CONTENTS

1. Data ........................................................................................................................................ 2
2. Types of data .......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1Vector data ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Raster Data ....................................................................................................................... 3
3. Data collection ....................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Alternative sources used for data collection .................................................................... 4
3.1.1 Data collection through surveying ............................................................................. 4
3.1.2 Digital Globe ............................................................................................................. 4
3.1.3 Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) ............................................................. 5
3.1.4 Location -Based Services (LBS) ............................................................................... 5
3.1.5 Geovisualisation ........................................................................................................ 5
3.2 Data capture...................................................................................................................... 5
3.2.1 Primary data capture techniques include: .................................................................. 6
3.2.2 Secondary data capture techniques include: .............................................................. 6
4. Data model ............................................................................................................................. 6
4.1 Spatial Data Models ......................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Attribute Data Models: ..................................................................................................... 7
5. References .............................................................................................................................. 8
1. Data
Data comes from a singular Latin word, datum, which originally meant “something given”. Its
early usage dates back to the 1600s. Over time “data” has become the plural of datum. Data is
raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly
random and useless and until it is organized. Each
student’s test score is one piece of data.
The concept of data is commonly associated with scientific
research, data is collected by a huge range of organizations
and institutions, including businesses (e.g., sales data,
revenue, profits, and stock price), governments (e.g.,
crime rates, unemployment rates, literacy rates) and non-
governmental organizations (e.g., censuses of the number
of homeless people by non-profit organizations).
Data is measured, collected and reported, and analyzed, Figure 1: different types of data
whereupon it can be visualized using graphs, images or other analysis tools. Data as a general
concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded
in some form suitable for better usage or processing.
2. Types of data
GIS data can be separated into two categories: spatially referenced data which is represented
by vector and raster forms (including imagery) and attribute tables which is represented in
tabular format. Within the spatial referenced data group, the GIS data can be further classified
into two different types: vector and raster. Most GIS software applications mainly focus on the
usage and manipulation of vector geodatabases with added components to work with raster-
based geodatabases.
2.1 Vector data
Vector data is split into three types: polygon, line (or arc) and point data.
Polygons are used to represent areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large scale map), lake,
or forest. Polygon features are two dimensional and therefore can be used to measure the area
and perimeter of a geographic feature. Polygon features are most commonly distinguished
using either a thematic mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or in the case of numeric
gradation, a color gradation scheme could be used.

Figure 2: in this view of a polygon based dataset, frequency of fire in an area is depicted showing a graduate color symbology.
Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features. Common examples would be rivers, trails,
and streets. Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be used to measure
length. Line features have a starting and ending point. Common examples would be road
centerlines and hydrology. Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from
one another are line types (solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and
line thicknesses. In the example below roads are distinguished from the stream network by
designating the roads as a solid black line and the hydrology a dashed blue line.

Figure 3: Streams are shown as dashed blue lines and roads as solid black lines in this example.

Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to represent discrete
data points. Points have zero dimensions, therefore you can measure neither length or area with
this dataset. Examples would be schools, points of interest, and in the example below, bridge
and culvert locations. Point features are also used to represent abstract points. For instance,
point locations could represent city locations or place names.

Figure 4: GIS point data showing the location of bridges and culverts

2.2 Raster Data

Raster data (also known as grid data) represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces. Raster
data is cell-based and this data category also includes aerial and satellite imagery. There are
two types of raster data: continuous and discrete. An example of discrete raster data is
population density. Continuous data examples are temperature and elevation measurements.
There are also three types of raster datasets: thematic data, spectral data, and pictures (imagery).

Figure 5: Raster data showing vegetation classification. The vegetation data was derived from NDVI classification of a satellite
image.
3. Data collection
Acquiring geographic data is an important factor in any geographic information system (GIS)
effort. It has been estimated that data acquisition typically consumes 60 to 80 percent of the
time and money spent on any given project. Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that GIS
projects remain mindful of their stated goals so the collection of spatial data proceeds in an
efficient and effective manner as possible.

Figure 6: Cycle of the processes taking place in GIS data collection

For the data collection process we need firstly data and information to create the base map and
then information about the layers which are going to overlap the map. Therefore, the data
needed for the base map belong in a category named “primary sources” because these spatial
and location data are received for direct use in GIS in digital format. The other category of data
is called “secondary sources” and refers to data of general interest gathered for any reason
which can further be used in GIS after appropriate elaboration. Of course, in the second
category may belong also paper maps and other spatial data which are not in a GIS format and
they demand digitizing. Moreover, if we use secondary data we have to be very careful and
consider if the data are right and when received, otherwise our final result will be wrong and
probably outdated. Last but not least, there is a third category which concerns data transfer
from the spatial web and online databases.
3.1 Alternative sources used for data collection
3.1.1 Data collection through surveying
It is the most holistic approach to data collection. Data are gathered either from on-site surveys
or from remote sensing, photogrammetry and GPS techniques and through their combination
we have primary data collection which results in scientific maps and research.
3.1.2 Digital Globe
It is an illustration of the earth in 3D and high-resolution configuration. Its advantage in data
collection is that we don’t have to figure out with distortion and the user has the ability to scale
up and down, set it up in mobile or desktop and easily share files and documents etc. Moreover,
digital globe provides interactive maps with many capabilities and a variety of topics to overlay
the globe.
3.1.3 Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI)
A new application through which, every single person with a smartphone, can share spatial
data and upgrade the information we have for any place. This happens through social media
sites. For example, when the user takes a picture, there is an automated question which asks
the user, “Where is that photo taken?” The user then can answer this question and improve the
geodata. In this way, there is a bidirectional help because we can share, as well as collect data.
3.1.4 Location -Based Services (LBS)
One more application based on smartphones and the users. The manipulator allows the device
to find his location on the map and if this location is mistaken the user can interfere and put the
right location. Some years ago, this process was inaccurate but while the users help by giving
data, it becomes nowadays better so that to collect the right and upgraded data.
3.1.5 Geovisualisation
It is one more source where we can find and collect data from. Interactive maps on the web,
represent the globe and gather data about locations and touristic content information such as
hotels, restaurants, coffee shops etc. These data can be collected and used either for a base map
(from the global data) or for the above layers which overlap the map (from all the other data of
the geovisualisation).
There are also more advanced techniques for data collection such as:
 Digital imaging which substitutes the classic image of photogrammetry for a better
depiction of the area hence better data collection.
 Laser scanners and SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) which allow the easier illustration
of areas like forests when it is difficult to illustrate them in other ways.
 Cameras equipped with geographic information system technologies for immediate,
automated and directly digitized results, mainly about resource potentials.
 Stereo images from high resolution and close-range photogrammetry with orthophotos,
digital surface model etc.
Through the above-listed processes, we have more specialized and scientific data collection.
Either we want to create a story map with the restaurants in our area or a map with the surface
runoff, it is obvious that there are plenty of sources for data collection. Of course, the main
sources are GPS, remote sensing and photogrammetry but all the mentioned methods and
applications are useful too. Stereo images from high resolution and close-range
photogrammetry with orthophotos, digital surface model etc.
With years of experience, professional and specialized staff, UIZ company provides
information and support to your project in the field of data collection and data capturing for
GIS, through remote sensing and photogrammetry.
3.2 Data capture
GIS data capture is a technique in which the information on various map attributes, facilities,
assets, and organizational data are collected, digitized and organized on a target GIS system
with the appropriate layer.
Figure 7: GIS data capture

3.2.1 Primary data capture techniques include:

1. Raster Data Capture: Capturing of attributes without physical contact. This is usually done
with the help of satellite imaging techniques and aerial photography. The advantage of this GIS
data capture method is that there is a consistency in the data generated and the whole process
can be regularly and systematically organized to get the most accurate data in a very cost
effective manner.
2. Vector Data Capture: Capturing of data-sets through physical surveying techniques such as
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) and Electronic Total Station (ETS). Although
this technique is the most effective process in order to obtain accurate results on the target GIS
system, it is more time consuming and costly.
3.2.2 Secondary data capture techniques include:
1. Scanning Raster Data: High resolution scanners give very accurate raster images from the
hard copies, which then can be georeferenced and digitized to get the vector output.
2. Manual Digitizing: Digitization is done directly over the raster by the use of a digitizing
tablet.
3. Heads-up Digitizing: The raster scanned data is imported and laid below the vector data to
be traced on the computer screen itself.
4. Automatic Raster to Vector Conversion: UIZ uses special software with intelligent
algorithms to recognize the patterns of the points, lines and polygon features and capture them
automatically to generate vector GIS data.
5. Photogrammetry: UIZ uses digital stereo-plotters to capture the vector data from the aerial
photographs. This is comparatively the most effective method for accurately capturing GIS
data.
4. Data model
A data model in GIS is a mathematical construct for representing geographic objects or surfaces
as data. The GIS data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world to the
digitally and logically represented spatial objects consisting of the attributes and geometry.
There are two types of data model:
1. Spatial data model.
2. Attribute data model.
4.1 Spatial Data Models
Traditionally spatial data model has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three
basic types of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are
referred to as:
1. Raster data model: It is a regular grid of cells divided into rows and columns. In a
raster data set, data values for a given parameter are stored in each cell – these values
may represent an elevation in meters above sea level, a land use class, a plant biomass
in grams per square meter, and so forth. It is used to use digital analysis for extract
information for object on the earth e.g. forest analysis.
2. Vector data Model: It is based upon vectors as
opposed to space occupancy of raster data structures.
The fundamental primitive of the vector model is a
point. The various objects are created by connecting
the points with straight lines, but some systems allow
the points to be connected using arcs of circles.
3. Image: It is used to store remotely sensed imagery,
e.g. satellite scenes or orthophotos, or ancillary
graphics such as photographs, scanned plan
documents, etc. Image data is typically used in GIS
systems as background display data (if the image has
been rectified and georeferenced); or as a graphic Figure 8: Spatial data model
attribute.
4.2 Attribute Data Models:
1. Tabular Model: stores attribute data as sequential
data files with fixed formats (or comma delimited for
ASCII data), for the location of attribute values in a
predefined record structure. This type of data model is
outdated in the GIS arena.
2. Hierarchical Model: organizes data in a tree
structure.Data is structured downward in a hierarchy
of tables. Any level in the hierarchy can have unlimited
children, but any child can have only one parent.
Hierarchical DBMS have not gained any noticeable
acceptance for use within GIS.
3. Network Model: organizes data in a network or plex
structure. Any column in a plex structure can be linked
to any other. Like a tree structure, a plex structure can
be described in terms of parents and children. This Figure 9: Attribute data model
model allows for children to have more than one
parent.
 4. Relational Model: organizes data in tables. Each table, is identified by a unique table
name, and is organized by rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a
unique name. Columns store the values for a specific attribute, e.g. cover group, tree
height. Rows represent one record in the table. In a GIS each row is usually linked to a
separate spatial feature, e.g. a forestry stand. Accordingly, each row would be
comprised of several columns, each column containing a specific value for that
geographic feature.
5. Object Oriented Model: To date, only a few GIS packages are promoting the use of
this attribute data model. However, initial impressions indicate that this approach may
hold many operational benefits with respect to geographic data processing. Fulfilment
of this promise with a commercial GIS product remains to be seen.

5. References
 https://www.gislounge.com/geodatabases-explored-vector-and-raster-data
 http://uizentrum.de/en/gis-services/data-capture
 http://uizentrum.de/en/data-collection-in-gis
 https://specialties.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/252954/what-is-the-gis-data-model-and-
what- are-the-types-of-gis-data-model
 http://inteliworld.com/attribute-data-models-gis
 http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/gis/gis_primer/page_15.htm