of the different cross section area, depending
on the designspecification.
2- Earthing wires (cables) sizing
 The common range of the cable size used is 16mm2, 25mm2, 35,50mm2
and 70mm2.Earthing wires (cables) of smaller and higher size could be used
depending on the designspecification and requirements.
 Earthing wires (cables) sizing will be explained later in the Articles
for grounding system design calculations.
Earthing Systems Design steps – Part One
In Article " Electrical Properties of the Earthing System ", I indicated that the electrical
properties of earthing system depend essentially on the following parameters:
 Earthing resistance,
 Configuration of the earth electrode and favourable earth surface potential
distribution,
 Adequate current carrying capacity,
 Long durability.
Theses parameters must be considered in earthing system design.
Today I will explain Steps of Earthing Systems’ Design Process as follows.

 Earthing System Components – Part One
 Earthing System Components – Part Two
 Earthing System Components – Part Three
Earthing Systems Design Steps
A grounding system design process has (3) main steps:
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
3. Grounding Design Calculations.
1- Data Collection
Once a need for grounding system design is established, data collection

must begin. These needed data provide the basis for all grounding design
and will be obtained from:
1. Facility official data,

2. Facility characteristics,
3. Nearby area data,
4. Electric Utility Data,
5. Engineering data,
6. Geographical data of the area,
7. Geological surveys.
1- Facility Official Data
These data include, but not limited to, the following:
1. Facility Name,
2. Facility owner,
3. Facility A/E Consultant (for new construction),
4. Facility address.
2- Facility Characteristics
The facility characteristics are represented by the following points:
A- Purpose Of Facility:
 Grounding needs vary according to function of the facility. The

grounding requirements of a power system will vary from those of electrical
equipment, lightning protection or for the proper function of electronic
equipment.
 Proper installation of appropriate grounding systems requires
knowledge of the needs and layout of the facility. A list of common
functions for general and special facilities is as follows:
1. Commercial building,
2. Industrial building,
3. Power Substation,
4. Airports,
5. Railways,
6. Fences and Gates,
7. Satellite station,
8. Marine communications centre,
9. Data centers,
10. Cellular radio site,
11. Oil and gas site,
12. Others.
B- Design Life Of Facility:
 The life time of the earthing system (which called The durability of
the earthing system) is from construction up to the time when, due to the
corrosion of metallic parts, electrical continuity is lost. The life time of the
earthing system should exceed the expected lifetime of the installation.
 For the majority of power installations, lifetime can exceed 25 years
and for power lines, 35 – 50 years. The earthing system should be included
in repair and maintenance cycles.
 Many installations are over 50 years old and during that time fault
levels have, in some cases, more than tripled. Therefore, the old design
may not be electrically safe or sufficiently robust to withstand the increased
fault levels.
C- Shape And Available Area Of Facility Site
 The earthing design practices for small dimension sites like small
substation have been quite well established.
 Earthing system for large installation like power stations and coal
processing plants require more sophisticated calculations to achieve safe
cost-effective designs.
D- Future Uses, Additions, Equipment For Facility
 For example, adding extra spare numbers of grounding and bonding

bars for bonding and grounding any future additions and equipment for the
facility.
3- Nearby Area Data
The area surrounding the facility usually has a reasonable effect on the
earthing system of that facility, this effect can be represented by the
following points:
A- Existing Structures And Their Grounding Systems:
 Many older facilities present the possibility of hazardous situations

existing during fault conditions for the following reasons:
1. The older facilities may not comply with the currently

accepted international standards.
2. Uncertainty concerning both the condition and effectiveness of
the existing eathing system.
3. In old facilities, in many instances the electrical hardware
becomes inadequate to handle the increasing fault currents with the
required degree of safety.
4. Many installations are over 50 years old and during that time
fault levels have, in some cases, more than tripled. Therefore, the
old design may not be electrically safe or sufficiently robust to
withstand the increased fault levels.
B- Adjacent Electrical Systems:
 Because of the increasing area of industrial installations, the

increasing density of power generating, transmission and distribution
equipment, the effect of power equipment on industrial equipment (such as
voltage rise) must be assessed, controlled and coordinated in the interest of
personnel and equipment safety in a cost-effective manner.
C- Nearby Metallic Structures:
 If any nearby metallic structures are exist in the vicinity, the earthing
details and locations are required for these structures which including:
1. Pipelines (e.g. water, gas, oil) stating the method of

installation in the soil (insulated or not insulated, on pipe supports
and bridges),
2. Fences (e.g. bare metal fences, bare wires or insulated wire),
3. Building construction details (e.g. Steel or reinforced
concrete),
4. Railway tracks, stating the foundation (e.g. Ballast or directly
embedded in paved soil) and isolation details,
5. Poles and other steel structures in immediate contact with the
soil or water or connected with the soil or water through concrete,
6. Rivers, streams, lakes, headwaters and soil water ponds of
hydro-electric power stations or pumped storage stations,
7. Communication lines,
8. Disused buried metal works.
D- Existing Ground Systems Located At The Site:
 Additional data is always helpful and can be collected from existing

ground systems located at the site. For example, driven rods at the location
can be tested using the 3-point fall-of-potential method or an induced
frequency test using a clamp-on ground resistance meter.
4- Electric Utility Data

The electric utility company needs to provide electrical data regarding the
facility, tower or substation under consideration.
A- For General Facility: The required data will be as follows:
 The maximum prospective short circuit current at the supply

terminals;
 For low voltage connections, the maximum earth loop impedance of
the earth fault path outside the installation;
 The type and rating of the distributor’s protective device or devices
nearest to the supply terminals;
 The type of earthing system applicable to the connection; and
 Fault clearing time.
B- For Substation And Overhead Transmission Lines Towers: The required

data will be as follows:
 The name of the substation or the number of the tower,

 The voltage level,
 The subtransient X/R ratio,
 In the case of towers, the line names of the substations involved, the
amount of current contributed by each substation in the event of a fault,
 Phase-to-ground fault current contributed by each power line circuit
 Fault clearing time,
 The make/type/number of overhead ground wires on each
tower/pole line and position with respect to the phase conductors,
 Ground wire continuity and bonding configuration back to the tower
and substation,
 The average distance from tower-to-tower and tower-to-substation,
 Typical tower/pole ground resistance: measured or design values,
 As-built drawings are often acquired and are useful for towers with
existing grounding systems. They are also useful in the case of modifications
and upgrades to existing substations, which will have extensive grounding
systems already installed.
5- Engineering Data
A- Site Drawings:
 The property map and general location plan of the substation should
provide good estimates of the area to be grounded.
 The proposed site drawings should show the layout of the high-voltage
tower or substation, and any additional construction for new equipment that
may be occurring on the site, including fencing and gate radius. Incoming power
and Telecom runs should also be included. In the case of high-voltage towers,
the height and spacing of the conductors carried on the tower, and any overhead
ground wires that may be installed on the tower, need to be detailed during the
survey. This information is needed to properly address all the touch and step
voltage concerns that may occur on the site.
B- Applicable Standards And Codes:
 Many codes and standards contain different grounding and bonding

requirements, it is important to know the standard or code requirements for
each installation’s earthing systems under design.
 A list of the most common Applicable Standards and codes for earthing
systems are represented in the below image.
6- Geographical Data Of The Area
A- Rainfall Data:
By comparing Recent rainfall data against the seasonal average, maxima and
minima for the area it may be ascertained whether the results are realistic or
not.
B- Seasonal Variations:
Recent weather patterns, moisture relative to maximum and minimum and the
magnitude of effect of seasonal variations. While difficult to quantify such
information does provide a useful context in which the resistivity test results
may be interpreted and a set of design data determined.
7- Geological Surveys
Geological data regarding strata types and thicknesses will give an indication of
the water retention properties of the upper layers and also the variation in
resistivity to be expected due to water content.
A- Geological Data:
 Topography, nature of soil material, presence of varouis layers, water

table, prevouis test data and civil earthworks (eg. Cut and fill).
 Where there is an option, a site should be chosen in one of the following
types of situations in the order of preference given:
1. wet marshy ground;

2. clay, loamy soil, arable land, clayey soil, clayey soil or loam mixed
with small quantities of sand;
3. clay and loam mixed with varying proportions of sand, gravel, and
stones;
4. Damp and wet sand, peat.
 Dry sand, gravel, chalk, limestone, whinstone, granite, any very stony
ground, and all locations where virgin rock is very close to the surface should be
avoided if possible.
 A site should be chosen where the moisture content is ideally
continuously within the range of 15% to 20%. A waterlogged location is not
essential unless the soil is sand or gravel.
 Care should be taken to avoid a site where water flows over it (e.g. the
bed of a stream) for the beneficial salts can be entirely removed from the soil in
such situations.
B- Corrosion Properties Of The Soil:
Determine Corrosion properties of the soil. Ascertain performance of any

existing earth electrode by inspection.
C- Soil Resistivity Survey:
 A comprehensive soil resistivity survey is key to creating an effective

earthing system, as inadequate or erroneous soil resistivity readings are likely to
result in a flawed design.
 Multiple accurate soil resistivity readings should be done at various depths
(usually 3 depths) across the site. As these results form the basis of the whole
earthing design, the experience of the designer is critical in ensuring correct
implementation of the test data.
Important Note:
Soil resistivity can be calculated from soil resistivity syrvey or can be estimated
from tables. In case that soil resistivity will be estimated from tables the no
need to perform the Geological Surveys.
Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two
In Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part One ", I indicated the following points:
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
And I explained the first step: Data Collection which includes the following points:
First Step: Data Collection


Also, in that Article, I explained all the above points except How to perform Soil
Resistivity Survey.
Today I will explain this point in detail as follows.

 Electrical Properties of the Earthing System
How to perform Soil resistivity Survey
Resistivity Definition
 Electrical Resistivity is the measurement of the specific resistance of

a given material. It is expressed in ohm-meters and represents the
resistance measured between two plates covering opposite sides of a 1 m
cube.
 Soil Resistivity is the key factor that determines the resistance or
performance of an electrical grounding system. It is the starting point of any
electrical grounding design.
Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity
There are many factors that affect on the value of the soil resistivity and
the earth resistivity depends significantly on these factors which are:
1. Physical Composition,
2. Moisture,
3. Chemical Composition,
4. Temperature.
These Factors were explained in detail in Article " Electrical Properties of
the Earthing System ". Please, review their effects on the soil resistivity in
the referred article.
Methods for Getting Soil Resistivity Value
In Earthing System Design, the Soil resistivity Value must be known by one of
the two following methods:
1. Estimation from soil resistivity tables according to the soil

nature.
2. Calculation from soil resistivity Testing.
In case that soil resistivity will be estimated from tables there is no need to
perform the Geological Surveys.
First Method: Estimation From Soil Resistivity Tables According To The

Soil Nature
Table 1
Effect of soil type on resistivity
Typical resistivity
Soil type
ohm-m
Marshy Ground 2 - 2.7
Loam and clay 4 - 150
Chalk 600 - 400
Sand 90 - 8000
Peat 200 upwards
Sandy Gravel 300 - 500
Rock 1000 upwards
Note:
Where no information is available about the value of ρ it is usually assumed
ρ = 100 Ωm.
Second Method: Calculation From Soil Resistivity Testing
What Is The Soil Resistivity Testing?
 Soil resistivity testing is the process of measuring a volume of soil to

determine the conductivity of the soil. The resulting soil resistivity is
expressed in ohm-meter or ohm-centimeter.
 Soil resistivity testing is the single most critical factor in electrical
grounding design. This is true when discussing simple electrical design, to
dedicated low-resistance grounding systems, or to the far more complex
issues involved in Ground Potential Rise Studies (GPR). Good soil models are
the basis of all grounding designs and they are developed from accurate soil
resistivity testing.
 This soil resistivity test is commonly performed at raw land sites,
during the design and planning of grounding systems specific to the tested
site.
Note:
it is not acceptable to make soil resistivity test for disturbed (backfilled)

land sites.
Methods Of Soil Resistivity Testing
There are mony methods used for soil resistivity testing which are:
1. The Wenner 4-Point Method,
2. General Method,
3. Schlumberger Method.
 The Wenner 4-point Method is by far the most used test method to
measure the resistivity of soil. Other methods such as the General and
Schlumberger methods which are infrequently used for grounding design
applications and vary only slightly in how the probes are spaced when
compared to the Wenner Method.
 Proper soil resistivity testing using the Wenner 4-point method is
recommended because of its accuracy.
Criteria For Soil Resistivity Test By Using Four (4) Probes Method
 The soil resistivity test spaces four (4) probes out at equal distances to
approximate the depth of the soil to be tested. This means that if the probes
spaced at 5’ distance across the earth, they will read 5’ in depth. The same is
true if you space the probes 40’ across the earth, you get a weighted average
soil resistance from 0’ down to 40’ in depth, and all points in between.
 Typical spacings will be 1’, 1.5’, 2’, 3’, 4.5’, 7’, 10’, etc., with each
spacing increasing from the preceding one by a factor of approximately 1.5 up to
the maximum spacing vale.
 The maximum spacing Value equal to (1 to 3) times the maximum
diagonal dimension of the grounding system being designed, resulting in a
maximum distance between the outer current electrodes of (3 to 9) times the
maximum diagonal dimension of the future grounding system.
 A current is passed through the outer two probes, and the potential
voltage is then measured between the two inner probes. A simple Ohm’s Law
equation determines the resistance.
 This set of measurements is typically repeated, albeit with shorter
maximum spacings, several times around the location at right angles and
diagonally to each other to ensure accurate readings.
 These readings are usually processed with computer software to
determine the actual resistivity of the soil as a function of depth.
Conducting a Wenner 4-point (or four-pin) Soil Resistivity Test
The following describes how to take one “traverse” or set of measurements. As

the “4-point” indicates, the test consists of 4 pins that must be inserted into the
earth.
1. The outer two pins are called the Current probes, C1 and C2. These
are the probes that inject current into the earth. The inner two probes
are the Potential probes, P1 and P2. These are the probes that take the
actual soil resistance measurement.
2. In the following Wenner 4-Point Test Setup diagram, a probe C1 is
driven into the earth at the corner of the area to be measured. Probes P1,
P2, & C2 are driven at 5’, 10’ & 15’ respectively from rod C1 in a straight
line to measure the soil resistivity from 0’ to 5’ in depth. C1 & C2 are the
outer probes and P1 & P2 are the inner probes. At this point, a known
current is applied across probes C1 & C2, while the resulting voltage is
measured across P1 & P2. Ohm’s law can then be applied to calculate the
measured apparent resistance.
3. Probes C2, P1 & P2 can then be moved out to 10’, 20’ & 30’ spacing
to measure the resistance of the earth from 0’ to 10’ in depth.
4. Continue moving the three probes (C2, P1 & P2) away from C1 at
equal intervals to approximate the depth of the soil to be measured.
Note:
the performance of the electrode can be influenced by soil resistivities at depths

that are considerably deeper than the depth of the electrode, particularly for
extensive horizontal electrodes, such as water pipes, building foundations or
grounding grids.
Soil Resistance Meters

There are basically two types of soil resistance meters:
1. Low-Frequency models,
2. High-Frequency models.
Both meter types can be used for 4-point & 3-point testing, and can even be
used as standard (2-point) volt meter for measuring common soil resistivity.
Criteria for Selecting the Best Soil Resistance Meters

Care should always be given when selecting a soil resistance meter, as the
electronics involved in signal filtering are highly specialized. Electrically
speaking, the earth can be a noisy place. Overhead power lines, electric
substations, railroad tracks, various signal transmitters and many other
sources contribute to signal noise found in any given location. Harmonics, 60
Hz background noise, and magnetic field coupling can distort the
measurement signal, resulting in apparent soil resistivity readings that are
larger by an order of magnitude, particularly with large spacings. Selecting
equipment with electronic packages capable of discriminating between these
signals is critical.
1- High-Frequency Meters
 High-Frequency soil resistance meters typically use a pulses operating

at 128 pulses per second, or other pulse rates except 60. These High-
Frequency meters typically suffer from the inability to generate sufficient
voltage to handle long traverses and generally should not be used for probe
spacings greater than 100 feet.
 Furthermore, the High-Frequency signal flowing in the current lead
induces a noise voltage in the potential leads, which cannot be completely
filtered out: this noise becomes greater than the measured signal as the soil
resistivity decreases and the pin spacing increases. High-Frequency meters
are less expensive than their Low-Frequency counterparts, and are by far the
most common meter used in soil resistivity testing.
2- Low-Frequency Meters
 Low-Frequency meters actually generate low frequency pulses (on the

order of 0.5 to 2.0 seconds per pulse), are the preferred equipment for soil
resistivity testing, as they do away with the induction problem from which
the High-Frequency meters suffer. However they can be very expensive to
purchase.
 Depending upon the equipment’s maximum voltage, Low-Frequency
meters can take readings with extremely large probe spacings and often many
thousands of feet in distance.
 Typically, the electronics filtering packages offered in Low-Frequency
meters are superior to those found in High-Frequency meters.
Proper Measurement of Soil Resistivity

For taking more accurate readings in the soil resistivity testing, the following
points must be considered:
 Take the seasonal variation in soil and its electrical characteristics and
therefore in ground resistance into consideration.
 Define the climatic condition (temperature, humidity, etc.) and soil
condition (moisture, temperature and chemical content) during the test.
 Refer to long term studies that have been done on soil resistivity
variations in the area of concern for adjustment of the measurement results.
 The Variations of measured resistivity when plotted versus probe spacing
indicate that the earth is non-uniform, and a two-layer soil model must be used.
Using a single-layer model in such a situation cause significant errors in
resistivity.
 Calculations based on two-layer soil model usually give correct values for
the ground resistance and for the step and touch potentials on the surface of the
ground. However, when the soil has a multilayer structure and certain
combination of different layers resistivity exist the two-layer model of the soil
may give unreasonable results.
The two layers required for the soil modeling are called:
1. Shallow Depth Readings,

2. Deep Readings.
1- Shallow Depth Readings

 Shallow depth readings, as little as 6” in depth, are exceedingly important
for most, if not all, grounding designs. As described above, the deeper soil
resistivity readings are actually weighted averages of the soil resistivity from the
earth surface down to depth, and include all the shallow resistance readings
above it. The trick in developing the final soil model is to pull out the actual
resistance of the soil at depth, and that requires “subtracting” the top layers
from the deep readings. The following figure demonstrates how the shallowest
readings impact deeper ones below it.
 As you can see in the following diagram, if you have a 5’ reading of 50
ohm-meters and a 10’ reading of 75-ohmmeter soil, the actual soil resistivity
from 5’ to 10’ might be 100 ohm-meters (the point here is to illustrate a
concept: pre-computed curves or computer software are needed to properly
interpret the data). The same follows true for larger pin spacings.
 The shallowest readings are used over and over again in determining the
actual resistivity at depth.
 Shallow depth readings of 6-inches, 1-foot, 1.5-feet, 2-feet and 2.5-feet
are important for grounding design, because grounding conductors are typically
buried at 1.5 to 2.5-feet below the surface of the earth. To accurately calculate
how those conductors will perform at these depths shallow soil readings must be
taken.
 These shallow readings become even more important when engineers
calculate Ground Potential Rise, Touch Voltages and Step Voltages.
 It is critical that the measurement probes and current probes be inserted
into the earth to the proper depth for shallow soil resistivity readings. If the
probes are driven too deep, then it can be difficult to resolve the resistivity of
the shallow soil.
 A rule of thumb is that the penetration depth of the potential probes
should be no more than 10% of the pin spacing, whereas the current probes must
not be driven more than 30% of the pin spacing.
2- Deep Readings
 Often, the type of meter used determines the maximum depth or spacing
that can be read. A general guideline is that High-Frequency soil resistivity
meters are good for no more than 100-feet pin spacings, particularly in low
resistivity soils.
 For greater pin spacings, Low-Frequency soil resistivity meters are
required. They can generate the required voltage needed to push the signal
through the soil at deep distances and detect a weak signal, free of induced
voltage from the current injection leads.
Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Three
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
In the above Article and Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two ", I explained
the first step: Data Collection which includes the following points:
First Step: Data Collection


Today I will explain the second step of earthing system design which is Data Analysis as
follows.

Second Step: Data Analysis
Once all the soil resistivity data is collected, the data analysis begin by
which we can calculate two values of soil resistivity as follows:
1. Apparent Resistivity,
2. Actual Resistivity.
1- Apparent Resistivity
It called apparent because it does not correspond to the actual resistivity of the
soil and it can be calculated in ohm-meters by using Soil Resistivity Structure SRS
Modeling in the following procedure:
Step#1: assign the used type of the Soil Resistivity Structure SRS Modeling types
which are:
1. The Uniform Model,

2. The two-layer model,
3. The Multi-Layer model,
Note: the multi-layer modeling doesn’t be used to calculate the Apparent

Resistivity values, but it is used to calculate the Actual values by using computer
based programs.
Step#2: Calculate The Apparent Resistivity for depth (a).
Step#3: Repeat step#1 for several depths to get a series of readings at different
values of a, as well as in a 90 degree turned axis.
Step#4: tabulate or plot the results to get a good idea of how the resistivity is
changing with depth and will indicate the best type of earthing electrode system
to design for the subject site. The table in below figure shows a typical record
sheet for resistivity measurements.
Step#5: Calculate The Apparent Resistivity as follows:
 In case of using the uniform model, the apparent resistivity will be
calculated by using the uniform model equation.
 In case of using The two-layer model, the apparent resistivity will be
calculated by using one of the following two methods:
1. The Two-Layer Model Equations,

2. The Two-Layer Model Curves.
Step#1: Soil Resistivity Structure SRS Modeling
There are many types of SRS models as follows:
1. The Uniform Model,

2. The Two-Layer Model,
3. The Multi-Layer Model.
Note: According to IEEE 80, two layers SRS are often a good approximation
of many soil structures.
1- The Uniform Model
A uniform SRS should only be used if the variation in the measured apparent
resistivity is low, this has a rare occurrence in practice. If a large variation
occurs, the uniform soil is unlikely to yield accurate results.
2-The Two-Layer Model
 During the two layer approach, the electrode will be exposed to

different soil resistivity which represents a more realistic approach; also the
safety assessment will address the top layer resistivity which in its turn
represents a more practical situation.
 Understanding the soil layers resistivity supports the designer in
determining the type of earth grid that yields to an adequate solution,
below is a couple of cases under different soil structures:
1. Low resistance layer overlaying higher resistivity layer, mesh

grid will have a better influence than driving electrodes into the high
resistivity layer.
2. High resistivity layer overlaying a lower resistivity layer, a
deep electrode used to reach the lower resistivity layer will enhance
the performance of the earth grid.
 However, the two layer model is considered sufficiently accurate for

modeling the behavior of grids in the majority of cases. If more than two
layers are identified, the lower layers are usually combined to form a two
layer equivalent model. This is done because the surface potentials are
closely related to the upper layer resistivity, whilst the grid resistance,
which is primarily effected by the deeper layers, is not usually adversely
affected by this simplification.
3- The Multi-Layer Model

The multi-layer model is useful in providing more accurate information
regarding the presence of lower resistivity layers, and hence optimizing rod
driving depths.
Note: the multi-layer modeling doesn’t be used to calculate the Apparent

Resistivity values, but it is used to calculate the Actual values by using
computer based programs.
Step#2: The Apparent Resistivity Formula
The below formula is Using the Wenner Array method, four small electrodes
(auxiliary probes) are placed in a straight line at intervals of (A) , to a depth of
(B). A current is passed through the outer two probes, and the potential voltage
is then measured between the two inner probes. A simple Ohm’s Law equation
determines the resistance.
For most practical circumstances, (A) is twenty times larger than (B), where we
can then make the assumption that B=0.
Then the Resistivity (ρ) is given by: ρ= 2 ∏a R = 1.915 A R
Where:
ρ= resistivity of the local soil (Ω-m)

A= distance between probes (m)
B = depth of probes into the ground (m)
R = resistance value measured by the testing device (Ω)
For example, if an apparent soil resistance of 4.5 ohms is at a 40-foot spacing,

the soil resistivity in ohm-meters would be 344.7 Ω-m.
Step#5: Calculate the Apparent Resistivity
Case#1: using the uniform model
The apparent resistivity will be calculated by using the uniform model equation
as follows:
Case#2: using the two-layer model
The apparent resistivity will be calculated by using one of the following two
methods:
Method#1: The Two-Layer Model Equations
When using two-layer soil structure to determine the grid resistance, it is

important to determine the reflection factor K.
The below Equation shows the computation of the reflection K:

The apparent soil resistivity utilizes the characteristics of the two-layer
structure as shown in the following equations:
Method#2: The Two-Layer Model Curves
The two -layer soil model can be approximate by using graphical methods
described in Sunde’s chart illustrated un the below figure.
The two- layer structure consists of the characteristics shown in the below
Table.
2- Actual resistivity
 With all the available data, the actual soil resistivity can be
determined by using sophisticated computer programs to provide a soil
model showing the soil resistivity in ohm-meters and at various layer depths.
 Knowing at what depth the most conductive soil is located for the
site allows the design engineer to model a system to meet the needs of the
application. Computer based techniques are best used to identify two or
more soil resistivity layers.
 However, the Actual Resistivity calculations by using Computer
programs are not in the scope of this course.
Case Study:
Multiple soil resistivity field tests are conducted at different locations, the below Table
represents the field data.
Solution:
 Using the uniform model equation to determine the average soil structure for these
(5) different conditions,
So,
Field Study #1: ρ = (27.8+23.3+39.9+31.8+40.5+48.8+62.3+79.1+106)/9 = 51.05Ωm
Field Study #2: ρ = 603.88Ωm
 CDEGS software program is used to determine the two layer soil structure for these
proposed case studies as in the below figure.
In the next Article, I will explain Th
Earthing Systems Design Steps – Part Four
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
In the above Article and Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two ", I explained
the first step: Data Collection.
Also, in Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Three ", I explained the second
step: Data Analysis.
Today I will explain the third step of earthing system design which is Grounding Design
Calculations as follows.

Third Step: Earthing System Design Calculations
Under this title, I will differentiate between two types of buildings as

follows:
1. Substations buildings,
2. Other Non-Substation Buildings which can be called – in this
course – General buildings.
The design process of a substation grounding system requires many steps as

established by the IEEE Standard 80, and it is more complicated than that of
the general building (Non-substation buildings). However, the design process
of a substation grounding system is not under the scope of this course.
What we are going to design for grounding system in any building?
Grounding system in any building can be broken down into several

subdivisions:
1. The building exterior grounds,

2. The electrical service grounding,
3. The building interior bonding,
4. Equipment grounding and bonding,
5. Lightning protection.
First: The Building Exterior Grounds
Generally, the building exterior grounds consists of:
1. The building’s perimeter grounds,

2. Fence grounds,
3. Other grounds.
1- The Building’s Perimeter Grounds
The building’s perimeter grounds consist of the following components:
1. A copper conductor that is directly buried in the earth and installed

around the perimeter of the building. The steel building columns are
bonded to this conductor to complete the grounding system.
2. The columns around the perimeter of the building are excellent
grounding electrodes and provide a good path into the earth for any fault
currents that may be imposed on the system.
Note:
In some cases, an electrical design requires ground rods to be installed in

addition to the perimeter ground ring. The use of ground rods helps to minimize
the effects of dry or frozen soil on the overall impedance of the perimeter
ground system. This is because the ground rods can reach deeper into the earth
where the soil moisture content may be higher or the soil may not have frozen.
Design Recommendations For Building’s Perimeter Grounds:
 The electrical designer, based on the size and usage of the building, will
determine whether every column or just some of the columns are bonded.
However, at least one column every 50 feet shall be connected to the above
described ground ring. (see Fig. 1)
Fig. 1
 The size of the ground ring will depend upon the size of the electrical
service but is seldom less than 1/0 AWG copper.
 It is recommended that the ground ring and ground rods be copper or
copperbonded steel and installed at least 24 inch from the foundation footer and
18 inch outside the roof drip line. This location will allow for the greatest use of
the water coming off of the roof to maintain a good soil moisture content.
 “Triad” ground rod arrangements (rods placed in a triangular
configuration) are sometimes specified, usually at the corners of the building or
structure. Figure 2 shows possible conductor/ground rod configurations. Triad
arrangements are not recommended unless the spacing between the ground rods
is equal to or greater than the individual ground rod length.
Fig. 2
 Three rods in a straight line spaced at least equal to the length of the
individual ground rods are more efficient and result in a lower overall system
impedance.
 When the required resistance is not achieved using the usual grounding
layouts, a prefabricated wire mesh can be added to lower the overall grounding
impedance (see Fig. 3). Prefabricated wire mesh products are existing in sizes
ranging from No. 6 to No. 12 AWG solid conductors.
Fig. 3
 Another method which can be used to lower the grounding system

impedance is ground enhancement materials. These materials can be added
around ground rods or other conductors to enhance system performance. (see
Fig. 4)
Fig. 4
2- Fence Grounds
 The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) recommends that where

fences are required to be grounded, such grounding shall be designed to limit
touch, step and transferred voltages in accordance with industry practice.
 The NESC requires that the grounding connection be made either to the
grounding system of the enclosed equipment or to a separate ground. In
addition, the NESC in Section 92E, lists six separate requirements for fences:
1- Where gates are installed, the fence shall be grounded at each side of the
gate or similar opening (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5
2- If a conducting gate is used, a buried bonding jumper must be installed across

the opening (see Fig. 5).
3- Where gates are installed, they shall be bonded to the fence, grounding
conductor or other bonding jumper (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6
4- If the fence posts consist of a conducting material, the grounding conductor
must be connected to the fence posts with a suitable connecting means (see Fig.
6).
5- If the fence contains sections of barbed wire, the barbed wire must also be
bonded to the fence, grounding conductor or other bonding jumper (see Fig. 6).
6- If the fence posts consist of a nonconducting material, a bonding connection

shall be made to the fence mesh strands and barbed wire strands at each
grounding conductor point (see Fig. 6).
 Any fence around a substation on the property should be grounded and

tied into the substation ground system. If a facility fence meets the substation
fence, it is recommended to isolate the two fences to prevent any fault in the
substation from being transferred throughout the facility using the fence as the
conductor (see Fig. 7).
Fig. 7
3- Other Grounds
Other grounds that are located on the outside of the building that should be
considered are:
1. Handhole, manhole and pull box covers,

2. Metal poles,
3. Lighting fixture standards,
4. Rails.
A- Handhole, Manhole And Pull Box Covers
 Handhole, manhole and pull box covers, if conductive, should be bonded

to the grounding system using a flexible grounding conductor (see Fig. 8).
Fig. 8
 The NEC Section 370-40 (d) requires that a means be provided in each
metal box for the connection of an equipment grounding conductor. Metal covers
for pull boxes, junction boxes or conduit bodies shall also be grounded if they
are exposed and likely to become energized.
B- Metal Poles
 The NEC in Section 410-15 (b) Exception, permits metal poles, less than
20 feet (6.4 m) in height to be installed without handholes if the pole is provided
with a hinged base. Both parts of the hinged base are required to be bonded to
ensure the required low impedance connection. (see Fig. 8)
C- Lighting Fixture Standards
Lighting standards in parking lots and other areas where the public may contact
them should be grounded (see Fig. 8). Keep in mind that the earth cannot serve
as the sole equipment grounding conductor. Light standards which are grounded
by the use of a separate ground rod must also be grounded with an equipment
grounding conductor to ensure that the overcurrent protective device will
operate.
D- Rails
Rails or sidings into hazardous locations such as grain storage facilities,

ammunition dumps, etc., should also be properly bonded and grounded (see Fig.
8). Designers and installers must not forget that distant lightning strikes can
travel through the rails for many miles.
Installation Recommendation For Building Exterior Grounds
 Installers of these perimeter ground systems need to provide a “water

stop” for each grounding conductor that passes through a foundation wall. This
is especially important when the grounding conductor passes through the
foundation wall at a point that is below the water table. The water stop ensures
that moisture will not enter the building by following the conductor strands and
seeping into the building. A CADWELD Type SS (splice) in the un-spliced
conductor and imbedded into the concrete wall provides the required water stop
(see Fig. 9).
Fig. 9
 When “inspection wells” are required to expose points from which to

measure system resistance, several methods are available. Inspection wells are
usually placed over a ground rod.
 If the grounding conductors do not have to be disconnected from the rod,
the conductors can be welded to the rod, and a plastic pipe, a clay pipe, or a
commercial box. (see Fig. 9)., can be placed over the rod. The plastic pipe also
works well when an existing connection must be repeatedly checked, since it
can be custom made in the field to be installed over an existing connection. If
the conductors must be removed from the rod to enable resistance
measurements to be made, either a bolted connector or lug may be used (see
Fig. 9).
 Grounding conductors shall be protected against physical damage
wherever they are accessible (see Fig. 10).
Fig. 10
 Grounding conductors installed as separate conductors in metal raceways

always must be bonded at both ends to ensure that current flow is not choked
off by the inductive element of the circuit.
In the next Article

Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Five

1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
In the above Article and Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two ", I
explained the first step: Data Collection.
And in Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Four ", I explained What we are
going to design for grounding system in any building?

subdivisions:

In this Article, I explained the Building Exterior Grounds and Today I will explain Other
Building’s Earthing System Divisions as follows.
Second: Electrical Service Grounding
Article 230 of the NEC contains the requirements for installing electrical services for
buildings and dwellings.
Note:
Electrical designers, however, should keep in mind that local authorities,

including local electrical utilities, often have requirements which supersede
or augment the NEC. Electrical designers should contact the local
authorities and determine if requirements for electrical services exist which
differ from the NEC.
NEC Requirements for grounding electrical services
The requirements for grounding electrical services are contained in Article 250 of the NEC
as follows:
1- Section 250-24(a) requires that a grounded electrical system, which supplies a building
or structure, shall have at each service a grounding electrode conductor connected to the
grounding electrode system.
2- The grounding electrode conductor shall also be connected to the grounded service
conductor in order to:
 Limit the voltage to ground imposed on the system by lightning, line surges, and
(unintentional) high-voltage crossovers.
 Stabilize the voltage to ground during normal operation, including short circuits.
3- This connection may occur at any accessible point from the load end of the service drop
or service lateral to the grounded conductor (neutral) terminal block in the service
disconnecting means. There are Three locations where 250.24(A)(1) permits the grounding
electrode conductor to be connected to the ground service conductor as follows
(see fig.1):
 At load end of service drop,

 In accessible meter enclosure,
 In service disconnecting means.
Fig-1
4- Outdoor installations (like Outdoor Transformers) must have a grounding electrode,

either at the transformer or elsewhere outside the building which must be connected to
the grounded service conductor.Fig.2 illustrates two grounding electrode connections, one
at the service equipment installed inside the building and one installed at the
transformer, located outside of the building.
Fig-2
Third: The Building Interior Bonding
Keep in mind that the purpose of bonding is different from that of grounding as in below
table:
Bonding Grounding
definition Bonding is connecting Grounding is an intentional
Metallic components of connection to the earth or some
electrical systems to ensure other conducting body that serves
electrical continuity of the in place of the earth.
components and the capacity
to conduct safely any fault
Current likely to be imposed.
The The purpose of bonding is to The purpose of grounding

purpose create an equipotential plane conductive materials, such as
that ensures that all metallic metal raceways and equipment
components are at the same enclosures, is:
potential to ground.
1. To limit and stabilize
the voltage to ground on
such enclosures because
Unintentional contact with
higher voltage lines or
lightning strikes results in
increased voltages on the
electrical equipment.
2. To provide a low
impedance path for ground-
fault current. The low
impedance path ensures that
the overcurrent device
which is protecting the
conductors will operate.
The Building Interior Bonding
Building Interior Bonding can be broken down into several subdivisions:
1. Bonding of Equipment for Services.

2. Bonding for Other Systems
3. Bonding Other Enclosures.
4. Bonding for Over 250 Volts
5. Bonding of Piping Systems and Exposed Structural Steel.
6. Bonding of Interior Metal Columns and Beams.
1- Bonding of Equipment for Services
Definition:
Service equipment is any equipment necessary for the main control and
means of cutoff of the supply of electricity to a building or structure.
1.1 Requirements for Bonding of Equipment for Services
The following service equipment must be effectively bonded together:

 Service raceways, cable trays, service cable armor/sheath, cablebus framework,
service equipment enclosures and any metallic raceways which contain a grounding
electrode conductor.
 All enclosures containing service conductors, including meter fittings, boxes, or the
like, interposed in the service raceway or armor
Note:
Standard locknuts, sealing locknuts, and metal bushings are not acceptable
as the sole means for bonding a raceway or cable to an enclosure on the line
side of the service disconnecting means regardless of the type of or
condition of the knockout (see fig.3). Electrical continuity has to be
ensured through the use of a supply-side bonding jumper that connects the
raceway to the enclosure.
Fig-3
1.2 Bonding Methods of Equipment for Services
Five basic methods are listed, any one of which can be used to bond the service
equipment together:
 The first method: using the grounded service conductor. On the line side of the
service equipment there is no separate equipment grounding conductor. The grounded
conductor assumes this role on the line side of the service. The permissible means for any
connection made to the grounded conductor include CADWELD exothermic welded
connections, listed pressure connectors (wirenuts), listed clamps, and other listed means.
 The second method: using threaded connections. This includes threaded couplings
or bosses. It is important that these connections be made wrenchtight to ensure a low
impedance connection.
 The third method: using threadless couplings or connectors. These fittings are
available for rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit and EMT. Once again it is
important that the connections be made up wrenchtight to ensure the low impedance
ground path. Installers should note that the NEC specifically prohibits the use of standard
locknuts or bushings, even if a double arrangement is used, (one on the inside and one on
the outside) to achieve the bonding required by this section.
 The fourth method: using bonding jumpers. Bonding jumpers ensure electrical
continuity by providing a low impedance path across concentric or eccentric knockouts
that may be part of the service equipment.
 The fifth method: using other approved devices. This would include fittings such
as bonding-type locknuts and grounding bushings (see fig.4). These fittings are designed to
make good contact with the metal enclosure and help to ensure good electrical continuity.
Fig-4
2- Bonding for Other Systems

 Other systems (communication circuits, radio and television equipment and CATV
circuits) may be present in the building or structure. An accessible means must be left at
the service equipment, in an external location, which can be used for connecting bonding
and grounding conductors of other systems (see fig.5). Recall NEC Section 250-58 requires
a common grounding electrode system to be installed and prohibits separate grounding
system installations to minimize the occurrence of potential differences in equipment in
which multiple systems interface.
Fig-5
 There are three permissible methods to facilitate the interconnection of these

systems:
1. The first method: using the exposed metallic service raceways.

2. The second method: is to connect to the exposed GEC.
3. The third method: is to bond a copper or other corrosion-resistant
conductor of at least a No. 6 AWG copper, to the service raceway or equipment.
3- Bonding Other Enclosures

 In addition to the service equipment enclosures, other noncurrent-carrying
enclosures are also required to be bonded by the NEC. Section 250-96 requires that metal
raceways, cable trays, cable armor, cable sheaths, enclosures, frames, fittings and any
other metal noncurrent-carrying parts be bonded if they are to serve as grounding
conductors. This requirement applies regardless of whether a supplementary equipment
grounding conductor is present.
 The purpose of this rule is to ensure that these metallic components cannot
become energized because they are isolated from a low impedance ground path. If these
components were not properly bonded and they were to become energized due to some
fault condition, the overcurrent device may not operate. This would result in personnel
being put at risk to serious electrical shock hazards.
Note:
Prior to making any bonding or grounding connection, Any nonconductive

paint, enamel, or similar coating shall be removed from the metal surface
to which they are making a connection. Failure to do so could drastically
increase the impedance of the ground path.
In the next Article

Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Six

1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
And in Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Four " I explained What we are
going to design forgrounding system in any building?

subdivisions:

In this Article, I explained the Building Exterior Grounds and Today I will explain Other
Building’s EarthingSystem Divisions as follows.

In Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Five ", I indicated the five subdivisions of
The Building Interior Bonding which were:

6. Bonding of Interior Metal Columns and Beams
And I explained three subdivisions in this article and today I will continue explaining other
subdivisions of The Building Interior Bonding.
4- Bonding for Over 250 Volts
4.1 The bonding requirements for electrical circuits which operate at over 250 volts to
ground:
NEC Section 250-97 requires that such circuits be bonded to ensure electrical continuity of
metal raceways or cable armors or sheaths that contain any conductor other than service
conductors shall be ensured by one or more of the methods specified for services in
250.92(B), except for (B)(1).
4.2 Methods of Bonding for Circuits Over 250 Volts
First case: Where oversized concentric or eccentric knockouts are

present in a box or an enclosure (see fig.1)
The permissible methods which can be used to achieve the

required bonding are:
1. Threaded connections,
2. Threadless couplings and connectors,
3. Bonding jumpers,
4. Other approved devices.
Notes:
 These methods are the same as those used for service equipment
with the exception of the grounded conductor which is not permitted for
over 250 volt applications.
 If the box or enclosure has been listed for use with these concentric
or eccentric locknuts it will be identified or labeled as such. If a box or
enclosure is encountered and such identification is not provided, one of the
methods listed above must be used and the exception is not applicable.
Fig-1
Second case: Where oversized concentric or eccentric knockouts are not

encountered or where they are encountered in a box or enclosure which
has been tested and listed as suitable for bonding
The permissible methods which can be used to achieve the

required bondingare:
1. Threadless couplings and connectors for cables with metal
sheaths,
2. Two locknuts, on rigid metal conduit or intermediate metal
conduit, one inside and one outside of boxes and cabinets,
3. Fittings with shoulders that seat firmly against the box or
cabinet, such as electrical metallic tubing connectors, flexible metal
conduit connectors, and cable connectors, with one locknut on the
inside of boxes and cabinets,
4. Listed fittings.
Note:
 The second case permits the connection of a raceway or cable to an

enclosure without having to use special bonding hardware under any of the
three methods.
5- Bonding of Piping Systems and Exposed Structural Steel
5.1 Metal Water Piping
5.1.1 Requirements for bonding interior metal water piping systems
 Section 250-104 of the NEC contains requirements for bonding interior

metal water piping systems, other piping systems and structural steel.
 Metal water piping system(s) installed in or attached to a building or
structure shall be bonded to the service equipment enclosure, the grounded
conductor at the service, the grounding electrode conductor where of
sufficient size, or to the one or more grounding electrodes used.
 The use of nonmetallic water piping mains can result in the interior
metal piping system of a multiple-occupancy building to be isolated from
ground and from the other occupancies. Therefore, the water pipe is
permitted to be bonded to the panelboard or switchboard that serves only
that particular occupancy.
 The grounded conductor of each separately derived system shall be
bonded to the nearest available point of the metal water piping system(s) in
the area served by each separately derived system. This connection shall be
made at the same point on the separately derived system where
thegrounding electrode conductor is connected.
Metal Water Piping Bonding
Notes
 Installers of electrical systems should note that even if for some
reason the metal water piping is not used as part of the grounding electrode
system it is still required to be bonded per Section 250-104.
 The purpose of such bonding is to ensure that the metal water piping
throughout the building or structure is at the same potential to ground as
the service ground. Keeping the water piping at the same potential helps to
ensure that an electrical shock hazard could not exist if the metal piping
were to become inadvertently energized.
 A separate bonding jumper to the metal water piping system shall not
be required where the metal water piping system is used as
the groundingelectrode for the separately derived system and the water
piping system is in the area served.
 A separate water piping bonding jumper shall not be required where
the metal frame of a building or structure is used as the grounding electrode
for a separately derived system and is bonded to the metal water piping in
the area served by the separately derived system.
5.2 Other Metal Piping
Requirements for bonding Other Metal Piping
Any interior piping systems, such as, domestic well water, or any piping
which contains a liquid or a gas, and “may become energized,” shall be
bonded. Once again the permissible bonding locations are to the service
equipment enclosure, the groundingelectrode conductor, the service
grounded conductor or the one or more groundingelectrodes that comprise
the grounding electrode system.
General Rule for Metal Piping Bonding
If the interior metal piping system contains any electrical devices, such as,
solenoids or mechanized valves, the piping “may become energized” and it
should be bonded.
5.3 Exposed Structural Metal
Requirements for bonding Exposed Structural Metal
 Any Exposed structural metal that is interconnected to form a metal

building frame and is not intentionally grounded or bonded and is likely to
become energized shall be bonded to the service equipment enclosure; the
grounded conductor at the service; the disconnecting means for buildings or
structures supplied by a feeder or branch circuit; the groundingelectrode
conductor, if of sufficient size; or to one or more groundingelectrodes used.
 Where exposed structural metal that is interconnected to form the
building frame exists in the area served by the separately derived system,
the grounded conductor of each separately derived system shall be bonded
to the at the same point on the separately derived system where
thegrounding electrode conductor is connected.
Bonding of Exposed Structural Metal
Notes
 This requirement does not apply to isolated steel girders or beams

which may be installed in a building or structure. Such beams or girders are
not “interconnected to form a steel building frame” and need not be
bonded.
 A separate bonding jumper to the building structure metal shall not
be required where the building structure metal is used as
the groundingelectrode for the separately derived system and the water
piping system is in the area served.
 A separate bonding jumper to the building structural metal shall not
be required where the water piping of a building or structure is used as
thegrounding electrode for a separately derived system and is bonded to the
building structural metal in the area served by the separately derived
system.
In the next Article,
Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Seven
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
And in Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Four ", I explained What we are
going to design for grounding system in any building?

subdivisions:

Also in this Article, I explained the Building Exterior Grounds.
In Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Five ", I explained The electrical
service groundingand indicated the five subdivisions of The Building Interior
Bonding which were:

6. Bonding of Interior Metal Columns and Beams
And I explained the first three subdivisions in this article.
Also in Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Six ", I explained the
subdivisions: Bonding for Over 250 Volts and Bonding of Piping Systems and Exposed
Structural Steel.
Today, I will explain the last subdivision of The Building Interior Bonding: Bonding of
Interior Metal Columns and Beams.

6- Bonding of Interior Metal Columns and Beams
 Usually, the interior columns and beams in any building are connected by riveted
or bolted construction joints; these construction joints will not ensure good electrical
continuity between the interior columns and beams, so bonding of beams to columns is
required to provide long term low resistance joints for electrical continuity throughout the
building.
 Many bonding methods are available to ensure low resistance joints between
columns, beams and each other , these bonding methods will vary according to the type of
the building as follows:
1- For Exposed steel buildings
 Bonding columns to beams (Fig.1)

Fig.1
 Bonding all columns together through their footers by welding a ground

bar to the columns which provides future attachment points for other grounding
conductors (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2
 Bonding a flexible conductor to the columns or beams on each side of the

expansion joints (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3
 Bonding The bottom chord of a bar joist (Fig.4).

Fig. 4
 On exposed steel buildings, the ground bars can be welded directly to the
steel column (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
 Light duty ground points can be made in office columns (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7
2- For All buildings
 Bonding Steel columns within the building to the footer with the
conductor extending to the main ground grid (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). The column
anchor bolts must be electrically connected to the footer reinforcing bars.
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
 Cast copper alloy ground plates can be embedded in concrete structures

for attachment of future grounding conductors (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11). The plates
are provided with drilled and tapped holes for lug attachment.
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
 When large quantities are required on a job, they are available with a
pigtail already attached from the factory to reduce field labor (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12
 The ground plate also can be exothermically welded directly to a steel

column where the column is to be fireproofed (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13
 In areas where a conductive floor is required, it is bonded to the ground

system as shown in (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14
 In areas where static electricity must be controlled, metal doors and

frames must be bonded as shown in (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15
 Metal handrails should be grounded if there is an accessible ground
conductor available, a good reason to use cast copper alloy ground plates
embedded in the concrete at frequent intervals. (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16
3- For Multi floor buildings
 On multi-floor buildings, Steel columns within the building should be

bonded to the footer with the conductor extending to the main ground grid
conductor which should extend to each floor (Fig. 17).
Fig. 17
 For accessible ground points at each floor, ground bars provide the ideal
solution. They can be bolted to either the wall or the floor or a long bus
attached to the wall with insulators and mounting brackets. (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18
4- For Large facilities having multiple buildings with underground utilities
 At large facilities having multiple buildings with underground utilities, the

cable racks in the manholes can be grounded as detailed in (Fig. 19), (Fig. 20)
and (Fig.21).
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Now, we finish the third grounding system division existing in any building: The building
interior bonding as we have five divisions of grounding system in any building which are:
Grounding System Subdivisions

subdivisions:

In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part One
I indicated that the Earthing Systems Design Steps process has (3) main steps::
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
And I explained the first step: Data Collection in the following Articles:
 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part One

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two
I explained the second step: Data Analysis in the following Articles:
 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Three
And I explained What we are going to design for grounding system in any building in the
following Articles:
 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Four

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Five
 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Six
 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Seven
Today, I will explain The Methods for Performing of Grounding System Design
Calculations.

Grounding System Design Calculations
Grounding System Design Calculations according to type of the building
The procedures for performing the Grounding System Design Calculations

can differ slightly according to the type of the building as follows:
1. Domestic, commercial and industrial premises,

2. High and medium voltage electricity substations.
First: Domestic, commercial and industrial premises

We mean by domestic, commercial and industrial premises, all installations
up to 1,000 V ac and 1,500 V dc - between phases, with some minor
exceptions.
1- Standards
Standards used for ground calculations of Domestic, commercial and

industrial premises are:
 BS 7671: Requirements for Electrical Installations. (This is also known

as the IEE Wiring Regulations),
 BS 7430:2011 Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical
installations,
 IEEE 142: Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems,
 NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC), Article 250.
2- What do we need to calculate?
There are many parameters to be calculated when designing grounding

systems for Domestic, commercial and industrial premises as follows:
1. Earth/grounding electrode resistance,

2. Grounding conductor resistance,
3. Grounding electrode conductor size,
4. Equipment ground conductor (EGC) size.
Notes:
 Step and touch voltage are not an issue in low voltage installations,
since the maximum phase to earth voltage is 230 V. But you must note that
some industrial installations have high fault current levels and hence, the
step and touch voltages need to be calculated.
 For Domestic, commercial and industrial premises, Grounding
electrodes are usually sufficient to meet the basic requirements of a well-
designed grounding system. But for High and medium voltage electricity
substations, a common design is to lay a mesh of grid with vertical and
horizontal conductors.
3- Methods of Grounding Design Calculations
There are many methods can be used for performing Grounding System
Design Calculations But the common methods are:
1. Equations Method,
2. Nomographs Method,
3. Excel Spreadsheets Method,
4. Tables Method,
5. Online Earthing Calculators Method,
6. Software Programs Method.
First: Equations Method
1- Prerequisites
The following information is required / desirable before starting the

calculation:
 A layout of the site,

 Maximum earth fault current into the earthing grid,
 Maximum fault clearing time,
 Ambient (or soil) temperature at the site,
 Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only),
 Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and
step only).
2- Earth/grounding electrode resistance Calculations
Sometimes it called “Resistance to Earth calculations” and can be obtained

either by using BS or IEEE standards rules as it will be explained in below.
First: Using IEEE 142 Standard
By using IEEE 142: Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems, The resistance to earth can be calculated by
the formulas presented in Table-1.
Table-1
Second: Using BS 7430 Standard
The most common types of electrodes included in BS 7430 are as follows:
 Vertical Rods,
 horizontal strip electrode (circular or rectangular section),
 Plates electrodes,
 reinforced concrete foundation footings,
 electrode surronded by an infill of materials,
 Three rods at the vertices of an equilateral triangle,
 Two strips set at right angles to each other meeting at one corner,
 Three strips set at 120° meeting at the star point all of equal length,
 Four strips set in a cruciform.
2.1 Vertical Rods
The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode is given by the following

equations:
a- In Metric Units:
Where:
R is the resistance to earth in ohms,

ρ is the resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m,
L is the length of electrode, in meters,
D is the diameter of the rod in meters.
b- in English Units:
Where:
R is the resistance to earth in ohms,

ρ is the resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m,
L is the length of electrode, in feets,
D is the diameter of the rod in inches.
Example#1:
For a vertical rod electrode having 20mm diameter and 3 m length,

calculate the resistance to earth noting that soil resistivity is 50 Ω-m.
Solution:
The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode is given by the following

equation:
R= ρ * { loge (8L / d) -1 } / 2ΠL = 50 * { loge (8*3 / 0.02) -1 } /2*3.14*3 =

16.1 ohm
Example#2:
For a vertical rod electrode having 25mm diameter and 2 m length,

calculate the resistance to earth noting that soil resistivity is 30 Ω-m.
Solution:
The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode (R) in ohms is given by

the following equation:
R= ρ * { loge (8L / d) -1 } / 2ΠL = 30 * { loge (8*2 / 0.025) -1 } /2*3.14*2 =

13.0 ohm
2.2 Parallel connection of aligned rods
Multiple electrodes in parallel yield lower resistance to ground than a single

electrode. Multiple rods are commonly used to provide the low grounding
resistance required by high-capacity installations. Adding a second rod does not,
however, provide a total resistance of half that of a single rod, unless the two
are several rod lengths apart.
a- From BS 7430:
The resistance Rt in ohms (Ω) of n vertically driven rods set s metres apart may
be calculated from:
where:
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);

L is the length of the electrode, in metres (m);
n is the number of rods;
s is the spacing between the rods, in metres (m).
b- as per IEEE 142:
A useful rule is that grounding systems of 2–24 rods placed one rod length apart
in a line, hollow triangle, circle, or square will provide a grounding resistance
divided by the number of rods and multiplied by the factor F taken from Table-
2.
Table-2
Notes:
 Additional considerations with respect to step and touch potentials would

be addressed by the geometry.
 Placing additional rods within the periphery of a square, circle, or other
shape will not appreciably reduce the grounding.
2.3 For horizontal strip electrode (circular or rectangular section)
The resistance Rta in ohms (Ω) of a strip or round conductor may be

calculated from:
Where:
Rta = Resistance in ohms,
L is the length of the strip or conductor, in metres (m);
h is the depth of the electrode, in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the round conductor or diameter of the equivalent cross
sectional area of the strip, in metres (m).
Note:
 This equation is for a straight run of conductor only.
Paralleling of Strips
When two or more strips in straight lengths, each of length L in metres (m)
and a separation distance s metres are laid parallel to each other and
connected together at one end only the combined resistance may be
calculated from the following equation:
Rn = FR1
Where:
Rn is the resistance of n conductors in parallel, in ohms (Ω)

R1 is the resistance of a single strip of length L, calculated from the
preceding Rta equation, in ohms (Ω).
F has the following value:
 For two lengths, F = 0.5 + [0.078(s/L)]−0.307

 For three lengths, F = 0.33 + [0.071(s/L)]−0.408
 For four lengths, F = 0.25 + [0.067(s/L)]−0.451
 Provided that 0.02 < (s/L) < 0.3.
2.4 For Plates electrodes
The resistance to earth of a plate electrode is given by the following

equation:
Where:
R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
A = The Area of one face of the plate, in m2.
Notes:
 Plates, if used, should be installed as small units of not greater than

1.2 m × 1.2 m connected in parallel vertically and at least 2 m apart.
 The minimum ground cover should not be less than 600 mm and
ideally the surrounding soil should be damp.
 Connections to the plate should be by copper conductor, welded,
riveted or otherwise attached with material that will not cause corrosion at
the joint.
 The finished joint should be covered with a heavy coat of bitumen.
 The connecting strip to the above ground disconnection point should
be fully insulated to avoid electrolytic action.
 Where the plate is placed in a cut out slot, e.g. in a chalk bed near
the surface, the slot should be big enough to allow at least 300 mm
thickness of soil or other conducting low resistivity medium cover around
the whole plate. This requires careful assembly during installation to ensure
that the bottom of the plate is resting in the medium used and not on the
chalk or high resistivity substrata.
2.5 For structure steelwork
Foundation metalwork in concrete may be used as a ready made and effective

earth electrode. The total electrode area formed by the underground metalwork
of large structure may often be used to provide an earth resistance lower then
that obtainable by other methods; overall values well below 1 Ω are obtainable.
The resistance to earth of a reinforced concrete foundation can be estimated by

assuming the following:
 Only the vertical reinforcing rods are bonded to the building structure or
to the earthing system and the effect of other reinforcement is neglected.
 The reinforced rods are equally spaced in symmetrical pattern.
So, the resistance to earth of a reinforced concrete foundation will be given by
the following equation:
Where:
ρc = Concrete resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
L = Length of reinforcing rod below ground level in metres,
δ= thickness of concrete between rods and soil in meters,
Z = geometric mean distance of rod cluster in meters from Table-3,
Table-3
The combined effect of all similar footings Rtot in ohms (Ω), assumed to be
arranged in an approximately rectangular plan, may be determined from the
following:
Where:
R1 is the resistance of one footing, in ohms (Ω);

λ is the factor from Table 4;
s is the spacing of footings, in metres (m);
n is the number of footings used as electrodes (see the note to Table 4).
Note:
 This equation is based on the assumption that the spacing between

adjacent electrodes is such that the ratio ρ/2πR1s is less than approximately
0.2.
Table 4
Notes:
 It is important that consideration is given to the possibility of corrosion of

the metalwork reinforcement; It might be necessary to consider the need for
cathodic protection.
 Wherever significant continuous earth leakage current is expected, it is
recommended that a main electrode of the types of earth electrodes be
provided to which the foundation electrodes can be bonded to provide auxiliary
electrodes, thus giving assistance to high fault currents.
 Corrosion of concrete encased steelwork, subject to a.c. fault currents
within its carrying capability, may be assumed to be negligible.
 The resistance to earth of concrete encased steelwork or of concrete
reinforcing bars varies according to the type of soil, its moisture content, and
the design of the foundation. Concrete is hygroscopic and, except in dry
locations, when buried in soil, it may be expected to have a resistivity of about
30 Ωm to 90 Ωm, at normal temperatures; this is lower than some types of soil.
 It is essential to measure the resistance to earth of any metalwork it is
intended to use as an electrode, and to monitor its value at regular intervals
afterwards, in order to confirm that it continues to provide an adequate
connection to earth.
 The large proportion of the resistance is due to the concrete to earth is
immediately around the metalwork and is dependent on its moisture content.
After construction and with the passage of time this moisture content will
approach equilibrium with that of the soil, and will usually be dryer than when
first laid.
 Allowance should be made for the consequent increase in electrode
resistance due to changes in moisture content when using measurements made
during the installation of a structure.
 It is important to ensure electrical continuity between all metalwork
considered to be part of the electrode. In the case of contacts between
metalwork within concrete or below ground, such as reinforcing bars, this may
best be effected by welding; above ground and at anchor bolts it may generally
done by attaching a bond conductor to bypass each structural joint. This applies
particularly to surfaces which might have been primed before assembly.
2-6 resistance of an electrode surrounded by an infill of materials (such

as bentonite or concrete)
In this case, The following equation will be used:

Where:
ρ Is the resistivity of soil in ohm metres (Ω-m),

ρc Is the resistivity of infill material in ohm metres (Ω-m),
d is the diammeter of electrode in meter,
L is the driven length of electrode in meter.
Note:
 Generally the above equation will be used when the electrode is

encased in low resistivity material
2.7 Three rods at the vertices of an equilateral triangle
The resistance Re in ohms (Ω) of three interconnected rods set out at the
vertices of an equilateral triangle [see Figure 1-a ] of side s metres length may
be calculated from:
Figure 1
The resistance of various constructions of horizontally placed simple earthing

electrodes can be calculated using the following equation:
Where:

L is the length of rod, in metres (m);
d is the diameter of rod, in metres (m);
s is the length of one side of the equilateral triangle, in metres (m).
2.8 Two strips set at right angles to each other meeting at one corner
The resistance RL in ohms (Ω) of two strips of equal length set at 90° with
one corner touching [see Figure 1-b ] may be calculated from:
Where:

L is the total length of strip in metres (m);
h is the depth of burial in metres (m);
sectional area of the strip in metres (m)
2.9 Three strips set at 120° meeting at the star point all of equal length
The resistance RS in ohms (Ω) of a star arranged strip [see Figure 1-c ] may
be calculated from:
Where:
sectional area of the strip in metres (m).
2.10 Four strips set in a cruciform
The resistance Rcr in ohms (Ω) of four strips set out in a cruciform [see
Figure 1-d]may be calculated from:
Where:

sectional area of the strip in metres (m).
Now, We finish the first method of grounding design calculations: Equations Method,
the other methods of grounding design calculations are summarized in the below table.
Methods of Grounding Design Calculations

4. Tables Method,
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Two
I indicated that the Earthing Systems Design Steps process has (3) main steps:
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,


following Articles:
And, in Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part One ", I indicated the following:



exceptions.
4. Tables Method,
In this Article, I explained the first method of grounding design calculations: Equations
Method.
Today, we will solve some examples using the Equations Method but from BS 7430 – issued
in 1998.

Examples for Grounding System Design Calculations by using the Equations Method
from BS 7430 – issued in 1998.
Some Rules/Equations from BS 7430: 1998 Revision

1- Parallel Rod Electrodes
The combined resistance of n rod electrodes in parallel can be obtained from the
following equations:
Where:
Rn is the resistance of n rods in parallel, in ohms

R is the resistance of one rod in isolation, in ohms
n is the number of parallel rods
S is the distance between the adjacent rods, in meters
ρ is the resistivity of the soil, ohm-m
λ is the constant factor dependent on geometric arrangement of the electrodes

and can be obtained from:
 Table-1: if the rods are equally spaced in a straight line.

 Table-2: if the rods are equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g.
around the perimeter of a building.
 In case of three rods placed in an equilateral triangle, λ = 1.66.
Table-1
Table-2
Note to table 2:
Table 2 may also be used for electrodes arranged in a rectangle, where n is

given by ( 1 + total number of electrodes/4) provided that the length to width
ratio of the rectangle does not exceed 2, the error will be less than -6%.
Notes to parallel rods equation:
The above equation of parallel rods assumes the following:

 The rod electrodes can be represented approximately by hemispherical
electrodes, having the same earthing resistance, located in the soil surface.
 The spacing between the rods is not less than their length.
Example#1:
For three rods placed in equilateral triangle, calculate the resistance to earth
noting that:
 Length of the copper clad steel rod (L) = 3.0 m
 Diameter of the copper clad steel rod (D) = 16mm=0.016 m
 The resistivity of the soil (ρ) = 20.0 ohm-m
 3 rods will be driven into the ground at a separation distance (S) of 3m.
Solution:
For three rods placed in equilateral triangle, λ = 1.66 (From BS7430:1998)
Step#1: Calculate The Resistance Of One Rod
Therefore: R = 6.70 ohms
Step#2: Calculate The Resistance Of The (3) Parallel Rods

Where, R = 6.70 ohms; λ = 1.66; n = 3
So, Rn = 2.02 ohms.
2- Horizontal strip or round conductor electrodes

 Horizontal strip or round conductor electrodes have special advantages
where high resistivity soil underlies shallow surface layers of low resistivity.
 They are frequently in the form of untinned copper strip of not less than
25 mm by 3 mm section, but may be of bare copper conductor as used for
overhead lines.
For a strip or round conductor electrode the resistance R, in ohms is given by the
following equation:
Where:
L is the length of the strip or conductor, in metres (m);

h is the depth of electrode, in metres (m);
w is the width of strip or diameter of conductor, in metres (m);
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (7·m);
P and Q are coefficients given in Table-3 for different arrangements of
electrode.
Table-3
Example#2:
For a building, 17m width and 35m length, Calculate the earth resistance by
using the following electrode types:
1. Vertical copper bonded steel rod with length 3.0m, diameter 15mm
and distributed as shown in Fig.1.
2. Copper lattice plate 600 mm x 600 mm and 1.5 mm thickness as
shown in Fig.2
Noting that The measured sand soil resistivity ρ = 70.3 Ω.m.
Solution:
Case#1: Design Using Vertical Copper Bonded Steel Rod as in Fig.1

The resistance of one vertical rod calculated as follow:
So,
R= 70.3 * { loge (8*3 / 0.015) -1 } /2*3.14*3 = 23.79 ohm
The combined resistance of rod obtained from the following equation:
Where:
R: Resistance of one rod in isolation in ohm,

S: Distance between adjacent rods, in m
ρ: Resistivity of soil, Ωm,
λ: Factor depend on number of electrode,
n: Number of electrodes = 4
α= 70.3/2 π*23.79*5 = 0.094,
Rn = 23.79 {(1+1*0.094)/2}=7.46 ohm by use 4 pits
Take into account the resistance of cable connecting all rods of cross section
area 120mm2 cu:
Where:
L = Length of electrode in metres,
w = Width of strip or diameter of circular electrode in metres,
h = Depth of electrode in metres,
P and Q = Coefficients for different arrangements of electrode which given in
table-2
L : Length of cable = 25m,

h : Depth of cable = 0.5m,
w : Diameter of cable 120mm2 cu = 0.017m
The combined earth resistance of the 4 rods and cable will be as follows:
It's recommended to bonding the earth pits to the concrete foundation of

building, and the earth resistance of reinforcing column calculated by the
following equation:
Where:
ρc = Concrete resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
L = Length of reinforcing rod below ground level in metres,
δ= thickness of concrete between rods and soil in meters,
Z = geometric mean distance of rod cluster in meters from Table-4,
Table-4
From Table-4, we find Z equal to:
a: radius of reinforcing rod, s: distance between reinforcing rods (s = 0.03m, a =

0.008m so Z= 0.045m)
so, R= 14.38 ohm

The combination resistance of earth copper rods & cable with reinforcing
concrete electrode: R1= 1.99 Ohm, R2 = 14.38 Ohm
Case#2: Design Using Copper Lattice Plate as in Fig.2

The resistance to earth of a plate electrode is given by the following equation:
Where:
A = The Area of one face of the plate, in m2.
By using 4 buried plates: R1=R2=R3=R4=36.7 Ohm

The combination resistance of earth copper plats and the resistance of cable
connecting all plates
The combination resistance of earth copper plate & cable and reinforcing
concrete electrode
at the end,for this example, we find that:
Ground Resistance in Case#1: Using Vertical Copper Bonded Steel Rod = 1.74
ohm < Ground Resistance in Case#2: Design Using Copper Lattice Plate =
1.82 ohm.
To download a Solved example for Grounding Design Calculations of small substation

using Equations method from BS 7430-2011 Revision, please click on the link.
In the next Articl

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Three
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:




exceptions.
4. Tables Method,
In this Article, I explained the first method of grounding design calculations: Equations
Method.
Also, in Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Two ", I explain Some solved
examples forgrounding design calculations using the Equations Method.
Today, I will explain the Other Methods for Performing of Grounding System Design
Calculations.

Second: Nomographs Method
Definition:
A Nomograph is a mathematical tool consisting of several nonlinear scales

(see fig.1) on which known values can be plotted and the desired unknown
value can be derived by simply connecting the points with a straightedge
and finding the resultant by reading the intersecting point on the desired
scale.
Factors That Affect Earth Resistance Of The Electrode
The resistance of a rod Rr in ohms (Ω) may be calculated from:

Where:

L is the length of the electrode, in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the rod, in metres (m).
From the above equation, the factors that affect earth resistance of the
electrode are:
 Earth resistivity: Changing the resistivity can be done by chemical

treatment of the soil.
 Diameter of rod: Change of diameter has little effect on the overall
value of resistance.
 Length of rod: The simplest and most effective way to change the
overall value of resistance is changing the Length (Depth) of the driven rod.
Uses of Nomographs
The Nomographs can be a helpful guide in meeting the established standard

for a minimum earth resistance as follows:
 If you have a given earth-electrode system and find that your Megger
instrument reading is too high, the graph can be used to show what you
must do to lower the value by changing the three variable conditions that
affect earth resistance of the electrode which are:
1. Earth resistivity,
2. Length of rod,
3. Diameter of rod.
The Nomograph using is severely limited in several aspects as follows:
 The range of soil resistivity is effectively limited to around 11,000

ohms-cm. Soils are higher in resistivity than 11,000 ohms-cm nearly
everywhere.
 It can only provide the length/diameter of
a single grounding electrode. This is inadequate to meet the
ground resistance requirement for sensitive equipment.
 The Nomographs is applied only when the earth electrode is rod
electrode type.
Application Of Nomographs Method
The Nomographs method is applied for two cases of rod electrodes as

follows:
 Case#1: for a single earth rod.

 Case#2: for multiple Rod electrode system.
Case#1: For A Single Earth Rod
For a single earth rod, two types of Nomographs are existing:
 First: Nomograph to calculate resistance of a single earth rod directly

from the Wenner 4-electrode method readings,
 Second: Nomograph relating the basic factors affecting the
earthresistance of a single earth rod.
First: Nomograph to calculate resistance of a single earth rod directly from

the Wenner 4-electrode method readings
This Nomograph is another method of calculating the ground resistance of an

earth electrode when the electrode dimensions and the earth resistivity are
known.
The resistance of an electrode may be calculated directly from the readings

obtained from the Wenner 4-electrode method of soil resistivity test, if the test
electrodes are spaced by a distance equal to the length of the electrode to be
used.
The resistance is then given by the formula
Where:
r is the reading obtained from the bridge reading in ohms

L is the length of the intended electrode or the spacing between the test
electrodes im meters
d is the diameter of the intended electrode in mm
R is the resistance of the intended electrode in ohms
1.1 Nomograph structure: (see fig.1)

Fig.1
The Nomographs in this case will consist of (5) scales:
 Scale # (1); L scale: it represents the earth electrode length in (meter) or

represents the distance between test stakes for Wenner method which used to
measure the earthresistance,
 Scale # (2); d Scale: it represents the earth electrode diameter in (mm),
 Scale # (3); Turning ordinate scale,
 Scale # (4); r Scale: it represents Wenner 4-point test reading in (ohms),
 Scale # (5); R Scale: it represents the required resistance of the earth
electrode in (ohms).
Note:
Scales # (4) and # (5) may be multiplied by a common factor to use for higher
values not indicated in original scales.
1.2 Prerequisites:
Knowing of the following data:
 The Rod electrode dimensions (Length L in meter and Diammeter d in

mm),
 Wenner 4-point test reading in (ohms).
1.3 Method Steps:
 Select given Rod length on Scale # (1); L scale

 Select given Rod diameter on Scale # (2); d Scale
 Place straightedge from L scale point to d scale point, and allow
intersecting with Scale # (3); Turning ordinate scale to get point (A)
 Select given Wenner 4-point reading on Scale # (4); r Scale
 Place straightedge from point (A) on Scale # (3); Turning ordinate scale to
point on Scale # (4); r Scale, and allow intersecting with Scale # (5); R Scale
 Read the value of intersection point on Scale # (5); R Scale, it represents
the resistance of the earth electrode in (ohms).
Example#1:
Find a resistance of 10 mm diameter stakes, 6.7 m long, if the reading from the
Wenner 4 point test is 1 ohm.
Solution:
 Place straightedge from 6.7 on scale #1 to cut scale #2 at 10, extend the
straightedge to intersect with turning ordinate scale,
 Mark turning ordinate from where a straight edge trough 1 on scale #4 to
cut scale #5,
 Read the value of intersection point on Scale # (5); R Scale, it will be 7.6
ohms.
Second: Nomograph relating the basic factors affecting the

earth resistance of a single earth rod
2.1 Nomograph Structure: (see fig.2)
The Nomographs in this case will consist of the (5) scales:

Fig.2
 R Scale: it represents the resistance of the earth electrode in (ohms),

 ρ Scale: it represents the earth resistivity in (ohm-cm),
 L scale: it represents the earth electrode length in (feet),
 K Scale: turning ordinate scale,
 DIA Scale: it represents the earth electrode diameter in (inches).
2.2 Methods Steps:
We have two methods for applying the Nomograph relating the basic factors
affecting the earthresistance of a single earth rod as follows:
A- finding the depth needed to achieve the desired resistance,

B- Finding the resistance of a single earth rod
2.2.A Finding The Depth Needed To Achieve The Desired Resistance

2.2.A.1 Prerequisites:
 The Rod electrode Diammeter DIA in inches,

 The earth resistivity ρ in ohm-cm,
 The desired system ground resistance in ohm.
2.2.A.2 Method Steps:
 Select desired resistance on R Scale

 Select apparent resistivity on ρ Scale.
 Lay straightedge from point on R scale to point on ρ Scale, and allow
intersecting with K scale.
 Mark K scale point.
 Select given diameter on DIA Scale.
 Lay straightedge from point on K scale to point on DIA scale, and allow
intersecting with L scale.
 Point on L scale will be the rod depth required to achieve
desired resistance on R scale.
Example#2:
Find the rod depth needed to achieve a desired resistance of 10 ohms, if the soil
resistivity 6515 ohm-centimeters and the rod diameter is 5/8 inches.
Solution:
 Put a dot at 10 ohms on the R scale as it is our desired resistance.
 Put a dot at 6515 on the ρ scale representing our soil resistivity
measurement (do your best to approximate the location of this point between
the 5000 and 10000 hash marks).
 Make a straightedge and draw a line between the dots we placed on the R
and ρ scales and let the line intersect with the K scale and place a dot on the
intersecting point.
 Put a dot at 5/8 hash mark on the DIA scale representing our rod
diameter.
 make a straightedge and draw a line from the 5/8 hash mark on the DIA
scale representing our rod diameter through the dot on the K scale and continue
through to intersect with the L scale and place a dot on the L scale at this
intersecting point.
 Read the value at this intersecting point on L scale, it will be 30 feet.
Note to Example#2:
 In many cases, this is not practical to drive deep rods. The alternative is
to drive two or more rods to get the desired results, so a monograph of multiple
Rod electrode system will be needed in this case and this is will be explained in
below.
2.2.B Finding The Resistance Of A Single Earth Rod
2.2.B.1 Prerequisites:
 The Rod electrode Diammeter DIA in inches, and rod depth in feet,
 The earth resistivity ρ in ohm-cm.
2.2.B.2 Method Steps:
 Select given Rod diameter on DIA scale.

 Select given Rod length(depth) on L scale.
 Place straightedge from DIA scale point to L scale point, and allow
intersecting with K Scale: turning ordinate scale to get point (A).
 Select given earth resistivity on ρ Scale.
 Place straightedge from point (A) on K Scale; Turning ordinate scale to
point on ρ Scale, and allow intersecting with R Scale.
 Read the value of intersection point on R Scale, it represents
the resistance of the earth electrode in (ohms).
Example#3:
Find a resistance of 5/8 inch rod diameter, 10 feet long, if earth resistivity is
4020 ohm-cm.
Solution:
Example#4:
If using a larger-diameter electrode at a deeper depth with respect to

example#3, what will begrounding electrode resistance improvement? Noting
that the new rod diameter is 3/4 inch and the new depth will be 20 feet. (Same
earth resistivity)
Solution:
Example#5:
A 5/8-in. rod driven 10 ft into the soil and The Megger instrument indicates an
earth resistance of 6.6 ohm but the desired resistance is 4 ohm. Find the
required depth to give a 4 ohm earthresistance.
Solution:
Step#1: determine the earth resistivity
 With a ruler, draw a line from the 10-ft point in the L scale to the 5/8-
inche point in the DIA scale; this gives a reference point where the line crosses
the K scale.
 Connect this reference point with 6.6 ohm, the measured resistance on
the R scale.
 Read the value of earth resistivity when this line crosses the ρ scale. The
value is 2000 ohm-cm.
Step#2: determine the required rod depth for a 4 ohm earth resistance
 Draw a line from 4 ohm point on the R scale through the 2000 point on the
p scale until you cross the K scale. The dashed line shows this step.
 Now, assuming rod diameter unchanged, connect the 5/8 point on DIA
scale through your new reference point on K scale and extend the line to L scale.
This gives the required rod depth for the 4 ohm resistance value which is 20
feet.
Notes for Example#5:

 In the new depth, a new instrument reading to check the value, because
earth resistivity may not be constant as the nomograph assumes.
 Another way to reduce the earth resistance, in example#5 above, would
be to lower the earth resistivity. if you draw a line from a reference point 1
(leaving rod depth and diameter unchanged), you would need to reduce earth
resistivity to about 1000 ohm-cm to give the required 4 ohm earth resistance.
You could do this by chemical treatment, but normally the deeper rod is the
easier way.
Case#2: For Multiple Rod Electrode System
Monograph for Multiple Rod Electrode System is a means of calculating

the resistance of an electrode system in respect of a number of electrodes
driven in line, around the perimeter of a square site or forming a solid square
when the electrodes are spaced their length apart ( space between each two
electrodes = length of one electrode).
1.1 Nomograph Structure: (see fig.3)

Fig.3
This monograph consists of (5) scales as follows:
 Scale# (1): calculated or measured resistance of one electrode in ohms,

 Scale# (2): Total earth resistance of electrode system,
 Scale# (3): number of electrodes driven in Line.
 Scale# (4): number of equally spaced electrodes driven to form a hollow
square pattern.
 Scale# (5): number of equally spaced electrodes driven to form a solid
square pattern.
1.2 Prerequisites:
 Calculated or measured resistance of one electrode in ohms,

 Electrode system shape,
 Number of electrodes.
1.3 Method Steps:
 Select calculated/measured earth resistance of one electrode on scale#

(1).
 Select the given electrode arrangement on scale# (3).
 Draw straightedge between the known value of a single electrode on
scale# (1) and the electrode arrangement on scale# (3).
 Read the value of the intersection point on scale# (2), it will be
the resistance of the parallel connected electrodes to earth.
Note:
 Although the nomograph is in respect of square sites, it may be used for

rectangular sites having the same number of electrodes if the narrower site
dimension is greater than (3) electrode lengths.
Example#6:
For two 5 meter rods, each 10 ohm individual resistance, spaced 5 meter apart,
what is the combined earth resistance?
Solution:
 Select 10 ohm on scale# (1)
 Select the line electrode arrangement for two electrodes on scale# (3)
 Draw straightedge between the two points
 Read the value of the intersection point on scale# (2), it equal 5.4 ohm
 So, the combined earth resistance = 5.4 ohm
Example#7:
an earthing electrode system of A holow square configuration consisting of 20

rod electodes ( each side has 6 rods) what is the combined earth resistance of
these electrodes knowing that the soil resistivity is 10,000 ohm-cm, Rod
electrode depth is 10 feet and rod diameter is 3/4 inch.
Solution:
Step#1: Determine the resistance of one of the ground rods from Figure-2 in
above.
 First, place a straight edge between the point marked 3/4 on DIA scale
and the point marked 10 feet on L scale. Indicate on K scale where the
straightedge crosses.
 Next, place the straightedge between the point just marked on K scale
and the 10,000 ohm-cm point on the ρ scale.
 Read the resistance as 32 ohms at the point where the straightedge
crosses the R scale.
Step#2: Combined Earth Resistance

 Select 32 ohm on scale# (1).
 Select the hollow square electrode arrangement for 20/6 electrodes on
scale# (4)
 Draw straightedge between the two points.
 Read the value of the intersection point on scale# (2), it equal 3.4 ohm
 So, the combined earth resistance = 3.4 ohm
Other Nomographs for Multiple Rod Electrode System
Example#8:
Find the combined earth resistance for 26 rods distrbuted on the perimeter of a
100 ft x 160 ft rectangular building as shown in Figure-4 , notingthat the soil
resistivity measurements 10,000 ohm-cm and 10-foot ground rods length is used.
Figure-4
Solution:
Step#1:Determine the resistance of one of the ground rods from Figure-2 .
Same as in Step#1 of example#7
Step#2: Assume spacing of 20 feet or twice the rod length between rods.
Figure-5
 Use Figure-5 to determine the relative lowering of the resistance of one

rod that is produced by 26 rods in parallel.
 The answer is about 5.5 percent.
 Thus the resistance of the 26 rods in 10,000 ohm-cm soil is
 R = 32 x 0.055 = 1.76 ohms.
Notes:
 Figure-5 primarily applies to ground rods laid out in a straight line or
around the perimeter of a site whose dimensions are large with respect to the
rod spacing.
Figure -6
 If the rods are distributed in a grid pattern, as will frequently be done for
substations, use Figure -6 to estimate the net resistance.
 In many instances, the answers provided by Figures-5 and 6 will agree.
For this example#8, the resistance multiplier given by Figure-6 for 26 rods over
an estimated area of 16,000 square feet (100’ x 160’) is 0.056 for a
net resistance of 1.9 ohms.
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Four
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:



exceptions.
And I started discussion for Methods of Grounding Design Calculations of Domestic,

commercial and industrial premises as follows:
4. Tables Method,
In this Article and Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Two ", I explained the
first method of grounding design calculations: Equations Method and solved examples.
Also, I explained the second method of grounding design calculations: Nomographs

Method in Article "Grounding Design Calculations – Part Three".
Calculations.

Third Method: Excel Spreadsheets
Today, I will introduce to you, the most powerful excel spreadsheet for Grounding System
Design Calculations of Domestic, commercial and industrial premises.
Important
 Use this excel spreadsheet for Domestic, commercial and industrial

premises only, and don’t use it for medium and large electrical substations.
(Please review the above definition for domestic, commercial and industrial
premises).
 Another excel spread sheet will be provided later for Grounding
System Design Calculations of medium and large electrical substations.
Excel Spreadsheet For Grounding System Design

Calculations Of Domestic, Commercial And Industrial Premises
why Using This Excel Spreadsheet
I recommend all electrical engineers to use this powerful excel spreadsheet

because it has the following unique advantages than other similar ones:
1. List all data that must be known in the starting of Grounding

System Design Calculations for Domestic, Commercial and Industrial
Premises like electrical utility data,
2. List typical Values of Resistivity from BS 7430 and IEEE 142,
3. List all applicable standards for Grounding System Design
Calculations forDomestic, Commercial and Industrial Premises,
4. List acceptable values for Earthing Resistance,
5. Calculate Soil Resistivity by using ground testers that apply The
Wenner 4-Point Method,
6. Provide a professional design concept for any Grounding
System,
7. List the Steps for Choosing the Best Earthing System,
8. Provide grounding installation criteria for earth electrodes,
earth pit, ground buses, grounding conductors, grounding of
switches/ panels/ boxes/ cable trays / conduits and special grounding
for high tension cables/ control cables /static electricity,
9. Make (12) nos. different calculations for different cases,
shapes and types of earth electrodes,
10. Help you to specify all materials selected by grounding design
process likeGrounding conductors, Grounding stations and buried
grounding mains,
11. You can Print it as a professional calculations report for
grounding system design for Domestic, commercial and industrial
premises.
Excel Spreadsheet Construction:
This excels spreadsheet includes (6) nos. worksheets and (22) nos. pages as follows:
S/N Worksheet Name No. of Pages
1 Table Of Contents 1
2 General Information 2
3 Grounding Design Concept 1
4 Grounding Installation Criteria 3
5 Grounding System Calculations 5
6 Grounding Specifications 7
Info Pages 3
Total 22
First: Table of Contents Worksheet

 This worksheet lists the other worksheets in an index as shown in above figure, you
can go to a specific worksheet by just clicking on its name.
 On the other hand, you can return for any worksheet to the table of contents
worksheet by clicking on the black box titled “Back to Table of Contents”.
 You email me directly by clicking on the phrase “Designed by: Ali Hassan” for any
inquiries or notes.
Second: General Information Worksheet

This worksheet includes all the general data that must be known in the starting of
Grounding System Design Calculations of Domestic, Commercial and Industrial Premises, so
it includes the following sections:
 Project Data,
 Applied Standard and Codes,
 Electrical Utility Data,
 Required Earthing Resistance Value,
 Soil Characteristics,
 Info Page#1: Typical Values of Resistivity from BS 7430 and IEEE 142,
 Info Page#2: Calculation of Soil Resistivity by Measurements.
Important
In this worksheet, you will find multi choice check boxes for each item,
sometimes you need to check all of them, sometimes not while some items must
have one checked box only (one selection only), in this case two or more
checked boxes will contradicted with other selections.
Examples for one only checked box:

 Type Of Project,
 Design Life Of Facility,
 Future Uses, Additions, Equipment For Facility,
 Standards,
 Required Earthing Resistance Values,
 Soil Characteristics.
One Checked Box
Examples for two or more checked box:

 Electric Utility Data.
Multi-checked Boxes
Important
Steps for using Info page#2: Calculation of Soil Resistivity by Measurements

are included in the Help Guide below this info page.
Third: Grounding Design Concept Worksheet
This worksheet includes the general criteria that must be followed to determine what will
be earthed, the shape and the size of earthing system, so it includes the following
sections:
 Earthing System Include (what parts will be earthed),
 Function of the Earthing System,
 Configuration of the Earthing System,
 Neutral Point Connection to Earth,
 Earthing System Connection Method,
 Country Regulations Be Applied.
 Info Page#3: Steps for Choosing the Best Earthing System
Fourth: Grounding Installation Criteria Worksheet

This worksheet helps you to construct your grounding network in the project under design,
it gives you the complete picture for all the items, conductors and accessories that you
will need for providing a complete grounding network through the project, so it includes
the following sections:
 Grounding Conductor (items that need a grounded conductor, grounded conductor
type, size and identification),
 Grounding Stations (general criteria for earth electrodes and earth pit),
 Buried Grounding Mains (locations for Buried grounding main conductors and which
parts must be connected to),
 Grounding Bus (locations for grounding buses, placement and which parts must be
connected to),
 Connections (connections between conductors, terminations to equipment and
terminations to columns & rails),
 Special Grounding (grounding criteria for high tension cables, for control cables and
for static electricity),
 Deemed Grounded (grounding criteria for switches, panels, boxes, cable trays and
conduits)
Fifth: Grounding System Calculations Worksheet

This worksheet helps you to calculate the following:
1. Main Earthing Conductor from BS 7430:2011 and from IEEE std 80,
2. Earthing rod resistance,
3. Parallel earthing rods combined resistance,
4. Earth resistance for three rods at the vertices of an equilateral triangle,
5. Horizontal strip electrode (circular or rectangular section) resistance,
6. Combined resistance for parallel earthing strips in straight lengths and
connected together at one end only,
7. Earth resistance for two strips set at right angles to each other meeting at
one corner,
8. Earth resistance for three strips set at 120° meeting at the star point all of
equal length,
9. Earth resistance for four strips set in a cruciform,
10. Earthing plate resistance,
11. Earthing resistance for a reinforced concrete foundation footing,
12. Earthing resistance for an electrode surrounded by an infill of materials
(such as bentonite or concrete).
Important
 The data input cells are the green color ones and the data results cells are
the red ones.
 Some Aqua colored cells are transition cells for final calculations.
Green, Red and Aqua Colored Data Cells
Sixth: Grounding Specifications Worksheet

This worksheet helps you to specify all the earthing system components that you will use
to construct the grounding network through the building/project under design, so it
includes the following sections:
1- Grounding conductor Specifications

 For buried grounding main conductor,
 For grounding bus conductor,
 For grounding branch conductor,
 For steel structure,
 For motors,
 For metal pipes (not carrying flammable gas or liquids), vessels and tanks.
2- Grounding stations Specifications

 Rod earth electrode,
 Earth pit,
 Conductor.
3- Buried grounding mains Specifications

 Connections to the earth rods,
 Connections to the indoor ground bus,
 Other buried grounding mains.
4- Types of earth enhancement materials
Important
Also, In this worksheet, you will find multi choice check boxes for each
item, sometimes you need to check all of them, sometimes not while some
items must have one checked box only (one selection only), and in this case
two or more checked boxes will contradicted with other selections.
To download your copy of Excel Spreadsheet For Grounding System Design

Calculations Of Domestic,Commercial And Industrial Premises, please
click on the link.
Note:
non-registered members in Electrical-Knowhow website will not be able to

open and use this excel spreadsheet.
To register as a member of Electrical-Knowhow website, do the
following:
1. click on the phrase " Join this site" in left bottom side of the
home page, above the images of our members.
2. after finishing your registration send email to
ali1973hassan@yahoo.com, asking for your password and I will send it
with email reply.
Notes for downloading our files:
1. click on the file name that you want to download

2. a new page will open, don't care about the message "these files
are temporary unavailable",
3. Look in the upper right corner of the page, you will find an
arrow point to down,
4. click this arrow the download will start automatically.
5. after downloading, you will need to enter your password again
to open the file.
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Five
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
following Articles:

The procedures for performing the Grounding System Design

Calculations can differ slightly according to the type of the building as
follows:


exceptions.

4. Tables Method,
And I explained the second method of grounding design calculations: Nomographs Method
in Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Three".
Also, I explained third method of grounding design calculations: Excel Spreadsheets

Method in Article "Grounding Design Calculations – Part Four ".
Calculations.

Third Method: Tables Method
Important
The Tables Method is used for sizing earthing conductors only, not for
calculating the earth resistance value.
Methods Of Sizing Earthing Conductors
There are two methods for sizing protective conductors including earthing
conductors as follows:
1. By using the adiabatic equation,

2. By using Tables.
Method#1: By Using The Adiabatic Equation
This method is used where:
 The choice of the Cross sectional area of the line conductors has been
determined by consideration of short circuit current, or
 The earth fault current is expected to be less than the short circuit
current.
The cross-sectional area of the earthing conductors, where calculated, shall be

not less than the value determined by the following equation:
Where:
S is the nominal cross-sectional area of the conductor in mm2.

I is the average fault current, in A r.m.s.
t is the fault current duration, in s.
k is the r.m.s. current density, in A/mm2 .
Notes:
 Application of the formula will in many instances result in a protective

conductor having a smaller CSA than that of the live conductors of the
associated circuit. This is quite acceptable.
 The cross-sectional area of the earthing conductors (s) are also calculated
directly from our excel sheet for Excel Spreadsheet for Grounding System
Design Calculations of Domestic, Commercial and Industrial Premises as shown
in below image.(click the link to download your copy).
First: Getting K Value
To get values of K, we have (2) cases to be considered as follows:
Case#1: t= 1 s and initial conductor temperature of 30 °C
In this case, the value of K is given in below Table-1:

Table-1
Case#2: t= 1 s and other initial/ final conductor temperature
In this case, the value of K is obtained from the following equation:

Where:
T1 is the initial temperature, in °C;

T2 is the final temperature, in °C;
K and β have the values given in Table-2.
Table-2
Second: Getting The Average Fault Current Value (I)
To get values of average fault current (I), we have (2) methods:
 Method#1: by using Earth fault loop impedance,

 Method#2: from tables and equations.
Method#1: by using Earth fault loop impedance
The value of the fault current (I) will be determined from the following
equation:
I = Uo / Zs
Where:
Uo the nominal Voltage

Zs the measured value of earth fault loop impedance corrected to the operating
temperature of the conductor.
Getting value of Zs:
Zs = Ze + (R1 + R2) ohm
Where:
Ze: the impedance of the supply side of the earth fault loop.( it can be obtained
from utility companies but typical values are 0.35 ohm for TN-C-S supplies and
0.8 ohm for TN-S supplies),
R1: the resistance of the phase conductor,
R2: the resistance of the earth conductor.
Values of (R1 + R2) are given in the below table (table 9A of the IEE on site
guide):
Table 9A of the IEE on Site Guide
Note:
(R1 + R2) in above table is at 20◦C, for other temperatures, the value will be
increased 2% for each 5◦C rise in temperature.
Example#1:
The design current for a circuit is 38A. The current carrying capacity of cable has
been calculated and the circuit is to be wired in 70◦C thermoplastic singles,
6mm2 live conductors and 1.5mm2 circuit protective conductors, Supply is 230V
TNS with a Ze of 0.38 ohm, circuit is 28m long. Calculate Zs and fault current.
Solution:
From Table 9A in above, it will be seen that the (R1 + R2) for 6 mm2/1.5 mm2
copper is 15.2 mΩ per meter at a temperature of 20◦C.
For cables at their operating temperature of 70◦C.The resistance of the copper

conductor will increase 2% for each 5◦C rise in temperature.
50◦C rise in temperature = 2% * 50/5 = 20% increase, so (R1 + R2) need to be

multiplied by 1.2
(R1 + R2) = (15.2 mΩ x 1.2 x 28 m)/1000 = 0.51 Ω
Zs = Ze + (R1 + R2) = 0.38 + 0.51 = 0.89 Ω
The value of the fault current (I) will be determined from the following
equation:
I = Uo / Zs = 240 V / 0.89 Ω = 269.4 A
Method#2: from tables and equations
To get values of average fault current (I) from tables and equations, we have (3)
cases to be considered as follows:
Case#1: t= 1 s and 3 s and using a standard size of copper strips, the values
of (I) are given in Table-3.
Table-3
Case#2: t= 1 s and 3 s and using a standard size of copper strips, the values
of (I) are given in Table-4.
Table-4
Case#3: For other durations, the values of (I) are calculated from one of the
following equations:
Where:
I1 is the fault current for 1 s duration, in A r.m.s. (given in Table-3 and Table-4).
Third: Getting (t) Value

The value of the fault current duration (operating time for the disconnecting
device), can be found from the time / current curve for the disconnecting
device.
For example, as in below image for 200 A BS 88 Fuse , with a fault current of
2000 A, the protective device has an operating time (t) = 0.5 seconds.
Thermal Constraints For Earthing Conductors
The initial temperature (T1) may be increased than the measured value, if
there are continuous earth leakage currents through the earthing conductors
and in this case:
 The earthing conductor must have a current-carrying capacity

adequate for such currents without exceeding a temperature appropriate to
its insulation.
 If the earthing conductor is bare and exposed to touch, its
temperature should not exceed 70 °C.
Cross sectional area constraints for earthing conductors:
Installation case for earthing conductor

Minimum cross With protection With mechanical Buried in
sectional area against corrosion protection ground
4 mm2 √ - -
2.5 mm2 √ √ -
16 mm2 √ - √
25 mm2 for
copper - - √
conductors
50 mm2 for
coated steel - - √
conductors
Thickness constraints for earthing strips:
Installation case for earthing Strip

Unprotected against corrosion or
Minimum thickness
mechanical pressure
3 mm √
Example#2:
An earthing conductor buried in the ground is protected against corrosion by

a sheath, but is not protected against mechanical damage. The minimum
size copper conductor that may be installed is
 2.5mm2
 16mm2
 25mm2
 50mm2.
Solution:
From the above table, The minimum size copper earthing conductor is
16mm2.
Method#2: By Using Tables
The easier method is to determine the earthing conductor (protective

conductor) size from Tables but this may produce a larger size than is
strictly necessary, since it employs a simple relationship to the cross-
sectional area of the phase conductor(s).
The used tables for determining of earth conductor size are existing in two
standards/codes as follows:
1. In BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations (IEE Wiring

Regulations),
2. In NEC, Article 250.
First: BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations (IEE Wiring

Regulations)
Note:
 It should be noted that bonding conductors should not be sized using this
method; it applies to circuit protective conductor and earthing conductors only.
BS 7671 tables are applied for (3) cases as follows:
Case#1: The minimum cross-sectional area of a protective conductor can be

determined by selection from Table-5,
Table-5
Getting value of K1:
K1 is the value of k for the line conductor, selected from BS 7671, Table 43.1 in
Chapter 43 according to the materials of both conductor and insulation.
Table 43.1
Getting value of K2:
K2 is the value of k for the protective conductor, selected from BS 7671, Tables
54.2 to 54.6 as applicable.
Tables 54.2 to 54.6 Respectively
Case#2: Buried earthing conductor, the minimum cross-sectional area can be
determined by selection from Table-6
Table-6
Case#3: For a TN-C-S (PME) supply, the minimum cross-sectional area can be
determined by selection from Table-7.
Table-7
Example#3:
What is the CSA of an earthing conductor selected from table-5, where a line
conductor CSA is:
 6 mm2
 25 mm2
 50 mm2
Note that earth conductor will has same material as the line conductor
Solution:
 For 6 mm2 line conductor, earthing conductor will be 6 mm 2
 For 25 mm2 line conductor, earthing conductor will be 16 mm2
 For 50 mm2 line conductor, earthing conductor will be 25 mm2
Example#4:
Use the adiabatic equation to determine the minimum cross-sectional area of a

circuit protective conductor suitable for use on a radial circuit protected by a 30
amp fuse to BS 3036.
The 230 volt circuit is wired in single-core 70° C PVC insulated cables with
copper conductors, which are installed in steel conduit. The cross sectional area
of the phase and neutral conductors is 4 mm2. The earth fault loop impedance
Zs is 1.44 ohms.
Solution:
Fault current, I = Uo / Zs = 230 V / 1.44 = 160 amps.
The disconnection time, t, is found by reference to the appropriate time/current

characteristic of a 30 amp BS 3036 fuse. This is found in Fig. 3.2A in Appendix 3
of BS 7671.
The disconnection time is approximately 0.8 seconds.
Fig. 3.2A in Appendix 3 of BS 7671
The value of k is obtained from Table 54.3 of BS 7671 and is 115.
Now the adiabatic equation can be used as follows:
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Six
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:


follows:


exceptions.

4. Tables Method,
first method ofgrounding design calculations: Equations Method and solved examples.
Also, I explained third method of grounding design calculations: Excel Spreadsheets

Method in Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Four ".
Today, I will explain NEC Article 250 tables for sizing of earth conductors.

Third Method: Tables Method - Continued
Important
The Tables Method is used for sizing earthing conductors only, not for
calculating the earth resistance value.
Methods Of Sizing Earthing Conductors
There are two methods for sizing protective conductors

including earthing conductors as follows:
1. By using the adiabatic equation,

2. By using Tables.
In Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Five ", I explained method#1: By using
the adiabatic equation, also I explained the first case: BS 7671 Requirements for
Electrical Installations (IEE Wiring Regulations) from method#2: By using Tables which
include two cases as follows:
Method#2: By Using Tables
The easier method is to determine the earthing conductor (protective

conductor) size from Tables but this may produce a larger size than is
strictly necessary, since it employs a simple relationship to the cross-
sectional area of the phase conductor(s).
The used tables for determining of earth conductor size are existing in two
standards/codes as follows:
1. In BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations (IEE Wiring

Regulations),
2. In NEC, Article 250.
Second: NEC Article 250 tables for sizing of earth conductors
NEC Code provide (2) tables for sizing grounding conductors as follows:
1. Table 250.66: Sizing Grounding Electrode Conductor (GEC),

2. Table 250.122: Sizing Equipment Grounding Conductor (EGC).
First: Table 250.66
Sizing GEC according to the largest service entrance conductor Size
As per NEC 250.66, the grounding electrode conductor must be sized based on
the largest service-entrance conductor or equivalent area for parallel conductors
in accordance with Table 250.66, Except for:
1. A ground rod electrode,

2. A concrete-encased electrode,
3. A ground ring electrode.
Table 250.66
The above (3) exceptions will be sized according to the following table:
Exceptions to Table 250.66 (see Fig.1)
grounding electrode conductor grounding electrode conductor

connected to largest size
6 AWG copper or 4
Rod, Pipe, or Plate Electrodes AWG aluminum wire.
Concrete-Encased Electrodes 4 AWG copper wire

the size of conductor used for the
Ground Rings
ground ring
Note: the above (3) exceptions are applied only when that portion of
the groundingelectrode conductor is the sole connection to
the grounding electrode.
Fig.1
Example#1:
Determine the size of the grounding electrode conductor used for a service
equipment with service-entrance conductor of 3/0 AWG.
Solution:
Use Table 250.66 to size the grounding electrode conductor. According to the
third row, “2/0 or 3/0” the size should be 4 AWG copper or 2 AWG aluminum.
Example#2:
If a second service equipment with service-entrance conductor of 3 AWG is

added to the case in example#1, Determine:
 The size of the grounding electrode conductor used for each service
equipment.
 The size of the main grounding electrode conductor for both service
equipments.
Solution:
Step#1: Use Table 250.66 for each service conductor

The size of the grounding electrode conductor used for first service equipment (
with service conductor 3/0 AWG)= 4 AWG copper or 2 AWG aluminum (as in
example#1)
The size of the grounding electrode conductor used for second service
equipment (with service conductor 3 AWG)= 8 AWG copper or 6 AWG aluminum
Step#2: calculating equivalent area for these parallel conductors

In this case we have (2) parallel service conductors (3/0 AWG & 3 AWG), so we
need to calculate the equivalent area for these parallel conductors as follows:
Using Table 8 in Chapter 9, find the total circular mil area for each service
conductor:
3 AWG = 52,620 circular mils
3/0 AWG = 167,800 mils
Then, equivalent Total area = 220,420 circular mils or 220.42 kcmil
Step#3: Use Table 250.66 for equivalent area for these parallel conductors
Using Table 250.66 and According to the fourth row, “Over 3/0 through 350,”
the size should be 2 AWG copper or 1/0 AWG aluminum.
Table-8, Chapter 9
Second: Table 250.122
Sizing EGC according to the size of the over-current device ahead of the
conductor
As per NEC 250.122, the Equipment grounding conductor must be sized

according to the size of the over-current Protective device (OPCD) ahead of
the conductor.
Table 250.122
Note to Table 250.122:
Where there is a long distance between the power source and utilization
equipment, larger sizes of EGC can be provided to lower the overall
impedance of the ground-faultcurrent return path in order to facilitate quick
operation of the overcurrent protective device in the event of a line-to-
ground fault.
Example#3:
What size aluminum equipment grounding conductor is needed for a 400 A

ciruit breaker protecting the feeder circuit.
Solution:
Using NEC table 250.122, for 400 A Overcurrent Device in Circuit Ahead of
conductor, GEC = 1 AWG Aluminum wire.
Special Cases for application of Table 250.122
The following (6) Special cases must be taken into consideration when sizing
EGC:
1. Increasing size of ungrounded conductors,

2. Ungrounded conductor with Multiple Circuits,
3. The equipment grounding conductor for Motor Circuits,
4. Equipment grounding conductor in a Flexible Cord and Fixture
Wire,
5. Equipment grounding conductor for ungrounded Conductors in
Parallel,
6. Equipment Grounding Conductors Run With Feeder Taps.
Case#1: Increasing size of ungrounded conductors
If there is a need to increase the size of the ungrounded conductors to

compensate for voltage dropor for any other reason related to proper circuit
operation, EGC must be increased proportionately.
Example#4:
A 240-volt, single-phase, 250-ampere load is supplied from a 300-

ampere breaker located in a panelboard 500 ft away. The conductors are 250-
kcmil copper, installed in rigid nonmetallic conduit, with a 4
AWG copper equipment grounding conductor. If the conductors are increased to
350 kcmil, what is the minimum size for the equipment grounding conductor
based on the proportional-increase requirement?
Solution
Step#1: Calculate the size ratio of the new conductors to the existing
conductors:
Size ratio = 350,000 circular mils / 250,000 circular mils = 1.4
Step#2: Calculate the cross-sectional area of the new

equipment grounding conductor:
By using table 8 in Chapter 9, the cross-sectional area of old
equipment grounding conductor = 4 AWG = 41,740 circular mils
So, the cross-sectional area of the new equipment grounding conductor = 41,740
circular mils x 1.4 = 58,436 circular mils
Step#3: Determine the size of the new equipment grounding conductor
By using table 8 in Chapter 9, we find that 58,436 circular mils is larger than 3
AWG. The next larger size is 66,360 circular mils, which converts to a 2
AWG copper equipment grounding conductor.
Case#2: Ungrounded conductor with Multiple Circuits
When a single EGC is run within a raceway with multiple circuits, it should
be sized for the largest over-current protective device present.
Example#5:
Find the EGC for three 3-phase circuits in the same raceway, protected by
overcurrent devices rated 30, 60, and 100 amperes.
Solution:
The three circuits would require only one equipment grounding conductor,
sized according to the largest overcurrent device (in this case, 100
amperes).
By using table 250.122, an 8 AWG copper or 6 AWG aluminum conductor
or copper-clad aluminum conductor is required.
Case#3: The equipment grounding conductor for Motor Circuits
The equipment grounding conductor size shall be sized from Table 250.122
using the rating of the branch-circuit short-circuit and ground fault
protective device.
Note:
Where the overcurrent device is an instantaneous-trip circuit breaker or a

motor short circuit protector, the equipment grounding conductor (EGC)
shall be sized from Table 250.122 using the maximum permitted rating of a
dual element time-delay fuse selected for branch-circuit short-circuit and
ground-fault protection in accordance with 430.52(C)(1), Exception No. 1.
Case#4: Equipment grounding conductor in a Flexible Cord and Fixture

Wire
Equipment grounding conductor in a Flexible Cord and Fixture Wire will be

sized as per the following table:
Flexible Cord Ungrounded Equipment Grounding Conductor

Conductor Size (EGC) Size
Shall not be smaller than 18
10 AWG or smaller AWG copperand shall not be smaller
than the circuit conductors
larger than 10 AWG in accordance with Table 250.122
Case#5: Equipment grounding conductor for ungrounded Conductors in
Parallel
Where conductors are installed in parallel in multiple raceways or cables as

permitted in, the equipment grounding conductors, where used, shall be
installed in parallel in each raceway or cable. Where conductors are
installed in parallel in the sameraceway, cable, or cable tray, a single
equipment grounding conductor shall be permitted.
In this case, Each equipment grounding conductor shall be sized in

accordance with Table 250.122 based on the rating or setting of the
overcurrent device protecting the paralleled circuit conductors.
Example#6:
A 2000 A feeder is installed in parallel using 6 metal clad (MC) type cables,
each set contains four 600 Kcmil aluminum alloy conductors. What is the
minimum size EGC that can be used?
Solution:
Bu using table 250.122, for 2000 A OPCD, EGC minmum size = 400 Kcmil, and
one EGC must be installed in each MC Cable assembly.
Case#6: Equipment Grounding Conductors Run With Feeder Taps
Equipment grounding conductors run with feeder taps shall not be smaller
than shown in Table 250.122 based on the rating of the overcurrent device
ahead of the feeder but shall not be required to be larger than the tap
conductors.
Example#7:
A 600-kcmil copper conductor is tapped to a 1200-ampere feeder and
supplies a fusible switch with 400-ampere fuses. What is the minimum size
EGCs that can be used?
Solution:
For the 400-ampere overcurrent protection, the

equipment grounding conductor from Table 250.122 is a 3 AWG copper or 1
AWG aluminum conductor.
for the 1200-ampere device that is on the line side of the 600-kcmil tap
conductors, the equipment grounding conductor from Table 250.122 is a 3/0
AWG copper or 250-kcmil aluminum conductor.
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Seven
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:


follows:


exceptions.

4. Tables Method,
Also, I explained the third method of grounding design calculations: Excel Spreadsheets
Method in " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Four ".
And I explained the forth method of grounding design calculations: By using Tables In
Articles " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Five " and " Grounding Design
Calculations – Part Six ".
Today, I will explain the fifth method of grounding design calculations: Online Earthing
Calculators Method.

Fifth Method: Online Earthing Calculators Method
Online Earthing Calculators Method
In this method, I will introduce some good online earthing calculators that
can help electrical designers in grounding design calculations. I choose the
following (3) online earthing calculators providers:
1. LPI Earthing Calculator,

2. Loresco Earthing Calculators,
3. Electrician2 Grounding Calculators.
These (3) earthing calculators providers provide (6) online earthing

calculators that will be explained herein.
Important
Before using any online earthing calculator, you must check its compatibility
with your local codes and standards.
First: LPI Earthing Calculator
This, user friendly, earthing calculator allows you to estimate earth system
resistance based on IEEE and other international earthing/grounding
standards.
1- Calculator sections
This calculator includes (3) different sections (see fig.1), they are as follows:
1. Configurations Section,
2. Parameters Section,
3. Results Section.
Fig.1: LPI Earthing Calculator
1.A Configurations section
In this section, the user must select the configuration applied in his design
from the following (5) configurations (see fig.2):
1. A Single Vertical Rod,
2. Horizontal Conductor With (Or Without) Vertical Rods,
3. Horizontal Grid With (Or Without) Vertical Rods,
4. More Than One Horizontal Conductor Radiating From A Single
Rod,
5. LPI Chemical Ground Rod.
Fig.2: Configurations section

1.B Parameters Section
This section includes (3) parameters category (see fig.3) as follows:
1. Soil Category,
2. Products Category,
3. Layout Category.
Each category's parameters differ according to the selected configuration

from the configurations section.
Fig.3:Parameters Section
1.B.1 Soil Category

Fig.4:Soil Category
It includes the resistivity parameter (Ωm) which can be inserted by one of the
(2) following methods (see fig.4):
1. Selection from the drop down menu that includes standard

resistivity values based on table C2 in The Australian Standard AS1768-
2007 (see fig.5), or
2. Writing custom resistivity value by editing the blue underline
value (below the drop down menu).
Fig.5: Table C2 in The Australian Standard AS1768-2007
 No changes in the soil category happen while changing from

configuration to another.
 Soil resistivity must be between 0.2 and 100,000 Ωm.
1.B.2 Products Category

 It includes dimensions parameters for different products, these
parameters can be inserted in the calculator by editing the blue underline
values for each parameter.
 The products included in the product category changes with changing
the selected configuration from the configurations section as in below table:
Products
Configuration
in Products Category
A Single Vertical Rod (see fig.6) Rod
Horizontal Conductor With Vertical Rods
(see fig.7)
Rod
Horizontal Grid With (Or Without) Vertical
Tape
Rods (see fig.7)
wire
More Than One Horizontal Conductor
Radiating From A Single Rod (see fig.7)
LPI Chemical Ground Rod (see fig.8) ChemRod
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
 To activate/deactivate a product in multi-products category, you must
on/off the button beside the product name (see fig.9).
Fig.9
 For the following configurations:

2. Horizontal Grid With (Or Without) Vertical Rods.
You can perform the calculations with or without using vertical rods (see
fig.9); this is done by on/off the button beside the rod product.
 For the following configurations:

2. Horizontal Grid With (Or Without) Vertical Rods,
3. More Than One Horizontal Conductor Radiating From A Single
Rod.
 Activation of tape product will deactivate the wire product and Vice
versa (see fig.9), since only one product (tape or wire) can be used in these
configurations.
 Every product will have different dimensions parameters as follows:
Dimensions
Product Limits
Parameters
must be between 10 and 60 mm
Rod diameter (mm)
Rod (see (also depends on hole diameter)
fig.6 & 7)
Rod Length (m) must be between 1 and 30 m
Tape width (mm)
Tape (see
fig.7)
Tape thickness ( mm) must be between 0.5 and 10 mm
Wire (see must be between 30 and 500
Area of wire (mm2)
fig.7) mm2
Selection of length to be 2 or 3 meters
Chemrod
Selection between vertical or horizontal Chemical Ground
(see fig.8)
rod
The dimensions parameters in above table can be inserted in the calculator

by editing the blue underline values for each parameter.
1.B.3 Layout Category
 It includes dimensions parameters for different Layouts, these

parameters can be inserted in the calculator by editing the blue underline
values for each parameter.
 The layouts included in the layouts category changes with changing the
selected configuration from the configurations section as in below table:
Layout
Configuration
In Layouts Category
A Single Vertical Rod (see fig.10) Rod Hole for Compound
Rod Hole for Compound

Horizontal Conductor With Vertical Rods (see
Horizontal Conductor
fig.11)
Trench for Compound
Horizontal Grid With (Or Without) Vertical Rods
Grid
(see fig.12)
Trench for Compound
More Than One Horizontal Conductor Radiating
Radial
From A Single Rod (see fig.13)
Trench for Compound
LPI Chemical Ground Rod No Layout
Fig.10
Fig.11
Fig.12
Fig.13
 To activate/deactivate a layout in multi-Layouts category, you must

on/off the button beside the layout name.
 For the layout of configuration "Horizontal Conductor With (Or
Without) Vertical Rods", The Horizontal Conductor layout can't be
deactivated.
 For the layout of configuration " Horizontal Grid With (Or Without)
Vertical Rods", The Grid layout can't be deactivated.
 Also, for the layout of configuration " More Than One Horizontal
Conductor Radiating From A Single Rod", The Radial layout can't be
deactivated.
 Every Layout will have different dimensions parameters as follows:
dimensions
Layout Limits
parameters
must be between 10 and 500
Rod Hole for Hole diameter (mm)
mm (also depends on Rod
Compound
diameter)
(see figs.
10,11,12 & Hole Length = Rod
13) Length (m).
must be between 100 and

Buried Depth (mm)
10,000 mm (also depends on
depth of trench compound)
Horizontal must be between 1 and 100 m

Conductor Length of Horizontal
(also depends of number of
(see fig.11) Conductor (m)
Rods)
must be a whole number
between 2 and 5 (also depends
Number of Rods
on Length of Horizontal
Conductor)
X Length of Grid (m)
(also depends on number of grid
conductors in X axis)
Y length of Grid (m)
(also depends on number of grid
conductors in X axis)
Number of Grid must be whole number between
elements in X axis 2 and 100 (also depends on grid
Grid (see length in X axis)
fig.12) Number of Grid must be whole number between
elements in Y axis 2 and 100 (also depends on grid
width in Y axis)
Buried Depth (mm) 10,000 mm (also depends on
depth of trench compound)
must be whole number between

Number of Rods
1 and 100
Selection between "360° Full" and " Crows Foot (3 Radials
Radial (see
over 120°)"
fig.13)
Length of Radial (m) must be between 1 and 100 m
Buried Depth (mm)
10,000 mm (also depends on
depth of trench compound),
Number of Radials must be whole number between
3 and 10
must be whole number between
Number of Rods
1 and 100
Compound Layer must be between 10 and 500
Trench for Height (mm) mm (also depends on buried
Compound depth of horizontal element)
(see
Width of Trench (mm) must be between 100 and 500
figs.11,12 &
mm
13)
Depth of Trench (mm)
 The dimensions parameters in above table can be inserted in the

calculator by editing the blue underline values for each parameter.
1.C Results Section
This section includes (3) results tabs (see fig.14)as follows:
1. System Only,
2. With Reslo,
3. With Grip.
RESLO (Ground Enhancement Compound) and GRIP (Ground Resistivity

Improvement Powder) are used in earthing systems to reduce soil resistivity
adjacent to earth system electrodes so as to reduce the resistance of the
earth system.
Fig.14
 Genrally the two result values will appear in each tab:
1. R range,
2. R Typical.
What is the R range?
Formulas provided in earthing standards assume perfect contact between

the buried earthing conductor and the soil. The result is a theoretical best-
case scenario. In real world applications it is generally found that perfect
contact is not possible, and the measured result can in fact exceed this
calculated best-case scenario by a factor of 10 or more. The “Range” given
in the LPI Earthing Calculator provides a lower limit (the theoretical best-
case scenario) and an upper limit or worst-case scenario for a given soil
type.
What is R Typical?
Based on installation experience and careful field testing, the LPI Earthing
Calculator is also able to provide a very useful “Typical” result which shows
the likely result for typical conditions seen in the field.
 Generally the earth Resistance value appear in the system only tap
without using RESLO and Grip materials
 If using layouts "Rod Hole for Compound" or/and "Trench for
Compound", the earth resistance value (after enhancement) will appear in
the "With Reslo" tab or in the "With Grip" tab according to the used material
for enhancing the erathing resistance value.
 Also, the number of bags of Reslo compound or/and the numbers of
kits of Grip powder will appear in each corresponding tab.
 Calculations in System only tab are based on the rules in
below fig.15.
Fig.15
 Calculations in "With Reslo" and "With Grip" tabs are based on the
rules in below fig.16.
Fig.16
2-LPI Earthing Calculator's Using method
The method of using this calculator is working left to right as follows:
1. Select the configuration of your earthing system from the

configurations section,
2. Edit the dimensions and other parameters in Parameters
section,
3. In Results section, Results are given for the theoretical best-
case scenario (as per the standard) as well as likely real-world values
as typically seen in the field.
You can use the LPI Online Earthing Calculator by click on the link.
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Eight
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:


follows:


exceptions.


4. Tables Method,
Today, I will continue explaining the fifth method of grounding design calculations: Online
Earthing Calculators Method.

Fifth Method: Online Earthing Calculators Method - Continued
In Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Seven ", I listed the online Earthing
calculators that will be introduced and explained help electrical designers in grounding
design calculations.
Also, I explained the first online earthing calculator: LPI Earthing Calculator in this
article and we are going to explain other online earthing calculators which are listed as
follows:
Online Earthing Calculators Method
In this method, I will introduce some good online earthing calculators that
can help electrical designers in grounding design calculations. I choose the
following (3) online earthing calculators providers:
1. LPI Earthing Calculator,

2. Loresco Earthing Calculators,
3. Electrician2 Grounding Calculators.
These (3) earthing calculators providers provide (6) online earthing

calculators that will be explained herein.
Important
Before using any online earthing calculator, you must check its compatibility
with your local codes and standards.
Second: Loresco Earthing Calculators
Loresco international company introduces (3) Loresco calculators as follows:
1. Loresco Vertical Resistance Calculator,

2. Loresco Horizontal Resistance Calculator,
3. Loresco Grid Resistance Calculator.
1- Loresco Vertical Resistance Calculator
Loresco Vertical Resistance Calculator

 This calculator will determine the total resistance to earth for multiple,
equally spaced, vertical electrodes. The resistance can be calculated from either
shallow or deep electrodes operated in parallel with correction for mutual
interference between systems.
 This calculator employs the surface and deep electrode equations
developed by Erling D. Sunde and found in his book Earth Conduction Effects in
Transmission Systems.
 In the case of multiple electrode holes or electrode systems, correction
for the mutual interference between the electrodes is accomplished using the
general formula developed by Sunde.
 These equations apply to equally spaced, vertical electrodes placed along
a straight line. Development of the equations assumed a homogeneous
electrolyte with a single resistivity. The equations ignore any attenuation effects
along the grounding electrode.
 Finally, although the equations were derived for direct current flow, they
may be used for low frequency alternating current systems and even lightning
surge resistance if the length of interconnecting wire is relatively short (less
than 100 meters). As the lengths of interconnecting wires become greater in AC
systems, the impedance of the wires becomes more significant and should be
taken into account.
 These calculations do not take into account the contact resistance
between each electrode and the LORESCO grounding backfill. However, the
contact resistance for each electrode is small, being on the order of a few tenths
of an ohm or less. Since all of the electrodes in a grounding system are in
parallel, the total contact resistance is the contact resistance for one electrode
divided by the total number of electrodes. Therefore, for practical cases this
contact resistance is negligible and may be ignored.
Method Of Using This Calculator
1- Choose Metric or English units by use of the input unit select button
(beside the calculate button) prior to entering variables. The English units
are feet and inch while the Metric units are meter and cm.
Note:
 Do not use commas in the input values. If the decimal is not entered,
it is assumed to be just to the right of the right-most digit entered.
2- Enter the average resistivity of the environment (earth) around the
grounding electrode in ohm-cm.This is the value of soil resistivity
determined though field testing.
Notes:
 Soil resistivities may vary from a low of 100 to a high of 1,000,000
ohm-cm.
 Regardless of the input units selected (English or Metric), the units

for resistivity must be in ohm-cm.
3- Enter the length of a single grounding electrode or electrode column in

meters or feet.
Notes:
 If LORESCO grounding backfill is used, the length is the length of the
backfill column. If no backfill is installed, the length is the actual electrode
length.
 Where several electrodes are installed in a single hole, enter the
length of the grounding backfill column, if used , or the total length of all of
the individual electrodes, if no backfill is used. Multiple electrodes in a
single hole are considered a single electrode.
4-Enter the total number of electrode holes installed.

This is the number of LORESCO grounding backfill columns. Regardless of the
number of electrodes installed in a single hole or grounding backfill column,
this is considered one electrode.
5- Enter the diameter of a single electrode or electrode column in

centimeters or inches.
Again, this is the diameter the LORESCO grounding backfill, if used, or the
actual electrode diameter, if no backfill is used.
6- Enter the center-to-center spacing between individual electrode holes or

columns in meters or feet.
Notes:
 Typical spacings between surface electrodes vary between 1.5 to 10
meters (5 to 30 feet). Typical spacing between deep electrode systems vary
between 7 to 30 meters (25 to 100 feet).
 If the number of electrodes entered in one, no spacing value is
required. If a value for spacing is entered with the number of electrodes
equal to one, the spacing is ignored.
7- Select one of the two choices from the drop-down menu (Deep or
shallow).
Surface electrodes generally are installed with the top of the active
electrodes within 15 meters (50 feet) from the surface. Deep electrodes are
generally installed with the top of the active electrode below 15 meters (50
feet) from the surface.
8- Result: click on the Calculate button, You will get the resistance-to-earth
in ohms of the electrode system described by the input data.
Notes:
 If the estimated resistance is higher than the required value, one or
more of the design variables may be changed in order to determine its
effect on the expected resistance. The greatest decrease in resistance is
achieved either by increasing the number of grounding electrode holes or
increasing the length of a single electrode column.
 The most recent result along with the input data is displayed in
output column 1. You may recalculate by reentering the required variables
while changing any one or all of the input data values for the next
calculation. As additional calculations are undertaken, the output results
automatically scroll to the right. In other words, at any time you may
compare the three most recent calculation results.
You can use the Loresco Vertical Resistance Calculator by click on the
link.
2- Loresco Horizontal Resistance Calculator

Loresco Horizontal Resistance Calculator
 This calculator will determine the total resistance-to-earth for a single,

continuous, horizontal cylindrical or rectangular electrode.
 This calculator employs horizontal electrode equations developed by
Erling D. Sunde and found in his book Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission
Systems.
 Development of the equations assumed a homogeneous electrolyte with a
single resistivity.
 The equations ignore any attenuation effects along the grounding
electrode system. Although the equations were derived for direct current flow,
they may be used for low frequency alternating current systems and even in
estimating lightning surge resistance if the length of interconnecting wire is
relatively short (less than 100 meters). As the length of the grounding electrode
or interconnecting wires become greater in AC systems, the impedance
(inductance) becomes more significant and should be taken into account.
 These calculations do not take into account the contact resistance
between each electrode and the LORESCO grounding backfill. However, the
contact resistance for each electrode is small, being on the order of a few tenths
of an ohm or less. Since all of the electrodes in a grounding system are in
parallel, the total contact resistance is the contact resistance for one electrode
divided by the total number of electrodes. Therefore, for practical cases this
contact resistance is negligible and may be ignored.
Note:
2- Enter the average resistivity of the environment (earth) around the

grounding electrode in ohm-cm.This is the value of soil resistivity
determined though field testing.
Notes:
ohm-cm.
3- Enter the length of the grounding electrode in meters or feet.
Note:
 If LORESCO grounding backfill is used, this is the total grounding
backfill length. If grounding backfill is not used, this is the length of the
electrode itself.
4- Enter the depth from the surface of the earth to the center of the
horizontal grounding electrode in meters or feet.
5- If the electrode shape is cylindrical, enter the diameter of the electrode

or electrode backfill column in centimeters or inches. This is the diameter
of the LORESCO carbon backfill column, if used. If no backfill is used, this is
the diameter of the electrode itself.
If the electrode shape is rectangular, enter the width of the electrode or
electrode backfill column in centimeters or inches. This is the width of the
LORESCO carbon backfill column, if used. If no backfill is used, this is the
width of the electrode itself.
6- If the electrode shape is rectangular, enter the thickness of the electrode

or electrode backfill column in centimeters or inches. This is the thickness
of the LORESCO carbon backfill column, if used. If no backfill is used, this is
the thickness of the electrode itself.
If the electrode shape is cylindrical, no thickness should be entered. If a

thickness is entered, it is ignored by the calculations.
7- Choose one of the two horizontal electrode shapes from the drop-down
menu. This refers to the cross-sectional shape of the LORESCO grounding
backfill column, if used. If grounding backfill is not used, this is the cross-
sectional shape of the grounding electrode itself.
8- Result: click on the Calculate button, you will get the resistance-to-earth
in ohms of the electrode system described by the input data.
Notes:
effect on the expected resistance. The greatest decrease in resistance is
achieved by increasing the length up to the point where attenuation along
the single electrode becomes significant. Once attenuation becomes
significant, additional horizontal electrodes are desirable.
compare the three most recent calculation results with the most recent
calculation results.
 In the case where the electrode shape is chosen as rectangular,
Sunde's equation for a horizontal strip electrode is used if the width is
greater than eight (8) times the thickness. If the width is less than eight (8)
times the thickness, an equivalent diameter is calculated for the electrode
by determining the diameter necessary to equate the surface area for the
rectangular electrode and a cylindrical electrode. Then, Sunde's equation
for a horizontal cylindrical electrode is used assuming this equivalent
diameter. Of course, if the electrode shape is chosen as cylindrical, Sunde's
equation for a horizontal cylindrical electrode is used with the diameter
entered. These equations apply to a single, continuous horizontal electrode.
 If the horizontal electrode system consists of multiple horizontal
electrodes either placed in individual LORESCO grounding backfill columns
rather than a single continuous backfill column or without grounding
backfill, the calculator cannot determine the exact resistance-to-earth.
However, the resistance may be estimated as follows. Calculate the
resistance assuming the Length of the electrode is the length from the
beginning of the first electrode or electrode backfill column to the end of
the last electrode or electrode backfill column (In other words, the total
end-to-end length of the system). Next, calculate the resistance assuming
the Length of the electrode is the sum of the individual electrodes or
electrode backfill columns (The space between the electrodes or electrode
backfill columns is subtracted from the total end-to-end length). The actual
resistance will be between these two calculated values.
You can use the Loresco Horizontal Resistance Calculator by click on the
link.
3- Loresco Grid Resistance Calculator

Loresco Grid Resistance Calculator
 This calculator will determine the ground resistance for a grid-rod

combinations.
 This calculator employs the techniques of estimating the resistance to
earth of a grounding grid either with or without the attachment of vertical
ground rods as described in ANSI / IEEE Standard 80.
 The specific equations used were developed for uniform soil resistivity by
S. J. Schwarz and published in his paper titled, "Analytical Expressions for
Resistance of Grounding Systems", AIEE transactions, vol 73, part III-B, 1954, pp
1011-1016. The resistances of the grid and vertical rods are combined using
resistance equations developed by R. Rudenberg ("Grounding Principles and
Practices – 1, Fundamental Considerations on Grounding
Currents." Electrical Engineering, vol 64, no 1, Jan 1945, pp 1 – 13.) and E. D.
Sunde (Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems. New York: McMillan,
1968.). The two layer model used is based on work by C. J. Blattner in his paper
"Study of Driven Ground Rods and Four Point Soil Resistivity Tests."IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol PAS-101, no 8, Aug 1982, pp
2837 – 2850. Finally, the constants related to the geometry of the system are
determined by expressions developed by S. W. Kercel in his paper "Design of
Switchyard Grounding Systems Using Multiple Grids." IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol PAS-100, no 3, Mar 1981, pp 1341 – 1350.
 The two-layer resistivity model is based on the premise that the ground
rods or backfill columns are installed in deeper, lower resistivity soil, as
compared to the surface soils where the grid is buried. This calculator model
assumes that the rods are driven to a depth such that the top of the rod is at the
depth of the grid burial, which is normal for most installations.
 If the soil is relatively uniform from the surface to a depth equal to or
greater than the average length of the ground rods, a single layer resistivity
model can be used by entering the same value of soil resistivity for both the
upper and lower soil resistivity values. In this case, any value can be entered for
the depth of the upper layer, H.
Note:
2- Enter the total length of the grid conductors in meters or feet.
3- Enter the average length of the ground rods or the grounding backfill
columns, if used, in meters or feet. If a grounding backfill column is used,
you should enter the total length of the backfill regardless of the length of
the ground rod or contacting electrode within the backfill.
4- Enter the average resistivity of the upper layer of soil around the
grounding grid in ohm-cm. This is the value of soil resistivity from the
surface to a depth of H as determined though field-testing.
5- Enter the average resistivity of the deeper layer of soil around the
grounding electrode in ohm-cm. This is the value of soil resistivity from the
depth of H downward as determined though field-testing.
Note:
ohm-cm or more.
 If the soil is uniform resistivity to a depth greater than or equal to
the average rod depth, a single soil resistivity layer model is used. In this
case, enter the same resistivity for both the upper and deeper layers, and
enter any value for the Thickness of the Upper Layer, H.
 In order for this approximate model to be valid, the resistivity of the
deeper layer must be equal to or less than the resistivity for the upper
layer. If the deep layer resistivity is less than the resistivity of the upper
layer, it must not be less than 20% of the resistivity of the upper layer.
6- Enter the diameter of the grid conductors in centimeters or inches. If

Loresco grounding enhancement backfills are used around the grid
conductors, enter the equivalent diameter of the backfill.
7- Enter the diameter of a single ground rod or of a backfill column, if used,

in centimeters or inches. Again, this is the diameter the LORESCO grounding
backfill, if used, or the actual electrode diameter, if no backfill is used.
8- Enter the total number of ground rods installed. If Loresco grounding

backfill columns are used, enter the number of backfill columns. Regardless
of the number or type of electrodes installed in a single hole or grounding
backfill column, this is considered one rod.
If neither ground rods nor grounding backfill columns are to be installed,
enter zero for this value. The calculator will then estimate the resistance of
the grid without ground rods.
9- Enter the depth of burial of the grid in meters or feet. If the grid is laying
on the surface of the earth, you may enter zero.
10- Enter the thickness of the upper soil layer in meters or feet. If the soil
resistivity is uniform to a depth equal to or greater than the average rod
length, a single soil resistivity layer model is used. In this case, you must
enter the value of the upper soil resistivity for both the upper and lower
resistivity values required and enter any number for the Thickness of the
Upper Layer, H. In order for the two layer model to be valid, the thickness
of the upper layer should be at least 10% of the long-side grid length.
Finally, the thickness of the upper layer, H, must be greater than or equal
to the grid depth and less than or equal to the average ground rod length.
11- Enter the length of the short side of the rectangular area covered by the
grid.
12- Enter the length of the long side of the rectangular area covered by the
grid.
13- Result: click on the Calculate button, you will get the resistance-to-
earth in ohms of the electrode system described by the input data.
Notes:
effect on the expected resistance.
compare the two most recent calculation results.
You can use the Loresco Grid Resistance Calculator by click on the link.
Third: Electrician2 Grounding Calculators
Electrician2 website introduce two user friendly Grounding Calculators as

follows:
1. Grounding Electrode Conductor Size Calculator,

2. Equipment Grounding Conductor Size Calculator.
1- Grounding Electrode Conductor Size Calculator
Grounding Electrode Conductor Size Calculator
This program reads NEC Table 250.66. Select the size of largest copper service
entrance conductor or equivalent area for parallel conductors from the list or
select size of largest aluminum service entrance conductor or equivalent area
for parallel conductors from the list and this program finds the sizes of either
the copper or aluminum equipment grounding electrode conductors.
2- Equipment Grounding Conductor Size Calculator
Equipment Grounding Conductor Size Calculator
This program reads NEC Table 250.122. Select the overcurrent protective device
from the list that includes the standard overcurrent protective device sizes from
Section 240.6(A) and this program finds the sizes of both the copper and
aluminum equipment grounding conductors.
You can use the Electrician2 Grounding Calculators by click on the link.
 Grounding Electrode Conductor Size Calculator

 Equipment Grounding Conductor Size Calculator
In the next Article

Grounding Design Calculations – Part Nine
1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,

following Articles:

The procedures for performing the Grounding System Design Calculations can differ
slightly according to the type of the building as follows:

We mean by domestic, commercial and industrial premises, all installations up to

1,000 V ac and 1,500 V dc - between phases, with some minor exceptions.

There are many methods can be used for performing Grounding System Design
Calculations But the common methods are:
4. Tables Method,
Also, I explained the fifth method of grounding design calculations: By using Online
Earthing Calculators in Articles " Grounding Design Calculations – Part Seven " and
" Grounding Design Calculations – Part Eight".
Today, I will explain the Sixth Method of Grounding Design Calculations: Software
Programs Method.

Sixth Method: Software Programs Method
Actually, there are many software programs for Grounding Design Calculations as:
1. Etap,
2. SES Software Package,
3. CDEGS Integrated Software for Power System Grounding/Earthing,
Electromagnetic Fields and Electromagnetic Interference,
4. CYMGRD, Substation Grounding Program,
5. GEM from Erico,
6. Etc…
But Unfortunately, most of these programs are not for free, you can download a
demo with free trial period or less functions/capabilities. The only free software
program for Grounding Design Calculations is Erico-Gem and because of this, it will
be explained in this article.
Erico – GEM Calculator

1- Benefits from using this program
1. This program calculates resistance to Earth with or without the use

of ERICO's Ground Enhancement Material (GEM).
2. This program estimates the quantity of GEM required and is valid for
horizontal and vertical Earth electrodes.
3. Also incorporated within the program are installation instructions for
both horizontal and vertical Earth electrodes using GEM.
2- Basis of Calculation
 The formulas used in this program are based on accepted formulas which
are the basis of IEEE publications
 The formulas used for calculating resistance to Earth are based on modified
formulas from Dwight for horizontal electrodes and from Sunde for vertical
electrodes.
 The modified formula assumes the top of the vertical electrode is near the
surface.
 When more than one vertical electrode are calculated, the calculations
assume equally spaced ground rods in a straight line and that the spacing between
the ground rods is equal to or greater than the length of the vertical Earth
electrode.
 The formula for calculating the resistance to Earth for the horizontal Earth
electrode assumes the electrode is in a straight line.
 Both of the horizontal and vertical resistance to Earth formulas are for DC
or low frequency. Both sets of equations use, as an input, the diameter of the
cable as well as that of the surrounding GEM material to calculate the resistance to
Earth.
 The modified formulas assume uniform soil resistivity.
 The contact resistance between the conductor and the surrounding GEM
material is ignored in calculating resistance to Earth.
Notes:
 The use of this program and the selection of the input parameters require
an engineering judgement for each specific application. Calculations used within
this program are based on approximations which may or may not apply to specific
applications.
 The calculated amount of GEM is very conservative. The results are rounded
to the nearest 25 pound bag of GEM. In some cases, you will need less GEM
material than the program results indicate.
3- Program Interfaces
The programs include group of interfaces or windows as follows:
1. Language interface,
2. Main menu interface.
3.1 Language interface

In this interface, we need to Select the Language to proceed and The available
languages are:
1. English,
2. Espanol,
3. Francais,
4. Deutsch.
3.2 Main Menu Interface
Erico-GEM Main Menu Interface
Main menu interface includes the following buttons:
1. GEM Calculator,
2. How to Install GEM,
3. GEM Specifications,
4. GEM Product Information,
5. Software Information,
6. About GEM,
7. About ERICO,
8. Return Policy,
9. Contact Information,
10. Exit.
The only important button for us is "GEM Calculator" Button while other buttons
introduce written information or instructions that need to be reviewed and understood.
GEM Calculator Interface

Erico-GEM Calculator Interface
The GEM Calculator includes the following buttons:
1. Single Ground Rod (without GEM),

2. Single Ground Rod (with GEM),
3. Multiple Ground Rods in a Line (without GEM),
4. Multiple Ground Rods in a Line (with GEM),
5. Bare Ground Wire in a Line (without GEM),
6. Bare Ground Wire in a Line (with GEM),
7. Bare Ground Wire in a Ring (without GEM),
8. Bare Ground Wire in a Ring (with GEM),
9. Main Menu (press Main Menu button to return to the Main Menu Window).
General Notes For All Buttons In GEM Calculator Interface
 Choose Metric or English units, prior to entering variables, by putting the dot
beside required unit system. The English units are feet and inch while the Metric units
are meter and cm.
 Regardless of the input units selected (English or Metric), the units for resistivity
must be in ohm-m.
 Use the Reference button in below of the calculation window for getting the
following information:
1- Resistivity (ohm-m) of soil based on soil type: copied from table 10 of IEEE std 142 -
1991,
Resistivity (ohm-m) of soil based on soil type
2-Effect of Moisture Content on Resistivity: copied from table 11 of IEEE std 142 -1991,
Effect of Moisture Content on Resistivity
3- Effect of temperature on Resistivity: copied from table 12 of IEEE std 142 -1991,
Effect of temperature on Resistivity
4- Cable Diameter Equivalents: give the equivalent diameter in inches and cm for a
given cable cross section area in Kcmil, AWG and mm2.
Cable Diameter Equivalents
 For recalculating with new variables, press Clear Button then enter the new
variables.
 For printing the calculation window, press Print button.
 Press the Menu button at any time to return to the GEM Calculator Window.
Calculation#1: for Single Ground Rod (without GEM)

Step#1: Enter the following data:
1. Resistivity of soil in (ohm-m),

2. Length of ground rod in (ft or m): must be at least (3) feet or (0.914)
meter,
3. Diameter of ground rod in (inch or cm).
Step#2: Press the calculate button.
Step#3: Results step: you will get the electrode resistance in (ohms).
Calculation#2: for Single Ground Rod (with GEM)

2. Length of ground rod in (ft or m): must be at least (4) feet or (1.22)
meter,
3. Diameter of ground rod in (inch or cm),
4. Diameter of Hole in (inch or cm): must be between (4) inches/ (10) cm
and (12) inches/ (30.5) cm.
Step#3: Results step: you will get the electrode resistance in (ohms) and the required
number of GEM Bags.
Calculation#3: for Multiple Ground Rods in a Line (without GEM)


2. Length of ground rods in (ft or m): must be at least (3) feet or (0.914)
meter,
3. Diameter of ground rods in (inch or cm),
4. Spacing Between Rods in (ft or m): rod spacing must be at least the
length of the ground rod,
5. Number of Rods: must be greater than one.
Calculation#4: for Multiple Ground Rods in a Line (with GEM)

2. Length of ground rods in (ft or m): must be at least (4) feet or (1.22)
meter,
3. Diameter of ground rods in (inch or cm),
4. Diameter of Holes in (inch or cm): must be between (4) inches/ (10) cm
and (12) inches/ (30.5) cm.
5. Spacing Between Rods in (ft or m): rod spacing must be at least the
length of the ground rod,
6. Number of Rods: must be greater than one.
number of GEM Bags.
Note:
 Wire does not contribute with the final electrode resistance value.
Calculation#5: for Bare Ground Wire in a Line (without GEM)


2. Length of Wire in (ft or m): must be at least (5) feet or (1.54) meter,
3. Diameter of Wire in (inch or cm).
Calculation#6: for Bare Ground Wire in a Line (with GEM)

2. Length of Wire in (ft or m): must be at least (5) feet or (1.54) meter,
3. Diameter of Wire in (inch or cm),
4. Width of Trench in (inch or cm),
5. Thickness of GEM in (inch or cm): must be at least (2) inch/ (5) cm and no
more than (12) inch/ (30.5) cm.
number of GEM Bags.
Calculation#7: Bare Ground Wire in a Ring (without GEM)


3. Depth of Wire in (ft or m),
4. Diameter of Ring in (ft or m): should be at least (10) feet or (3.04) meter.
Calculation#8: Bare Ground Wire in a Ring (with GEM)


3. Depth of Wire in (ft or m),
4. Width of Trench in (inch or cm),
5. Thickness of GEM in (inch or cm): must be at least (2) inch/ (5) cm and no
more than (12) inch/ (30.5) cm.
6. Diameter of Ring in (ft or m): should be at least (10) feet or (3.04) meter.
number of GEM Bags.
About GEM
GEM Materials
 Developed in 1992, GEM (Ground Enhancement Material) is a superior

conductive material that solves toughest grounding problems. GEM improves
grounding effectiveness regardless of soil conditions. It is the ideal material to use
in areas of poor conductivity such as rocky ground, mountain tops, and sandy soil.
 GEM is also the answer in situations where ground rods can't be driven. Or
where limited land area makes adequate grounding difficult with conventional
methods.
You can download your copy from ERICO-GEM Program by click on the link
In the next Article
Grounding Design Calculations – Part Ten

In Article " Grounding Design Calculations – Part One ", I indicated the following:



exceptions.
And I explained Methods of Grounding Design Calculations of Domestic, commercial and

industrial premises in the following Articles:
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part One and Grounding Design
Calculations – Part Two: Equations Method and solved examples.
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part Three: Nomographs Method
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part Four: Excel Spreadsheets Method
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part Five and Grounding Design Calculations
– Part Six: using Tables Method
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part Seven and Grounding Design
Calculations – Part Eight: Using Online Earthing Calculators
 Grounding Design Calculations – Part Nine: Software Programs Method
Today, I will explain Grounding Design Calculations of High and Medium Voltage
Electricity AC Substations.



Grounding System Design Calculations Of High And Medium Voltage AC

Substations
1- Standards
Standard used for ground calculations of High and medium voltage

electricity AC substations is IEEE 80: Guide for safety in AC substation
grounding.
Note:
This standard is primarily concerned with outdoor ac substations, either

conventional or gas-insulated. Distribution, transmission, and generating
plant substations are included. With proper caution, the methods described
herein are also applicable to indoor portions of such substations, or to
substations that are wholly indoors. It doesn’t cover the grounding problems
peculiar to dc substations.
2- Design Procedures
The design process of a substation grounding system requires many steps.

The following steps were established by the IEEE Standard 80-2000 for the
design of the ground grid:
 Step#1: Field Data Collection,

 Step#2: Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing,
 Step#3: Calculation of tolerable touch and step voltages,
 Step#4: Preliminary design of grounding system,
 Step#5: Calculation of of the preliminary Grid Resistance, RG, of the
grounding system in uniform soil.
 Step#6: Determination of Grid current, IG.
 Step#7: Calculation of maximum grid potential rise and comparing
withthe tolerable touch voltage from step#3. If the GPR of the preliminary
design is below the tolerable touch voltage, move to step#12 (no further
analysis is necessary). If not, continue to step#8.
 Step#8: Calculation of mesh and step voltages.
 Step#9: Comparing the computed mesh voltage from step#8 with the
tolerable touch voltage from step#3. If the computed mesh voltage is below
the tolerable touch voltage, continue to step#10. If not, move to step#11
for revising the preliminary design.
 Step#10: Comparing the computed step voltage from step#8 with the
tolerable step voltage from step#3.If the computed step voltages are below
the tolerable step voltage, move to step#12. If not, move to step#11 for
revising the preliminary design.
 Step#11: Preliminary Design modification, If either the step or touch
tolerable limits from step#3 are exceeded, revision of the grid design is
required.
 Step#12: Detailed final design. After satisfying the step and touch
voltage requirements, additional grid and ground rods /conductors may be
required. The final design should also be reviewed to eliminate hazards due
to transferred potential and hazards associated with special areas of
concern.
The block diagram in Fig (1) illustrates the Design procedures.

Fig (1)
In this Article and following Articles, I will explain these steps in detail.
Step#1: Field Data Collection
The following information is required / desirable before starting the

calculation:
1. A layout of the site,

2. Maximum earth fault current into the earthing grid,
3. Maximum fault clearing time,
4. Back up time,
5. Ambient (or soil) temperature at the site,
6. Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step
only),
7. Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch
and step only),
8. Location of the feeding station,
9. Near-by utility,
10. Communication network in the area,
11. Feeding characteristics,
12. Any special considerations.
Step#2: Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing
In this step, we will know how to size the earthing grid conductor in the
following two cases:
1. Symmetrical Fault currents (with no dc offset),

2. Asymmetrical Fault currents.
Terms Definitions for Step#2
 Grounding System: it is the system that Comprises all interconnected

grounding facilities in a specific area.
 dc Offset: Difference between the symmetrical current wave and the
actual current wave during a power system transient condition, see Fig (2).
Mathematically, the actual fault current can be broken into two parts, a
symmetrical alternating component and a unidirectional (dc) component.
The unidirectional component can be of either polarity, but will not change
polarity, and will decrease at some predetermined rate.
Fig (2)
 Decrement Factor: An adjustment factor used in conjunction with

the symmetrical ground fault current parameter in safety-oriented
grounding calculations. It determines the rms equivalent of the
asymmetrical current wave for a given fault duration, tf, accounting for the
effect of initial dc offset and its attenuation during the fault.
 IF Effective Asymmetrical Fault Current: The rms value of
asymmetrical current wave, integrated over the interval of fault duration.
 Grounding Grid: A system of horizontal ground electrodes that
consists of a number of interconnected, bare conductors buried in the
earth, providing a common ground for electrical devices or metallic
structures, usually in one specific location.
Note:
1. Grids buried horizontally near the earth’s surface are also

effective in controlling the surface potential gradients.
2. A typical grid usually is supplemented by a number of ground
rods and may be further connected to auxiliary ground electrodes to
lower its resistance with respect to remote earth.
First: Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing For Symmetrical Fault Currents
Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing for Symmetrical Fault Currents
The minimum conductor size of the earthing grid conductors capable of

withstanding the adiabatic temperature rise associated with an earth fault is
given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80 Equation 37 (which is taken from the derivation
by Sverak):
Where:
I is the rms current in kA

Amm2 is the conductor cross section in mm2
Tm is the maximum allowable temperature in °C
Ta is the ambient temperature in °C
Tr is the reference temperature for material constants in °C
αo is the thermal coefficient of resistivity at 0 °C in 1/°C
αr is the thermal coefficient of resistivity at reference temperature Tr in 1/°C
ρr is the resistivity of the ground conductor at reference temperature Tr in μΩ-
cm
Ko = [(1/αo– Tr )]or [(1/αr) – Tr] in °C
tc is the duration of current in s
TCAP is the thermal capacity per unit volume from Table-1, in J/(cm3·°C)
Notes:
1- It should be noted that αr and ρr are both to be found at the same reference
temperature of Tr °C. Table-1 provides data for αr and ρr at 20 °C.
Table-1
2- If the conductor size is given in kcmils:
Since, kcmils = mm2 × 1.974 , so the above Equation becomes as follows:

3- calculation of TACP for materials not listed in Table-1:
TCAP can be calculated for materials not listed in Table-1 from the specific heat
and specific weight. Specific heat, SH, in cal/(grams × °C) and specific weight,
SW, in gram/cm3 are related to the thermal capacity per unit volume in J/(cm3
× °C) as follows:
Since 1 calorie = 4.184 J
Therefore, TCAP is defined by;
TCAP [cal/(cm3 · _°C)] = SH [cal/(gram · °C)] · SW (gram/cm3)

or
TCAP [J/(cm3 ·°C)] = 4.184 (J/cal) · SH [(cal/(gram · °C)] · SW (gram/cm3)
4- The Equation in English units can be simplified to the following:
Akcmil = I x Kf x √ tc
Where:
Akcmil is the area of conductor in kcmil,

I is the rms fault current in kA,
tc is the current duration in s,
Kf is the constant from Table-2 for the material at various values of
Tm (fusing temperature or limited conductor temperature) and using ambient
temperature (Ta) of 40°C.
Table-2
Example#1:
Calculate the Earthing Grid Conductor Size for 30% copper-clad steel
conductor for 1 KA fault current and duration = 1 sec.
Solution:
For instance, to calculate the 1 s size of a 30% copper-clad steel conductor,

one gets
tc = 1.0, α20 = 0.003 78, ρ20 = 5.86, TCAP = 3.85, Tm = 1084, Ta = 40, K0 =
245
Thus, for I = 1 kA
Akcmil = 197.4/ √267.61 = 12.06 k cmil or 12.06 kcmil/kA
Example#2:
A 20 kA, 3 s fault current, calculate the Earthing Grid Conductor Size using,
the English unit equation, for each of the following conductor’s material:
1. Soft drawn copper conductor,

2. 40% conductivity copper-clad steel conductor,
3. Steel conductor.
Solution:
1- For soft drawn copper

Akcmil = 20 x7.00√3 = 242.5 kcmil
use 250 kcmil
2- For 40% conductivity copper-clad steel conductor

Akcmil = 20x 10.45 = 362.0 kcmil
use 19/#7 conductor
3- For steel conductor

Akcmil = 20 x 15.95 = 552.5 kcmil
use 7/8 inch diameter conductor
Second: Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing For Asymmetrical Fault Currents
Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing For Asymmetrical Fault Currents

The minimum conductor size of the earthing grid conductors in case of
Asymmetrical Fault Currents can be calculated by one of the following two
methods:
Method#1: Using Decrement Factor
In cases where accounting for a possible dc offset component in the fault current
is desired, an equivalent value of the symmetrical current, IF, will be used in
above equations for Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing For Symmetrical Fault
Currents as follows:
IF= If x Df
Where:
If is the symmetrical fault current,

Df is the Decrement Factor.
Notes:
1. The resulting value of IF is always larger than If,

2. The effect of dc offsets can be neglected if the duration of the
current is greater than or equal to 1 s or the X/R ratio at the fault
location is less than 5.
Calculation of Decrement Factor Df:
The following Equation can be used to compute the decrement factor for
specific X/R ratios and fault durations:
Where:
Ta is the dc offset time constant in s [Ta = X/(ωR), for 60 Hz, Ta = X/(120πR)],

tf is the time duration of fault in s.
However, Typical values of the decrement factor for various fault durations
and X/R ratios are shown in Table-3.
Table-3
Method#2: Using Asymmetrical Current Tables
Fusing characteristics for various sizes of copper conductor with various degree
of dc offset are presented in Table-4 through Table-7 as follows:
Table-4
Table-5
Table-6
Table-7
Notes:
1. The current values in Table 3 through Table 6 were computed from

the computer program RTGC (Reichman, Vainberg, and Kuffel). This
computer program can be used directly to determine the grounding cable
size requirements for known X/R ratio and fault clearing time.
2. Current is computed for maximum dc offset.
3. Initial conductor temperature = 40 °C; final conductor temperature
= 1083 °C.
4. Metric values are soft conversions. Soft conversion is a direct area
calculation, in metric units, from the AWG size.
Additional Conductor Sizing Factors
 It may be prudent to choose a larger conductor size to compensate

for some gradual reduction in the conductor cross-section because of
corrosion during the design life of the installation where the soil
environment tends to promote corrosion.
 The down leads may have to be larger than the grid conductors or
may have to be multiples from the equipment to the grid to have sufficient
ampacity for the total fault current.
 Ground lead conductors conducting lightning current, the size of
these conductors must be also adequate for carrying short time surges
caused by lightning.
 Considering The possibility of future growth. It is less costly to
include an adequate margin in conductor size during the initial design than
to try to reinforce a number of ground leads at a later date.
In the next Article

Grounding Terms Definitions - NEC Article 100
Again, we will explain more important definitions included in NEC code Article 100 which
will be used along this Course, toady we will show the term “Bonding" Definition.
The terms Bonding & Grounding are often confused or misused. Bonding should not be
mistaken for Grounding since their definitions are different as follows:
Bonding:
It is the connection of two or more conductive objects to one another by means of a

conductor such as a wire to provide continuity and conductivity.
Grounding / Earthing:
It is the attachment of a bonded metallic system to earth, typically through ground rods or
other suitable grounding electrodes for ensuring zero voltage.
Note: grounding is American standard term is equivalent to earthing which is IEC standard
term.
For a Comparison table between bonding and grounding Please review the topic included
in Understanding NFPA 70(National electrical code) course EC-1 titled “NEC Article 100 -
Part Three”
1- Ground:
The ground is now simply the planet earth.
2- Grounded:
It means connected to the ground (planet earth), either directly or through a conductive
body that extends the ground connection.
3- Grounded Conductor:
A grounded conductor is the conductor of an electrical system that is intentionally

connected to earth via a grounding electrode conductor and a grounding electrode at the
service of premises, at a transformer secondary, or at a generator or other source of
electric power. It is most commonly a neutral conductor of a single-phase, 3-wire system
or 3-phase, 4-wire system but may be one of the phase legs—as in the case of a corner-
grounded delta system.
Grounded conductor in different system types:

 In 3-wire, single-phase systems (see fig.1) the midpoint of the transformer
Winding, the point from which the system neutral is derived, is grounded.
fig (1): 3-wire, single-phase systems
 For grounded 3-phase, 4-wire wiring systems (see fig.2) the neutral point of the
wye-connected transformer(s) or generator is usually the point connected to ground.
fig (2): grounded 3-phase, 4-wire wiring systems
 In delta-connected transformer hookups (see fig.3) grounding of the system can be

effected by grounding one of the three phase legs, by grounding a center-tap point on one
of the transformer windings (as in the 3-phase, 4-wire “red-leg” delta system), or by using
a special grounding transformer which establishes a neutral point of a wye-connection
which is grounded.
fig (3): delta-connected transformer hookups
The need for a grounded conductor:

 It limits the voltage upon the circuit that might otherwise occur through exposure
to lightning or other voltages higher than that for which the circuit is designed.
 It limits the maximum voltage to ground under normal operating conditions.
 It provides automatic opening procedure of the circuit if an accidental or fault
ground occurs on one of its ungrounded conductors.
4- Grounding Conductor, Equipment: (see fig.4)
Equipment grounding is the intentional electrical interconnection of all metal enclosures

that contain electrical wires or equipment with the grounding electrode conductor (all
systems) and with the grounded conductor of the system (grounded systems only).
fig (4): Equipment ground
The term equipment grounding conductor includes bare or insulated conductors, metal
raceways [rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit, electrical metallic tubing
(EMT)], and metal cable jackets where the Code permits such metal raceways and cable
enclosures to be used for equipment grounding—which is a basic Code-required concept.
Equipment grounding function:

 When the insulation failure occurs on a grounded system, equipment grounding
serves to ensure adequate current flow to cause the affected circuit’s over-current
protective device to “open,” . This prevents the enclosures from remaining energized,
which would otherwise constitute a shock or fire hazard.
5- Grounding Electrode:
The grounding electrode is any one of the building or structural elements that is in actual
physical contact with the earth, such as: see fig.5
 Metal Underground Water Pipe.

 Metal Frame of the Building or Structure.
 Concrete-Encased Electrode.
 Ground Ring.
 Rod and Pipe Electrodes.
 Plate Electrodes.
 Other Local Metal Underground Systems or Structures (such as piping systems and
underground tanks).
fig (5): grounding electrode Types
6- Grounding Electrode Conductor: see fig.5
It is the connection between either the grounded conductor of a grounded electrical

system (typically the neutral) and the grounding electrode system, or the connection
between the equipment ground bus and the grounding electrode system for ungrounded
systems.
The conductor that runs from the bonded neutral block or busbar or ground bus at service
equipment, separately derived systems, or main building disconnects to the system
grounding electrode is clearly and specifically identified as the “grounding electrode
conductor.”
In the next topic

Introduction To Grounding System Design

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Introduction To Grounding System Design

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Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part

1- Differences between Grounding and Earthing Terms

 “Grounding” is a term used rather exclusively in North American to

2- Differences between Grounded and Grounding systems

 Grounded system refers to a system where a conductor is grounded

 The terms “bonding” and “grounding” are often employed

s/n Bonding Grounding

The ground is now simply the planet earth.

What is “Effectively Grounded”?

The 2005/2008/2011 National Electrical Code defines effectively grounded

“Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or

 The 2005 NEC defines “Grounded” as: “Connected to earth or to

What is “Solidly Grounded”?

What is “Grounded Conductor”?

 A grounded conductor is the conductor of an electrical system that is

Grounded conductor in different system types:

 In 3-wire, single-phase systems (see fig.1) the midpoint of

Fig (1): 3-wire, single-phase systems

Fig (2): grounded 3-phase, 4-wire wiring systems

 In delta-connected transformer hookups (see fig.3) grounding of the

The need for a grounded conductor:

What is “Grounding Conductor”?

 “A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a

What is the “Equipment Grounding Conductor”? (see fig.4)

 Equipment grounding is the intentional electrical interconnection of all

 The term equipment grounding conductor includes bare or insulated

Equipment grounding function:

 When the insulation failure occurs on a grounded system,

 The grounding electrode is any one of the building or structural elements

1. Metal Underground Water Pipe.

What is “Grounding Electrode Conductor”? See fig.5

 It is the connection between either the grounded conductor of a

What is “Bonding Jumper”? See fig.6

 This is the connection between noncurrent-carrying metallic components

fig (6): Bonding Jumper

 These are bonding connections made between two portions of the

fig (7): Equipment Bonding Jumper

 The purpose of the equipment bonding jumper is to provide the low-

 A main bonding jumper provides the Code-required connection between

Fig (8): Main Bonding Jumper

 The connection between equipment ground and the grounding electrode

What is “System Bonding Jumper”? see fig.9

Fig (9): System Bonding Jumper

 The system bonding jumper provides the low-impedance fault-

1- How Earthing system works

 The grounding system is essential to complete an electrical path to ground

2- Construction of the Earthing System

The following factors must be considered in the construction of the earthing

2-A Functions of Earthing Systems

The principle purposes for an “effectively bonded grounding system via a

A detailed explanation for each Function of Earthing System will

2-A-1 Functions of Earthing Systems: Provide for an applicable reference to

 During the time of the phase-to-ground faulted condition the

 Earth can not be considered as an effective ground-fault current

2-A-4 Functions of Earthing Systems: Limit differences of potential, potential

2-A-5 Functions of Earthing Systems: Limit voltage rise or potential

Types of Earthing System – Part One

 Differences between Grounding and Earthing Terms,

And, I explained the Functions of the Earthing System in this Article.

Today I will explain the different Types of Earthing Systems as follows.

Types of Earthing System (on LV Systems and Within Premises)

the Earthing systems can be divided according to the following factors:

Types of Earthing Systems according to its Function