Article Talk Read Edit View history Search Wikipedia

Magnetic resonance imaging

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Main page "MRI" redirects here. For other uses, see MRI (disambiguation).
Contents
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to
Featured content Magnetic resonance imaging
form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and
Current events Medical diagnostics
Random article
disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio
Donate to Wikipedia waves to generate images of the organs in the body. MRI does not involve X-rays or the
Wikipedia store use of ionizing radiation, which distinguishes it from CT or CAT scans and PET scans.
Magnetic resonance imaging is a medical application of nuclear magnetic resonance
Interaction
(NMR). NMR can also be used for imaging in other NMR applications such as NMR
Help
spectroscopy.
About Wikipedia
Community portal While the hazards of X-rays are now well-controlled in most medical contexts, an MRI scan
Recent changes may still be seen as a better choice than a CT scan. MRI is widely used in hospitals and
Contact page clinics for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and follow-up without exposing the body to
radiation. However, MRI may often yield different diagnostic information compared with CT.
Tools
There may be risks and discomfort associated with MRI scans. Compared with CT scans, Para-sagittal MRI of the head, with aliasing
What links here
Related changes MRI scans typically take longer and are louder, and they usually need the subject to enter a artifacts (nose and forehead appear at the
Upload file narrow, confining tube. In addition, people with some medical implants or other non- back of the head)

Special pages removable metal inside the body may be unable to undergo an MRI examination safely. Synonyms nuclear magnetic resonance
Permanent link imaging (NMRI), magnetic
MRI was originally called NMRI (nuclear magnetic resonance imaging), but the use of resonance tomography (MRT)
Page information
Wikidata item 'nuclear' in the acronym was dropped to avoid negative associations with the word.[1] ICD-9-CM 88.91
Cite this page Certain atomic nuclei are able to absorb and emit radio frequency energy when placed in
MeSH D008279
an external magnetic field. In clinical and research MRI, hydrogen atoms are most often
MedlinePlus 003335
Print/export

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Create a book used to generate a detectable radio-frequency signal that is received by antennas in close
Download as PDF proximity to the anatomy being examined. Hydrogen atoms are naturally abundant in people and other biological organisms, particularly
Printable version
in water and fat. For this reason, most MRI scans essentially map the location of water and fat in the body. Pulses of radio waves excite
In other projects the nuclear spin energy transition, and magnetic field gradients localize the signal in space. By varying the parameters of the pulse
sequence, different contrasts may be generated between tissues based on the relaxation properties of the hydrogen atoms therein.
Wikimedia Commons
Since its development in the 1970s and 1980s, MRI has proven to be a highly versatile imaging technique. While MRI is most prominently
Languages
used in diagnostic medicine and biomedical research, it also may be used to form images of non-living objects. MRI scans are capable of
Deutsch
producing a variety of chemical and physical data, in addition to detailed spatial images. The sustained increase in demand for MRI within
Español
health systems has led to concerns about cost effectiveness and overdiagnosis.[2][3]
Euskara
Français Contents [hide]
한국어 1 Mechanism
Italiano
Русский 1.1 Construction and physics
Tiếng Việt 1.2 T1 and T2
中 2 Diagnostics
61 more 2.1 Usage by organ or system

Edit links 2.1.1 Neuroimaging

2.1.2 Cardiovascular
2.1.3 Musculoskeletal
2.1.4 Liver and gastrointestinal
2.1.5 Angiography
2.2 Contrast agents
2.3 Sequences
2.3.1 Overview table
2.4 Other specialized configurations
2.4.1 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy
2.4.2 Real-time MRI
2.4.3 Interventional MRI
2.4.4 Magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound
2.4.5 Multinuclear imaging

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 2.4.6 Molecular imaging by MRI
3 Economics
3.1 Clinical MRI installation in a general hospital
4 Safety
4.1 Overuse
5 Artifacts
6 Non-medical use
7 History
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links

Mechanism [ edit ]

Construction and physics [ edit ]

Main article: Physics of magnetic resonance imaging

To perform a study, the person is positioned within an MRI scanner that forms a strong magnetic field around the area to be imaged. In
most medical applications, protons (hydrogen atoms) in tissues containing water molecules create a signal that is processed to form an
image of the body. First, energy from an oscillating magnetic field temporarily is applied to the patient at the appropriate resonance
frequency. The excited hydrogen atoms emit a radio frequency signal, which is measured by a receiving coil. The radio signal may be
made to encode position information by varying the main magnetic field using gradient coils. As these coils are rapidly switched on and
off they create the characteristic repetitive noise of an MRI scan. The contrast between different tissues is determined by the rate at which
excited atoms return to the equilibrium state. Exogenous contrast agents may be given to the person to make the image clearer.[4]

The major components of an MRI scanner are the main magnet, which polarizes the sample, the shim coils for correcting shifts in the
homogeneity of the main magnetic field, the gradient system which is used to localize the MR signal and the RF system, which excites
the sample and detects the resulting NMR signal. The whole system is controlled by one or more computers.

MRI requires a magnetic field that is both strong and uniform. The field strength of the magnet is measured in teslas – and while the
majority of systems operate at 1.5 T, commercial systems are available between 0.2 and 7 T. Most clinical magnets are superconducting

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 magnets, which require liquid helium. Lower field strengths can be achieved
with permanent magnets, which are often used in "open" MRI scanners for
claustrophobic patients.[5] Recently, MRI has been demonstrated also at ultra-
low fields, i.e., in the microtesla-to-millitesla range, where sufficient signal
quality is made possible by prepolarization (on the order of 10-100 mT) and by
measuring the Larmor precession fields at about 100 microtesla with highly
sensitive superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs).[6][7][8]

T1 and T2 [ edit ]
Further information: Relaxation (NMR)

Each tissue returns to its equilibrium state after excitation by the independent
relaxation processes of T1 (spin-lattice; that is, magnetization in the same
direction as the static magnetic field) and T2 (spin-spin; transverse to the static
magnetic field). To create a T1-weighted image, magnetization is allowed to
recover before measuring the MR signal by changing the repetition time (TR).
Schematic of construction of a cylindrical
This image weighting is useful for assessing the cerebral cortex, identifying
superconducting MR scanner.
fatty tissue, characterizing focal liver lesions and in general for obtaining
morphological information, as well as for post-contrast imaging. To create a T2-
weighted image, magnetization is allowed to decay before measuring the MR signal by changing
the echo time (TE). This image weighting is useful for detecting edema and inflammation,
revealing white matter lesions and assessing zonal anatomy in the prostate and uterus.

The standard display of MRI images is to represent fluid characteristics in black and white
images, where different tissues turn out as follows:
Effects of TR and TE on MR signal
Signal T1-weighted T2-weighted
High Fat[9][10] More water content,[9] as in edema,
Subacute hemorrhage[10] tumor, infarction, inflammation and
Melanin[10] infection[10]
Protein-rich fluid[10] Extracellularly located methemoglobin
in subacute hemorrhage[10]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Slowly flowing blood[10] Examples of T1 weighted, T2
weighted and PD weighted MRI scans
Paramagnetic substances, such as
gadolinium, manganese, copper[10]
Cortical pseudolaminar necrosis[10]

Inter-
Gray matter darker than white matter[11] White matter darker than grey matter[11]
mediate

Bone[9] Bone[9]
Urine Air[9]
CSF Fat[9]
Air[9] Low proton density, as in calcification
More water content,[9] as in edema, and fibrosis[10]
Low
tumor, infarction, inflammation, Paramagnetic material, such as
infection, hyperacute or chronic deoxyhemoglobin, intracelullar
hemorrhage[10] methemoglobin, iron, ferritin,
Low proton density as in hemosiderin, melanin[10]
calcification[10] Protein-rich fluid[10]

Diagnostics [ edit ]

Usage by organ or system [ edit ]

MRI has a wide range of applications in medical diagnosis and more than 25,000 scanners are
estimated to be in use worldwide.[12] MRI affects diagnosis and treatment in many specialties
although the effect on improved health outcomes is uncertain.[13][obsolete source]

MRI is the investigation of choice in the preoperative staging of rectal and prostate cancer and,
has a role in the diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of other tumors.[14]

Neuroimaging [ edit ]
Patient being positioned for MR
Main article: MRI of brain and brain stem study of the head and abdomen.
See also: Neuroimaging

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 MRI is the investigative tool of choice for neurological cancers, as it has better resolution than CT
and offers better visualization of the posterior cranial fossa, containing the brainstem and the
cerebellum. The contrast provided between grey and white matter makes MRI the best choice for
many conditions of the central nervous system, including demyelinating diseases, dementia,
cerebrovascular disease, infectious diseases, Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy.[15][16][17] Since
many images are taken milliseconds apart, it shows how the brain responds to different stimuli,
enabling researchers to study both the functional and structural brain abnormalities in
psychological disorders.[18] MRI also is used in guided stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery for
treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations, and other surgically treatable
conditions using a device known as the N-localizer.[19][20][21]

Cardiovascular [ edit ]
Main article: Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging

Cardiac MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such as echocardiography, cardiac

CT, and nuclear medicine. Its applications include assessment of myocardial ischemia and
MRI image of white matter tracts
viability, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, iron overload, vascular diseases, and congenital heart
disease.[22]

Musculoskeletal [ edit ]

Applications in the musculoskeletal system include spinal imaging, assessment of joint disease,
and soft tissue tumors.[23]

Liver and gastrointestinal [ edit ]

Hepatobiliary MR is used to detect and characterize lesions of the liver, pancreas, and bile ducts.
Focal or diffuse disorders of the liver may be evaluated using diffusion-weighted, opposed-phase
MR angiogram in congenital heart
imaging, and dynamic contrast enhancement sequences. Extracellular contrast agents are used
disease
widely in liver MRI and newer hepatobiliary contrast agents also provide the opportunity to
perform functional biliary imaging. Anatomical imaging of the bile ducts is achieved by using a
heavily T2-weighted sequence in magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). Functional imaging of the pancreas is
performed following administration of secretin. MR enterography provides non-invasive assessment of inflammatory bowel disease and

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 small bowel tumors. MR-colonography may play a role in the detection of large polyps in patients at increased risk of colorectal
cancer.[24][25][26][27]

Angiography [ edit ]
Main article: Magnetic resonance angiography

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) generates pictures of the arteries to evaluate them for
stenosis (abnormal narrowing) or aneurysms (vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture). MRA is
often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the
renal arteries, and the legs (called a "run-off"). A variety of techniques can be used to generate
the pictures, such as administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent (gadolinium) or using a
technique known as "flow-related enhancement" (e.g., 2D and 3D time-of-flight sequences),
where most of the signal on an image is due to blood that recently moved into that plane (see
also FLASH MRI).

Techniques involving phase accumulation (known as phase contrast angiography) can also be
used to generate flow velocity maps easily and accurately. Magnetic resonance venography Magnetic resonance angiography
(MRV) is a similar procedure that is used to image veins. In this method, the tissue is now excited
inferiorly, while the signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane—
thus imaging the venous blood that recently moved from the excited plane.[28]

Contrast agents [ edit ]

Main article: MRI contrast agent

MRI for imaging anatomical structures or blood flow do not require contrast agents as the varying properties of the tissues or blood
provide natural contrasts. However, for more specific types of imaging, exogenous contrast agents may be given intravenously, orally, or
intra-articularly.[4] The most commonly used intravenous contrast agents are based on chelates of gadolinium.[29] In general, these
agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used in X-ray radiography or CT. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring
in approx. 0.03–0.1%.[30] Of particular interest is the lower incidence of nephrotoxicity, compared with iodinated agents, when given at
usual doses—this has made contrast-enhanced MRI scanning an option for patients with renal impairment, who would otherwise not be
able to undergo contrast-enhanced CT.[31]

Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with renal impairment, in patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis
there is a risk of a rare but serious illness, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, which may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 agents. The most frequently linked is gadodiamide, but other agents have been linked too.[32] Although a causal link has not been
definitively established, current guidelines in the United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where
essential, and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan to remove the agent from the body promptly.[33][34]

In Europe, where more gadolinium-containing agents are available, a classification of agents according to potential risks has been
released.[35][36] Recently, a new contrast agent named gadoxetate, brand name Eovist (US) or Primovist (EU), was approved for
diagnostic use: this has the theoretical benefit of a dual excretion path.[37]

Sequences [ edit ]
Main article: MRI sequences

An MRI sequence is a particular setting of radiofrequency pulses and gradients, resulting in a particular image appearance.[38] The T1
and T2 weighting can also be described as MRI sequences.

Overview table

edit
This table does not include uncommon and experimental sequences.

Group Sequence Abbr. Physics Main clinical distinctions Example

Spin echo Lower signal for more water
content, [39]as in edema,
tumor, infarction,
inflammation, infection,
hyperacute or chronic
Measuring spin–lattice relaxation by hemorrhage [40]
T1 weighted T1 using a short repetition time (TR) and High signal for fat[39][40]
echo time (TE)
High signal for paramagnetic
substances, such as MRI
contrast agents[40]

Standard foundation and

comparison for other sequences

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 T2 weighted T2 Measuring spin–spin relaxation by using Higher signal for more water
long TR and TE times content[39]
Low signal for fat[39]
Low signal for paramagnetic
substances[40]

Standard foundation and

comparison for other sequences

Proton Joint disease and injury.[42]

Long TR (to reduce T1) and short TE (to
density PD High signal from meniscus
minimize T2)[41]
weighted tears[43] (pictured)

Steady-state Maintenance of a steady, residual

Creation of cardiac MRI videos
free SSFP transverse magnetisation over
(pictured).[44]
precession successive cycles.[44]
Gradient echo
(GRE)
Low signal from hemosiderin
Effective T2 Postexcitation refocused GRE with small
T2* deposits (pictured) and
or "T2-star" flip angle.[45]
hemorrhages.[45]

Inversion
recovery Short tau High signal in edema, such as in
Fat suppression by setting an inversion
inversion STIR more severe stress fracture[47]
time where the signal of fat is zero[46]
recovery Shin splints pictured:

Fluid- FLAIR Fluid suppression by setting an inversion High signal in lacunar infarction,
attenuated time that nulls fluids multiple sclerosis (MS) plaques,

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 inversion subarachnoid haemorrhage and
recovery meningitis (pictured).[48]

Double Simultaneous suppression of

High signal of multiple sclerosis
inversion DIR cerebrospinal fluid and white matter by
plaques (pictured)[49]
recovery two inversion times[49]

Measure of Brownian motion of water High signal within minutes of

Conventional DWI
molecules[50] cerebral infarction (pictured).[51]

Reduced T2 weighting by taking multiple

Apparent
Diffusion conventional DWI images with different Low signal minutes after cerebral
diffusion ADC
weighted DWI weighting, and the change infarction (pictured)[53]
coefficient
(DWI) corresponds to diffusion[52]

Evaluating white matter

Mainly tractography (pictured) by an
deformation by tumors[54]
Diffusion overall greater Brownian motion of water
DTI Reduced fractional
tensor molecules in the directions of nerve
anisotropy may indicate
fibers[54]
dementia[55]

Perfusion Gadolinium contrast is injected, and rapid In cerebral infarction, the

Dynamic
weighted repeated imaging (generally gradient- infarcted core and the penumbra
susceptibility DSC
(PWI) echo echo-planar T2 weighted) quantifies have decreased perfusion
contrast
susceptibility-induced signal loss[56] (pictured).[57]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Dynamic DCE Measuring shortening of the spin–lattice
contrast relaxation (T1) induced by a gadolinium
enhanced contrast bolus[58]
Magnetic labeling of arterial blood below
Arterial spin the imaging slab, which subsequently
ASL
labelling enters the region of interest[59] It does not
need gadolinium contrast.[60]

Blood-
Changes in oxygen saturation-dependent Localizing highly active brain
Functional MRI oxygen-level
BOLD magnetism of hemoglobin reflects tissue areas before surgery, also used
(fMRI) dependent
activity.[61] in research of cognition[62]
imaging

Blood entering the imaged area is not yet

magnetically saturated, giving it a much Detection of aneurysm, stenosis,
Time-of-flight TOF
Magnetic higher signal when using short echo time or dissection[63]
resonance and flow compensation.

angiography
(MRA) and Phase-
Two gradients with equal magnitude, but
venography contrast
PC- opposite direction, are used to encode a Detection of aneurysm, stenosis,
magnetic
MRA phase shift, which is proportional to the or dissection (pictured)[63]
resonance
velocity of spins.[64]
imaging (VIPR)

Sensitive for blood and calcium, by a fully

flow compensated, long echo, gradient Detecting small amounts of
Susceptibility-weighted SWI recalled echo (GRE) pulse sequence to hemorrhage (diffuse axonal
exploit magnetic susceptibility differences injury pictured) or calcium[65]
between tissues

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Other specialized configurations [ edit ]

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy [ edit ]

Main articles: In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy and Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is used to measure the levels of different metabolites in body tissues. The MR signal produces
a spectrum of resonances that corresponds to different molecular arrangements of the isotope being "excited". This signature is used to
diagnose certain metabolic disorders, especially those affecting the brain,[66] and to provide information on tumor metabolism.[67]

Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) combines both spectroscopic and imaging methods to produce spatially localized
spectra from within the sample or patient. The spatial resolution is much lower (limited by the available SNR), but the spectra in each
voxel contains information about many metabolites. Because the available signal is used to encode spatial and spectral information,
MRSI requires high SNR achievable only at higher field strengths (3 T and above).[68] The high procurement and maintenance costs of
MRI with extremely high field strengths[69] inhibit their popularity. However, recent compressed sensing-based software algorithms (e.g.,
SAMV[70]) have been proposed to achieve super-resolution without requiring such high field strengths.

Real-time MRI [ edit ]

Main article: Real-time MRI

Real-time MRI refers to the continuous imaging of moving objects (such as the heart) in real time.
One of the many different strategies developed since the early 2000s is based on radial FLASH
MRI, and iterative reconstruction. This gives a temporal resolution of 20–30 ms for images with
an in-plane resolution of 1.5–2.0 mm.[71] Balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) imaging
has a better image contrast between the blood pool and myocardium than the FLASH MRI, yet it
will produce severe banding artifact when the B0 inhomogeneity is strong. Real-time MRI is likely
to add important information on diseases of the heart and the joints, and in many cases may
make MRI examinations easier and more comfortable for patients, especially for the patients who
cannot hold their breathings or who have arrhythmia.[72]
Real-time MRI of a human heart at
Interventional MRI [ edit ] a resolution of 50 ms
Main article: Interventional magnetic resonance imaging

The lack of harmful effects on the patient and the operator make MRI well-suited for
interventional radiology, where the images produced by an MRI scanner guide minimally invasive procedures. Such procedures use no

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 ferromagnetic instruments.[citation needed]

A specialized growing subset of interventional MRI is intraoperative MRI, in which an MRI is used in surgery. Some specialized MRI
systems allow imaging concurrent with the surgical procedure. More typically, the surgical procedure is temporarily interrupted so that
MRI can assess the success of the procedure or guide subsequent surgical work.[citation needed]

Magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound [ edit ]

In guided therapy, high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) beams are focused on a tissue, that are controlled using MR thermal imaging.
Due to the high energy at the focus, the temperature rises to above 65 °C (150 °F) which completely destroys the tissue. This technology
can achieve precise ablation of diseased tissue. MR imaging provides a three-dimensional view of the target tissue, allowing for the
precise focusing of ultrasound energy. The MR imaging provides quantitative, real-time, thermal images of the treated area. This allows
the physician to ensure that the temperature generated during each cycle of ultrasound energy is sufficient to cause thermal ablation
within the desired tissue and if not, to adapt the parameters to ensure effective treatment.[73]

Multinuclear imaging [ edit ]

Hydrogen has the most frequently imaged nucleus in MRI because it is present in biological tissues in great abundance, and because its
high gyromagnetic ratio gives a strong signal. However, any nucleus with a net nuclear spin could potentially be imaged with MRI. Such
nuclei include helium-3, lithium-7, carbon-13, fluorine-19, oxygen-17, sodium-23, phosphorus-31 and xenon-129. 23Na and 31P are
naturally abundant in the body, so can be imaged directly. Gaseous isotopes such as 3He or 129Xe must be hyperpolarized and then
inhaled as their nuclear density is too low to yield a useful signal under normal conditions. 17O and 19F can be administered in sufficient
quantities in liquid form (e.g. 17O-water) that hyperpolarization is not a necessity.[citation needed] Using helium or xenon has the advantage
of reduced background noise, and therefore increased contrast for the image itself, because these elements are not normally present in
biological tissues.[74]

Moreover, the nucleus of any atom that has a net nuclear spin and that is bonded to a hydrogen atom could potentially be imaged via
heteronuclear magnetization transfer MRI that would image the high-gyromagnetic-ratio hydrogen nucleus instead of the low-
gyromagnetic-ratio nucleus that is bonded to the hydrogen atom.[75] In principle, hetereonuclear magnetization transfer MRI could be
used to detect the presence or absence of specific chemical bonds.[76][77]

Multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present. However, potential applications include functional imaging and imaging
of organs poorly seen on 1H MRI (e.g., lungs and bones) or as alternative contrast agents. Inhaled hyperpolarized 3He can be used to
image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs. Injectable solutions containing 13C or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized 129Xe
have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging. 31P can potentially provide information on bone density and

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 structure, as well as functional imaging of the brain. Multinuclear imaging holds the potential to chart the distribution of lithium in the
human brain, this element finding use as an important drug for those with conditions such as bipolar disorder.[citation needed]

Molecular imaging by MRI [ edit ]

Main article: Molecular imaging

MRI has the advantages of having very high spatial resolution and is very adept at morphological imaging and functional imaging. MRI
does have several disadvantages though. First, MRI has a sensitivity of around 10−3 mol/L to 10−5 mol/L, which, compared to other types
of imaging, can be very limiting. This problem stems from the fact that the population difference between the nuclear spin states is very
small at room temperature. For example, at 1.5 teslas, a typical field strength for clinical MRI, the difference between high and low energy
states is approximately 9 molecules per 2 million. Improvements to increase MR sensitivity include increasing magnetic field strength, and
hyperpolarization via optical pumping or dynamic nuclear polarization. There are also a variety of signal amplification schemes based on
chemical exchange that increase sensitivity.[citation needed]

To achieve molecular imaging of disease biomarkers using MRI, targeted MRI contrast agents with high specificity and high relaxivity
(sensitivity) are required. To date, many studies have been devoted to developing targeted-MRI contrast agents to achieve molecular
imaging by MRI. Commonly, peptides, antibodies, or small ligands, and small protein domains, such as HER-2 affibodies, have been
applied to achieve targeting. To enhance the sensitivity of the contrast agents, these targeting moieties are usually linked to high payload
MRI contrast agents or MRI contrast agents with high relaxivities.[78] A new class of gene targeting MR contrast agents (CA) has been
introduced to show gene action of unique mRNA and gene transcription factor proteins.[79][80] This new CA can trace cells with unique
mRNA, microRNA and virus; tissue response to inflammation in living brains.[81] The MR reports change in gene expression with positive
correlation to TaqMan analysis, optical and electron microscopy.[82]

Economics [ edit ]

In the UK, the price of a clinical 1.5-tesla MRI scanner is around £920,000/US$1.4 million, with the lifetime maintenance cost broadly
similar to the purchase cost.[83] In the Netherlands, the average MRI scanner costs around €1 million,[84] with a 7-T MRI having been
taken in use by the UMC Utrecht in December 2007, costing €7 million.[85] Construction of MRI suites could cost up to
US$500,000/€370.000 or more, depending on project scope. Pre-polarizing MRI (PMRI) systems using resistive electromagnets have
shown promise as a low-cost alternative and have specific advantages for joint imaging near metal implants, however they are likely
unsuitable for routine whole-body or neuroimaging applications.[86][87]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 MRI scanners have become significant sources of revenue for healthcare providers in the US.
This is because of favorable reimbursement rates from insurers and federal government
programs. Insurance reimbursement is provided in two components, an equipment charge for the
actual performance and operation of the MRI scan and a professional charge for the radiologist's
review of the images and/or data. In the US Northeast, an equipment charge might be
$3,500/€2,600 and a professional charge might be $350/€260,[88] although the actual fees
received by the equipment owner and interpreting physician are often significantly less and
depend on the rates negotiated with insurance companies or determined by the Medicare fee
schedule. For example, an orthopedic surgery group in Illinois billed a charge of $1,116/€825 for A 3 tesla clinical MRI scanner.
a knee MRI in 2007, but the Medicare reimbursement in 2007 was only $470.91/€350.[89] Many
insurance companies require advance approval of an MRI procedure as a condition for coverage.

In the US, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 significantly reduced reimbursement rates paid by federal insurance programs for the
equipment component of many scans, shifting the economic landscape. Many private insurers have followed suit.[citation needed]

In the United States, an MRI of the brain with and without contrast billed to Medicare Part B entails, on average, a technical payment of
US$403/€300 and a separate payment to the radiologist of US$93/€70.[90] In France, the cost of an MRI exam is approximately
€150/US$205. This covers three basic scans including one with an intravenous contrast agent as well as a consultation with the
technician and a written report to the patient's physician.[91] In Japan, the cost of an MRI examination (excluding the cost of contrast
material and films) ranges from US$155/€115 to US$180/€133, with an additional radiologist professional fee of US$17/€12.50.[92] In
India, the cost of an MRI examination including the fee for the radiologist's opinion comes to around Rs 3000–4000 (€37–49/US$50–60),
excluding the cost of contrast material. In the UK the retail price for an MRI scan privately ranges between £350 and £700 (€405–810).[93]

Clinical MRI installation in a general hospital [ edit ]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Control console Bore camera Operator performing a Technical area
scan

Safety [ edit ]

Main article: Safety of magnetic resonance imaging

MRI is in general a safe technique, although injuries may occur as a result of failed safety procedures or human error.[94]
Contraindications to MRI include most cochlear implants and cardiac pacemakers, shrapnel, and metallic foreign bodies in the eyes. The
safety of MRI during the first trimester of pregnancy is uncertain, but it may be preferable to other options.[95] Since MRI does not use any
ionizing radiation, its use is generally favored in preference to CT when either modality could yield the same information.[96] In certain
cases, MRI is not preferred as it may be more expensive, time-consuming, and claustrophobia-exacerbating.

MRI uses powerful magnets and can therefore cause magnetic materials to move at great speeds posing risk. Deaths have occurred.[97]
However, as millions of MRIs are performed globally each year.,[98] fatalities are extremely rare.

Overuse [ edit ]
See also: Overdiagnosis

Medical societies issue guidelines for when physicians should use MRI on patients and recommend against overuse. MRI can detect
health problems or confirm a diagnosis, but medical societies often recommend that MRI not be the first procedure for creating a plan to
diagnose or manage a patient's complaint. A common case is to use MRI to seek a cause of low back pain; the American College of
Physicians, for example, recommends against this procedure as unlikely to result in a positive outcome for the patient.[99][100]

Artifacts [ edit ]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Main article: MRI artifact

An MRI artifact is a visual artifact, that is, an anomaly during visual representation. Many different
artifacts can occur during magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), some affecting the diagnostic
quality, while others may be confused with pathology. Artifacts can be classified as patient-
related, signal processing-dependent and hardware (machine)-related.[101]

Non-medical use [ edit ]

Main article: Nuclear magnetic resonance § Applications

MRI is used industrially mainly for routine analysis of chemicals. The nuclear magnetic Motion artifact (T1 coronal study of
resonance technique is also used, for example, to measure the ratio between water and fat in cervical vertebrae).[101]
foods, monitoring of flow of corrosive fluids in pipes, or to study molecular structures such as
catalysts.[102]

History [ edit ]

Main article: History of magnetic resonance imaging

In 1971, Paul Lauterbur applied magnetic field gradients in all three dimensions and a back-projection technique to create NMR images.
He published the first images of two tubes of water in 1973 in the journal Nature, followed by the picture of a living animal, a clam, and in
1974 by the image of the thoracic cavity of a mouse. Lauterbur called his imaging method zeugmatography, a term which was later
replaced by (N)MR imaging.[103] In the late 1970s, physicists Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur, developed MRI-related techniques, like
the echo-planar imaging (EPI) technique.[104] Mansfield and Lauterbur were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for
their "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging".

See also [ edit ]

Earth's field NMR International Society of Magnetic Resonance in

Medicine portal
Electron paramagnetic resonance Medicine
High-definition fiber tracking Jemris
History of neuroimaging List of neuroimaging software
Magnetic immunoassay

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Magnetic particle imaging Robinson oscillator
Magnetic resonance elastography Sodium MRI
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (journal) Virtopsy
Magnetic resonance microscopy High-resolution computed tomography
Nobel Prize controversies Super-resolution imaging
Rabi cycle Compressed sensing

References [ edit ]

1. ^ McRobbie DW, Moore EA, Graves MJ, Prince MR (2007). MRI 6. ^ McDermott R, Lee S, ten Haken B, Trabesinger AH, Pines A,
from Picture to Proton. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978- Clarke J (May 2004). "Microtesla MRI with a superconducting
1-139-45719-4. quantum interference device" . Proceedings of the National
2. ^ Smith-Bindman R, Miglioretti DL, Johnson E, Lee C, Feigelson Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (21):
HS, Flynn M, et al. (June 2012). "Use of diagnostic imaging studies 7857–61. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402382101 . PMC 419521 .
and associated radiation exposure for patients enrolled in large PMID 15141077 .
integrated health care systems, 1996-2010" . JAMA. 307 (22): 7. ^ Zotev VS, Matlashov AN, Volegov PL, Urbaitis AV, Espy MA,
2400–9. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.5960 . PMC 3859870 . Kraus Jr RH (2007). "SQUID-based instrumentation for ultralow-
PMID 22692172 . field MRI". Superconductor Science and Technology. 20 (11):
3. ^ Health at a glance 2009 OECD indicators. Health at a Glance. S367–S373. arXiv:0705.0661 . doi:10.1088/0953-
2009. doi:10.1787/health_glance-2009-en . ISBN 978-92-64- 2048/20/11/S13 .
07555-9. 8. ^ Vesanen PT, Nieminen JO, Zevenhoven KC, Dabek J, Parkkonen
4. ^ a b McRobbie DW (2007). MRI from picture to proton. Cambridge, LT, Zhdanov AV, Luomahaara J, Hassel J, Penttilä J, Simola J,
UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521- Ahonen AI, Mäkelä JP, Ilmoniemi RJ (June 2013). "Hybrid ultra-low-
68384-5. field MRI and magnetoencephalography system based on a
5. ^ Sasaki M, Ehara S, Nakasato T, Tamakawa Y, Kuboya Y, commercial whole-head neuromagnetometer". Magnetic
Sugisawa M, Sato T (April 1990). "MR of the shoulder with a 0.2-T Resonance in Medicine. 69 (6): 1795–804.
permanent-magnet unit". AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. doi:10.1002/mrm.24413 . PMID 22807201 .
9. ^ abcdefgh "Magnetic Resonance Imaging" . University of
154 (4): 777–8. doi:10.2214/ajr.154.4.2107675 .
PMID 2107675 . Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 2017-05-10. Retrieved
2016-03-14.
10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Johnson KA. "Basic proton MR imaging.
Tissue Signal Characteristics" .[unreliable medical source?]

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 11. ^ a b Tushar Patil. "MRI sequences" . Retrieved 2016-03-14. 21. ^ Heilbrun MP, Sunderland PM, McDonald PR, Wells TH, Cosman
12. ^ "Magnetic Resonance, a critical peer-reviewed introduction" . E, Ganz E (1987). "Brown-Roberts-Wells stereotactic frame
European Magnetic Resonance Forum. Retrieved 17 November modifications to accomplish magnetic resonance imaging guidance
2014. in three planes". Applied Neurophysiology. 50 (1–6): 143–52.
13. ^ Hollingworth W, Todd CJ, Bell MI, Arafat Q, Girling S, Karia KR, doi:10.1159/000100700 . PMID 3329837 .
Dixon AK (November 2000). "The diagnostic and therapeutic impact 22. ^ "ACCF/ACR/SCCT/SCMR/ASNC/NASCI/SCAI/SIR 2006
of MRI: an observational multi-centre study". Clinical Radiology. 55 appropriateness criteria for cardiac computed tomography and
(11): 825–31. doi:10.1053/crad.2000.0546 . PMID 11069736 . cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. A report of the American
14. ^ Husband J (2008). Recommendations for Cross-Sectional College of Cardiology Foundation Quality Strategic Directions
Imaging in Cancer Management: Computed Tomography – CT Committee Appropriateness Criteria Working Group". Journal of the
Magnetic Resonance Imaging – MRI Positron Emission American College of Radiology. 3 (10): 751–71. October 2006.
Tomography – PET-CT (PDF). Royal College of Radiologists. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2006.08.008 . PMID 17412166 .
ISBN 978-1-905034-13-0. 23. ^ Helms C (2008). Musculoskeletal MRI. Saunders. ISBN 978-1-
15. ^ American Society of Neuroradiology (2013). "ACR-ASNR Practice 4160-5534-1.
Guideline for the Performance and Interpretation of Magnetic 24. ^ Frydrychowicz A, Lubner MG, Brown JJ, Merkle EM, Nagle SK,
Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Brain" (PDF). Rofsky NM, Reeder SB (March 2012). "Hepatobiliary MR imaging
16. ^ Rowayda AS (May 2012). "An improved MRI segmentation for with gadolinium-based contrast agents" . Journal of Magnetic
atrophy assessment". International Journal of Computer Science Resonance Imaging. 35 (3): 492–511. doi:10.1002/jmri.22833 .
Issues (IJCSI). 9 (3). PMC 3281562 . PMID 22334493 .
17. ^ Rowayda AS (February 2013). "Regional atrophy analysis of MRI 25. ^ Sandrasegaran K, Lin C, Akisik FM, Tann M (July 2010). "State-
for early detection of alzheimer's disease". International Journal of of-the-art pancreatic MRI". AJR. American Journal of
Signal Processing, Image Processing and Pattern Recognition. 6 Roentgenology. 195 (1): 42–53.
(1): 49–53. doi:10.2214/ajr.195.3_supplement.0s42 . PMID 20566796 .
18. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema S (2014). Abnormal Psychology (Sixth ed.). 26. ^ Masselli G, Gualdi G (August 2012). "MR imaging of the small
New York: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 67. bowel". Radiology. 264 (2): 333–48. doi:10.1148/radiol.12111658 .
19. ^ Brown RA, Nelson JA (June 2016). "The Invention and Early PMID 22821694 .
History of the N-Localizer for Stereotactic Neurosurgery" . Cureus. 27. ^ Zijta FM, Bipat S, Stoker J (May 2010). "Magnetic resonance
8 (6): e642. doi:10.7759/cureus.642 . PMC 4959822 . (MR) colonography in the detection of colorectal lesions: a
PMID 27462476 . systematic review of prospective studies" . European Radiology.
20. ^ Leksell L, Leksell D, Schwebel J (January 1985). "Stereotaxis and 20 (5): 1031–46. doi:10.1007/s00330-009-1663-4 .
nuclear magnetic resonance". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, PMC 2850516 . PMID 19936754 .
and Psychiatry. 48 (1): 14–8. doi:10.1136/jnnp.48.1.14 .
PMID 3882889 .

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 28. ^ Haacke, E Mark; Brown, Robert F; Thompson, Michael; 37. ^ "Response to the FDA's May 23, 2007, Nephrogenic Systemic
Venkatesan, Ramesh (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging: Fibrosis Update1 — Radiology" . Radiological Society of North
Physical principles and sequence design. New York: J. Wiley & America. 2007-09-12. Archived from the original on 2012-07-19.
Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-35128-3.[page needed] Retrieved 2010-08-02.
29. ^ Rinck PA (2014). "Chapter 13: Contrast Agents" . Magnetic 38. ^ Jones J, Gaillard F. "MRI sequences (overview)" . Radiopaedia.
Resonance in Medicine. Retrieved 2017-10-15.
30. ^ Murphy KJ, Brunberg JA, Cohan RH (October 1996). "Adverse 39. ^ a b c d "Magnetic Resonance Imaging" . University of Wisconsin.
reactions to gadolinium contrast media: a review of 36 cases". AJR. Archived from the original on 2017-05-10. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
American Journal of Roentgenology. 167 (4): 847–9. 40. ^ abcd Johnson KA. "Basic proton MR imaging. Tissue Signal
doi:10.2214/ajr.167.4.8819369 . PMID 8819369 . Characteristics" . Harvard Medical School. Archived from the
31. ^ "ACR guideline" . guideline.gov. 2005. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
original on 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2006-11-22. 41. ^ Graham D, Cloke P, Vosper M (2011-05-31). Principles and
32. ^ Thomsen HS, Morcos SK, Dawson P (November 2006). "Is there Applications of Radiological Physics E-Book (6 ed.). Elsevier Health
a causal relation between the administration of gadolinium based Sciences. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-7020-4614-8.}
contrast media and the development of nephrogenic systemic 42. ^ du Plessis V, Jones J. "MRI sequences (overview)" .
fibrosis (NSF)?". Clinical Radiology. 61 (11): 905–6. Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-01-13.
doi:10.1016/j.crad.2006.09.003 . PMID 17018301 . 43. ^ Lefevre N, Naouri JF, Herman S, Gerometta A, Klouche S, Bohu
33. ^ "FDA Drug Safety Communication: New warnings for using Y (2016). "A Current Review of the Meniscus Imaging: Proposition
gadolinium-based contrast agents in patients with kidney of a Useful Tool for Its Radiologic Analysis". Radiology Research
dysfunction" . Information on Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents. and Practice. 2016: 8329296. doi:10.1155/2016/8329296 .
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 23 December 2010. Retrieved PMID 27057352 .
12 March 2011. 44. ^ ab Luijkx T, Weerakkody Y. "Steady-state free precession MRI" .
34. ^ "FDA Public Health Advisory: Gadolinium-containing Contrast Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
Agents for Magnetic Resonance Imaging" . fda.gov. Archived from 45. ^ a b Chavhan GB, Babyn PS, Thomas B, Shroff MM, Haacke EM
the original on 2006-09-28. (2009). "Principles, techniques, and applications of T2*-based MR
35. ^ "Gadolinium-containing contrast agents: new advice to minimise imaging and its special applications". Radiographics. 29 (5): 1433–
the risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis" . Drug Safety Update. 3 49. doi:10.1148/rg.295095034 . PMID 19755604 .
(6): 3. January 2010. 46. ^ Sharma R, Taghi Niknejad M. "Short tau inversion recovery" .
36. ^ "MRI Questions and Answers" (PDF). Concord, CA: Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 47. ^ Berger F, de Jonge M, Smithuis R, Maas M. "Stress fractures" .
Retrieved 2010-08-02. Radiology Assistant. Radiology Society of the Netherlands.
Retrieved 2017-10-13.

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 48. ^ Hacking C, Taghi Niknejad M, et al. "Fluid attenuation inversion 60. ^ Gaillard F. "Arterial spin labelling (ASL) MR perfusion" .
recoveryg" . radiopaedia.org. Retrieved 2015-12-03. Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-15.
49. ^ ab Di Muzio B, Abd Rabou A. "Double inversion recovery 61. ^ Chou I. "Milestone 19: (1990) Functional MRI" . Nature.
sequence" . Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-13. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
50. ^ Lee M, Bashir U. "Diffusion weighted imaging" . Radiopaedia. 62. ^ Luijkx T, Gaillard F. "Functional MRI" . Radiopaedia. Retrieved
Retrieved 2017-10-13. 2017-10-16.
51. ^ Weerakkody Y, Gaillard F. "Ischaemic stroke" . Radiopaedia. 63. ^ a b "Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)" . Johns Hopkins
Retrieved 2017-10-15. Hospital. Retrieved 2017-10-15.
52. ^ Hammer M. "MRI Physics: Diffusion-Weighted Imaging" . 64. ^ Keshavamurthy J, Ballinger R et al. "Phase contrast imaging" .
XRayPhysics. Retrieved 2017-10-15. Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-15.
53. ^ An H, Ford AL, Vo K, Powers WJ, Lee JM, Lin W (May 2011). 65. ^ Di Muzio B, Gaillard F. "Susceptibility weighted imaging" .
"Signal evolution and infarction risk for apparent diffusion coefficient Retrieved 2017-10-15.
lesions in acute ischemic stroke are both time- and perfusion- 66. ^ Rosen Y, Lenkinski RE (July 2007). "Recent advances in
dependent". Stroke. 42 (5): 1276–81. magnetic resonance neurospectroscopy". Neurotherapeutics. 4 (3):
doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.610501 . PMID 21454821 . 330–45. doi:10.1016/j.nurt.2007.04.009 . PMID 17599700 .
54. ^ ab Smith D, Bashir U. "Diffusion tensor imaging" . Radiopaedia. 67. ^ Golder W (June 2004). "Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in
Retrieved 2017-10-13. clinical oncology". Onkologie. 27 (3): 304–9.
55. ^ Chua TC, Wen W, Slavin MJ, Sachdev PS (February 2008). doi:10.1159/000077983 . PMID 15249722 .
"Diffusion tensor imaging in mild cognitive impairment and 68. ^ Chakeres DW, Abduljalil AM, Novak P, Novak V (2002).
Alzheimer's disease: a review". Current Opinion in Neurology. 21 "Comparison of 1.5 and 8 tesla high-resolution magnetic resonance
(1): 83–92. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e3282f4594b . imaging of lacunar infarcts". Journal of Computer Assisted
PMID 18180656 . Tomography. 26 (4): 628–32. PMID 12218832 .
56. ^ Gaillard F. "Dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) MR 69. ^ "MRI-scanner van 7 miljoen in gebruik" [MRI scanner of €7
perfusion" . Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-14. million in use] (in Dutch). Medisch Contact. December 5, 2007.
57. ^ Chen F, Ni YC (March 2012). "Magnetic resonance diffusion- 70. ^ Abeida H, Zhang Q, Li J, Merabtine N (2013). "Iterative Sparse
perfusion mismatch in acute ischemic stroke: An update". World Asymptotic Minimum Variance Based Approaches for Array
Journal of Radiology. 4 (3): 63–74. doi:10.4329/wjr.v4.i3.63 . Processing". IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 61 (4): 933–
PMID 22468186 . 944. arXiv:1802.03070 . doi:10.1109/tsp.2012.2231676 .
58. ^ Gaillard F. "Dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE) MR perfusion" . 71. ^ Uecker M, Zhang S, Voit D, Karaus A, Merboldt KD, Frahm J
Radiopaedia. Retrieved 2017-10-15. (October 2010). "Real-time MRI at a resolution of 20 ms". NMR in
59. ^ "Arterial spin labeling" . University of Michigan. Retrieved Biomedicine. 23 (8): 986–94. doi:10.1002/nbm.1585 .
2017-10-27. PMID 20799371 .

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 72. ^ Uyanik I, Lindner P, Tsiamyrtzis P, Shah D, Tsekos NV, Pavlidis IT 79. ^ Liu CH, Kim YR, Ren JQ, Eichler F, Rosen BR, Liu PK (January
(2013). Functional Imaging and Modeling of the Heart. Lecture 2007). "Imaging cerebral gene transcripts in live animals" . The
Notes in Computer Science. 7945. pp. 466–473. doi:10.1007/978-3- Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (3): 713–22.
642-38899-6_55 . ISBN 978-3-642-38898-9. ISSN 0302-9743 . doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4660-06.2007 . PMC 2647966 .
73. ^ Cline HE, Schenck JF, Hynynen K, Watkins RD, Souza SP, Jolesz PMID 17234603 .
FA (1992). "MR-guided focused ultrasound surgery". Journal of 80. ^ Liu CH, Ren J, Liu CM, Liu PK (January 2014). "Intracellular gene
Computer Assisted Tomography. 16 (6): 956–65. transcription factor protein-guided MRI by DNA aptamers in vivo" .
doi:10.1097/00004728-199211000-00024 . PMID 1430448 . FASEB Journal. 28 (1): 464–73. doi:10.1096/fj.13-234229 .
74. ^ "Hyperpolarized Noble Gas MRI Laboratory: Hyperpolarized PMC 3868842 . PMID 24115049 .
Xenon MR Imaging of the Brain" . Harvard Medical School. 81. ^ Liu CH, You Z, Liu CM, Kim YR, Whalen MJ, Rosen BR, Liu PK
Retrieved 2017-07-26. (March 2009). "Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging
75. ^ Hurd RE, John BK (1991). "Gradient-enhanced proton-detected reversal by gene knockdown of matrix metalloproteinase-9 activities
heteronuclear multiple-quantum coherence spectroscopy". Journal in live animal brains" . The Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (11):
of Magnetic Resonance. 91 (3): 648–653. doi:10.1016/0022- 3508–17. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5332-08.2009 .
2364(91)90395-a . PMC 2726707 . PMID 19295156 .
76. ^ Brown RA, Venters RA, Tang PP, Spicer LD (1995). "A Test for 82. ^ Liu CH, Yang J, Ren JQ, Liu CM, You Z, Liu PK (February 2013).
Scaler Coupling between Heteronuclei Using Gradient-Enhanced "MRI reveals differential effects of amphetamine exposure on
Proton-Detected HMQC Spectroscopy". Journal of Magnetic neuroglia in vivo" . FASEB Journal. 27 (2): 712–24.
Resonance, Series A. 113: 117–119. doi:10.1096/fj.12-220061 . PMC 3545538 . PMID 23150521 .
doi:10.1006/jmra.1995.1064 . 83. ^ "Managing high value capital equipment in the NHS in
77. ^ Miller AF, Egan LA, Townsend CA (March 1997). "Measurement England" (PDF). National Audit Office (United Kingdom).
of the degree of coupled isotopic enrichment of different positions in Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved
an antibiotic peptide by NMR". Journal of Magnetic Resonance. 125 30 November 2013.
(1): 120–31. doi:10.1006/jmre.1997.1107 . PMID 9245367 . 84. ^ "MRI-scanner big financial success for Philips (Dutch)" .
78. ^ Xue S, Qiao J, Pu F, Cameron M, Yang JJ (2013). "Design of a Eindhovens Dagblad (ED). Retrieved 18 February 2009.
novel class of protein-based magnetic resonance imaging contrast 85. ^ "MRI scanner of €7 million in use(Dutch)" . Medisch Contact.
agents for the molecular imaging of cancer biomarkers" . Wiley Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved
Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology. 5 5 December 2007.
(2): 163–79. doi:10.1002/wnan.1205 . PMC 4011496 . 86. ^ Morgan P, Conolly S, Scott G, Macovski A (October 1996). "A
PMID 23335551 . readout magnet for prepolarized MRI". Magnetic Resonance in
Medicine. 36 (4): 527–36. doi:10.1002/mrm.1910360405 .
PMID 8892203 .

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 87. ^ Blamire AM (August 2008). "The technology of MRI--the next 10 96. ^ "iRefer" . Royal College of Radiologists. Retrieved 10 November
years?". The British Journal of Radiology. 81 (968): 601–17. 2013.
doi:10.1259/bjr/96872829 . PMID 18628329 . 97. ^ Man dies after being sucked into MRI scanner at Indian hospital
88. ^ Stamford Hospital price quotation October 2008, Stamford CT US The Guardian, 2018
89. ^ Goldstein WM, Gordon AC, Branson JJ, Simmons C, Berland K, 98. ^ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Exams per 1,000 Population,
Willsey DS, Andrews AL (March 5–9, 2008). Over-Utilization of MRI 2014 OECD, 2016
in the Osteoarthritis Patient (PDF). Annual Meeting AAOS. San 99. ^ Consumer Reports; American College of Physicians. presented
Francisco. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-04. by ABIM Foundation. "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should
Retrieved 2013-07-27. Question" (PDF). Choosing Wisely. Archived from the original
90. ^ Current Procedural Terminology code #70553 "2010 Medicare (PDF) on June 24, 2012. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Part B National Summary Data File" Archived 2012-02-14 at 100. ^ Consumer Reports; American College of Physicians (April 2012).
the Wayback Machine.. Data.gov, An Official Website of the United "Imaging tests for lower-back pain: Why you probably don't need
States Government. them" (PDF). High Value Care. Archived from the original
91. ^ "How long does an MRI take?" . WebMD.com. WebMD. (PDF) on 15 January 2013. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
92. ^ Ehara S, Nakajima Y, Matsui O (August 2008). "Radiology in 101. ^ a b Erasmus LJ, Hurter D, Naude M, Kritzinger HG, Acho S
Japan in 2008". AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 191 (2): (2004). "A short overview of MRI artefacts". South African Journal
328–9. doi:10.2214/AJR.07.3940 . PMID 18647897 . of Radiology. 8 (2): 13. doi:10.4102/sajr.v8i2.127 .
93. ^ "Private MRI Scan" . Fairfield.org.uk. Fairfield Independent 102. ^ Rinck PA (2017). "Chapter Nineteen Non-Medical Applications of
Hospital. Retrieved 2017-03-28. NMR and MRI". Magnetic Resonance (11th ed.). Retrieved
94. ^ Watson RE (2015). "Lessons Learned from MRI Safety Events". 2017-12-18.
Current Radiology Reports. 3 (10). doi:10.1007/s40134-015-0122- 103. ^ Rinck PA (2008). "A short history of magnetic resonance
z . imaging" . Spectroscopy Europe. 20 (1): 7.
95. ^ Wang PI, Chong ST, Kielar AZ, Kelly AM, Knoepp UD, Mazza MB, 104. ^ Mansfield P, Grannell PK (1975). " "Diffraction" and microscopy in
Goodsitt MM (April 2012). "Imaging of pregnant and lactating solids and liquids by NMR". Physical Review B. 12 (9): 3618–3634.
patients: part 1, evidence-based review and recommendations". doi:10.1103/physrevb.12.3618 .
AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 198 (4): 778–84.
doi:10.2214/AJR.11.7405 . PMID 22451541 .

Further reading [ edit ]

Rinck PA (ed.). "The history of MRI" . TRTF/EMRF. Eustace SJ, Nelson E (June 2004). "Whole body magnetic resonance
imaging" . BMJ. 328 (7453): 1387–8.
doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7453.1387 . PMC 421763 . PMID 15191954 .

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Pykett IL (May 1982). "NMR imaging in medicine". Scientific American. Blümer P (1998). Blümler P, Blümich B, Botto RE, Fukushima E, eds.
246 (5): 78–88. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0582-78 . Spatially Resolved Magnetic Resonance: Methods, Materials,
PMID 7079720 . Medicine, Biology, Rheology, Geology, Ecology, Hardware. Wiley-VCH.
Simon M, Mattson JS (1996). The pioneers of NMR and magnetic ISBN 978-3-527-29637-8.
resonance in medicine: The story of MRI. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan Liang Z, Lauterbur PC (1999). Principles of Magnetic Resonance
University Press. ISBN 978-0-9619243-1-7. Imaging: A Signal Processing Perspective. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-7803-
Haacke EM, Brown RF, Thompson M, Venkatesan R (1999). Magnetic 4723-6.
resonance imaging: Physical principles and sequence design. New Schmitt F, Stehling MK, Turner R (1998). Echo-Planar Imaging: Theory,
York: J. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-35128-3. Technique and Application. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-
Lee SC, Kim K, Kim J, Lee S, Han Yi J, Kim SW, Ha KS, Cheong C 540-63194-1.
(June 2001). "One micrometer resolution NMR microscopy". Journal of Kuperman V (2000). Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles
Magnetic Resonance. 150 (2): 207–13. doi:10.1006/jmre.2001.2319 . and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-053570-8.
PMID 11384182 . Blümich B (2000). NMR Imaging of Materials. Clarendon Press.
Sprawls P (2000). Magnetic Resonance Imaging Principles, Methods, and ISBN 978-0-19-850683-6.
Techniques . Medical Physics Publishing. ISBN 978-0-944838-97-6. Jin J (1998). Electromagnetic Analysis and Design in Magnetic
Mansfield P (1982). NMR Imaging in Biomedicine: Supplement 2 Resonance Imaging. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9693-9.
Advances in Magnetic Resonance. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-15406-2. Farhat IA, Belton PS, Webb GA (2007). Magnetic Resonance in Food
Fukushima E (1989). NMR in Biomedicine: The Physical Basis. Science: From Molecules to Man. Royal Society of Chemistry.
Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-88318-609-1. ISBN 978-0-85404-340-8.
Blümich B, Kuhn W (1992). Magnetic Resonance Microscopy: Methods
and Applications in Materials Science, Agriculture and Biomedicine.
Wiley. ISBN 978-3-527-28403-0.

External links [ edit ]

Rinck PA (ed.). "MRI: A Peer-Reviewed, Critical Introduction" . European Magnetic Wikimedia Commons has
Resonance Forum (EMRF)/The Round Table Foundation (TRTF). media related to Magnetic
resonance imaging.
A Guided Tour of MRI: An introduction for laypeople National High Magnetic Field
Laboratory Library resources about
Magnetic resonance imaging
The Basics of MRI . Underlying physics and technical aspects.
Resources in your library
Video: What to Expect During Your MRI Exam from the Institute for Magnetic Resonance Safety,
Education, and Research (IMRSER)

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 Royal Institution Lecture – MRI: A Window on the Human Body
A SHORT HISTORY OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING FROM A EUROPEAN POINT OF VIEW
[ permanent dead link] Animal Imaging Database (AIDB)
How MRI works explained simply using diagrams
Real-time MRI videos: Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH .

V·T·E Medical imaging (ICD-9-CM V3 87–88, ICD-10-PCS B, CPT 70010–79999) [hide]

Pneumoencephalography · Dental radiography · Sialography · Myelography · CXR (Bronchography) ·
AXR · KUB · DXA/DXR ·
Upper gastrointestinal series/Small-bowel follow-through/Lower gastrointestinal series ·
Medical:
2D Cholangiography/Cholecystography · Mammography · Pyelogram · Cystography · Arthrogram ·
Hysterosalpingography · Skeletal survey · Angiography (Angiocardiography · Aortography) ·
Venography · Lymphogram
X-ray/ Industrial: Radiographic testing
Radiography
General operation of CT · Quantitative CT · High-resolution CT · X-ray microtomography ·
Techniques:
Electron beam tomography
CT scan Coronary (Calcium scan · CT angiography) · Abdominal and pelvic CT (Virtual colonoscopy) ·
Targets CT angiography (Coronary CT · Pulmonary CT) · Head CT · Thyroid CT · Whole body imaging
(Full-body CT scan)

Other Fluoroscopy · Dental panoramic radiography · X-ray motion analysis

MRI of the brain · MR neurography · Cardiac MRI/Cardiac MRI perfusion · MR angiography · MR cholangiopancreatography ·
MRI
Breast MRI · Functional MRI · Sequences (Diffusion MRI · Perfusion MRI · Tractography) · Synthetic MRI
Echocardiography · Doppler ultrasonography (Doppler echocardiography (TTE · TEE) · Transcranial Doppler) · Intravascular ·
Gynecologic · Obstetric · Echoencephalography · Abdominal ultrasonography · Transrectal · Breast ultrasound ·
Ultrasound
Transscrotal ultrasound · Carotid ultrasonography · Contrast-enhanced · 3D ultrasound · Endoscopic ultrasound ·
Emergency ultrasound (FAST · Pre-hospital ultrasound) · Duplex

Radionuclide Cholescintigraphy · Scintimammography · Ventilation/perfusion scan · Radionuclide ventriculography ·

Radionuclide angiography · Radioisotope renography · Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy ·
2D / scintigraphy Radioactive iodine uptake test · Bone scintigraphy · Immunoscintigraphy · Dacryoscintigraphy ·
DMSA scan · Gastric emptying scan

Full body: Octreotide scan · Gallium 67 scan · Indium-111 WBC scan

3D / ECT SPECT (gamma ray): Myocardial perfusion imaging

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD
 PET (positron): Brain PET · Cardiac PET · PET mammography · PET-CT · PET-MRI
Optical tomography (Optical coherence tomography) · Confocal microscopy · Endomicroscopy ·
Optical/Laser
Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging

Thermography non-contact thermography · contact thermography · dynamic angiothermography

Target conditions Acute stroke · Pregnancy

Authority control BNF: cb120656832 (data) · GND: 4120806-7 · LCCN: sh85079741

Categories: American inventions Discovery and invention controversies 1973 introductions Magnetic resonance imaging
Cryogenics

This page was last edited on 7 January 2019, at 02:47 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view

Create PDF in your applications with the Pdfcrowd HTML to PDF API PDFCROWD