Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A comprehensive review on utilization of hydrogen in a compression MARK

ignition engine under dual fuel mode
⁎
Venkateswarlu Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Engines and Unconventional Fuels Laboratory, Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Compression ignition (CI) engines emit high levels of particulate matter (PM) and oxide of nitrogen (NOx)
Hydrogen emissions due to combustion with heterogeneous air fuel mixture. The PM emission could be reduced
Dual fuel engines significantly along with thermal efficiency improvement using hydrogen in the engines under dual fuel mode
Performance, combustion and emission (diesel-hydrogen). In hydrogen dual fuel engines, other emissions including hydrocarbon (HC), carbon
characteristics
monoxide (CO) and smoke decrease to near zero level whereas greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide
Hydrogen energy share enhancement
(CO2) and methane (CH4)) from CI engines decrease substantially. However, the literature review indicates the
maximum hydrogen energy share in the dual fuel engines at rated load is limited from 6% to 25%. This is mainly
due to higher in-cylinder peak pressure and rate of pressure rise, knocking and autoignition of hydrogen-air
charge. In addition to this, NOx emission in the engine under dual fuel mode is higher (about 29–58%) than
conventional diesel mode due to high localized in-cylinder temperature. The suitable strategies for improvement
of maximum hydrogen energy share (up to 79%) and NOx emission reduction (up to a level of conventional
mode) in CI engines under dual fuel mode are discussed in detail.

1. Introduction major concerns for sustainability of CI engines. The current available

Compression ignition (CI) engines are widely used in various
sectors including transportation, agriculture, civil construction and
small scale electrical power generation due to its high thermal
efficiency, high fuel economy and low carbon based emissions (carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC)). However, these engines emit high
level of smoke/particulate matter (PM) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
emissions due to combustion with heterogeneous air fuel mixture. In
addition to this, carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the major greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, is included in current emission regulation standards
along with the other regulated emissions. For example, European
Union sets CO2 emission regulation of 95 g/km by 2020 [1,2]. The
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) implemented CO2 emission
regulation as 820 g/kWh for light, medium and heavy duty vehicles [2–
4]. On the other hand, energy efficiency improvement is one of the
technologies such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), retardation of
injection timing etc. could not provide both the efficiency improvement
and the emissions reduction benefits. However, utilization of gaseous
hydrogen (H2) in CI engines is a viable option to resolve both the
problems of energy efficiency improvement and emissions reduction
simultaneously.
Hydrogen has unique physical and chemical properties which are
best suitable for its successful widespread adoption as a fuel (energy
carrier) for internal combustion (IC) engines [5]. As hydrogen is a
carbon free fuel, it's utilization in IC engines leads to zero carbon based
emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrocarbon (HC) and smoke/soot/particulate matter. Hydrogen has
the highest energy content per unit mass among all fuels and it has
many advantageous properties such as a high flame speed, short
quenching distance, high heating value and high diffusivity which

Abbreviations: 32/40DF and 51/60DF, Engine models from M/S MAN Diesel; 34DF and 50DF, Engine models from M/S Wartsila; BDC, Bottom dead centre; BMEP, Brake mean
effective pressure; C-10 DFNG, C-12 DFNG, and C-15 DFNG, Engine models from M/S Caterpillar; CA, Crank angle; CH4, Methane;; CI, Compression ignition; CNG, Compressed
natural gas; CO, Carbon monoxide;; CO2, Carbon dioxide; CR, Compression ratio; CV, Calorific value; CxHy, Hydrocarbon; Ea, Activation energy; EGR, Exhaust gas recirculation; EHI,
End of hydrogen injection; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency; EVC, Exhaust valve closing; EVO, Exhaust valve opening; GHG, Greenhouse gas;; GWP, Global warming potential;
H2, Hydrogen; HC, Hydrocarbon; HCCI, Homogeneous charge compression ignition; HFCP, High frequency component of in-cylinder pressure; IC, Internal combustion; IVC, Inlet
valve closing; IVO, Inlet valve opening; k1, k2, k3, Constants; m, Mass flow rate of species; MI, Manifold injection;; N2O, Nitrous oxide; Nc, Number of cylinders; NOx, Oxides of nitrogen;
O, H, and OH, Oxygen, hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals; P, Brake power; PHCCI, Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition;; PI, Port injection;; PM, Particulate matter; QSK50,
KTA38-G2A, and KTA50-G3, Engine models from M/S Cummins; rpm, Rotations per minute; RPR, Rate of pressure rise;; RR, Reaction rate; Ru, Universal gas constant; SHI, Start of
hydrogen injection; SI, Spark ignition; T, In-cylinder temperature; TDC, Top dead centre; TPE, Total premixed charge energy
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: subra@ces.iitd.ernet.in (K.A. Subramanian).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.247
Received 3 December 2015; Received in revised form 7 May 2016; Accepted 21 November 2016
Available online 30 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

could lead to high combustion efficiency [6]. Theoretically, hydrogen Table 1

produces water as by-product during its combustion in IC engines. It is Current scenario of dual-fuel engine manufacturers (OEMs) [2,11–13].
therefore not only an energy carrier but also a clean and green fuel.
OEMs/Applications Fuels used Engine models

1.1. Hydrogen utilization in internal combustion engines
Hydrogen as a fuel is best suitable for spark ignition (SI) engines
due to its high octane number of about 120 [7]. Hydrogen utilization in
SI engines would give zero carbon based emissions due to high
localized in-cylinder temperature. However, hydrogen utilization in
the SI engines is limited due to power de-rating (throttling losses), low
thermal efficiency, low volumetric efficiency and high level of NOx
emission [8]. In order to overcome these negative aspects, a major
engine hardware modification or new technology need to be developed.
On the other hand, if the hydrogen is used in CI engines under dual-
fuel mode, thermal efficiency would improve significantly due to high
compression ratio, no power de-rating due to no throttling losses, fuel
economy would improve due to constant volume combustion, and HC
CO, smoke and greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O) would
decrease significantly. However, hydrogen could not be utilized in
conventional CI engines as the hydrogen is having the properties of low
cetane number and high autoignition temperature. But hydrogen can
be used in CI engines under dual-fuel (diesel-hydrogen) mode. A small
amount of diesel (pilot fuel) could be used as an ignition source and
hydrogen (main fuel) as the major energy contributing fuel in a CI
engine under dual-fuel mode.
1.2. Driving forces for hydrogen utilization in CI engines in Indian
context
• India, one of the fast economic development countries, is known as
diesel driven economy as the consumption ratio of diesel to gasoline
is about 5.6:1 [9]. This significant diesel demand could easily be
satisfied with hydrogen due to its abundant availability (common
element in the universe), could be drawn from wide variety of
sources/methods and renewable in nature.
• The utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier is proposed in most
of the governmental strategic plans for a sustainable energy system.
The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the US
Department of Energy (DOE), the European Commission's
Directorate-General for Research, the Japanese Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry; and many others formulated vision
reports for hydrogen programs. For example, in India, a National
Hydrogen Energy Roadmap has been formulated by Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy in the year 2007 [10], and it is envisaged in
the Roadmap that one million hydrogen fuelled vehicles and
1000 MW hydrogen based electrical power generation would be
targeted in the country by 2020.
• As hydrogen is available as a by-product from Chloro-Alkali
industries, it could be used in diesel engines under dual-fuel mode
for in-house electrical power generation.
• As thermal efficiency of a CI engine is higher than a spark ignition
engine due to its high compression ratio, hydrogen utilization in CI
engines would be more beneficial.
• Particulate matter (PM) emission from CI engines would decrease
drastically with the use of gaseous hydrogen, which is otherwise a
major concern for sustainability of CI engines.
• Natural gas based dual-fuel engines are already commercialized by
original engine manufacturers (OEMs) (Table 1). In the world, Delhi
(India) is one of the largest vehicle fleet fuelled with natural gas. In a
significant step towards adopting green fuel, the Indian railways
launched its first CNG (compressed natural gas) train in 2015. The
railways modified a CI engine (rated power: 1400 hp) to run on
dual-fuel mode through fumigation technology with 20% CNG
substitution [11]. However, natural gas availability for meeting the
future huge global energy demands is uncertain. In addition to this,
Cummins Diesel and natural QSK50, KTA38-G2A, and
gas KTA50-G3
Caterpillar Diesel and natural C-10 DFNG, C-12 DFNG, and C-
gas 15 DFNG
Wartsila Diesel and natural 34DF and 50DF
gas
MAN Diesel Diesel and natural 32/40DF and 51/60DF
gas
Indian Railways Diesel and CNG 1400 HP engine
HUNDAI Diesel and CNG VERNA (Under progress)
Mahindra & Mahindra Diesel and CNG SCORPIO (Under progress)
natural gas based dual-fuel engines emit high levels of unburned HC
(methane hydrocarbon and non-methane hydrocarbon) and CO
emissions at part loads. Engine-out methane (CH4) emission effect
the environment adversely as global warming potential (GWP) of
methane for 100 years time horizon is higher (21) than GWP of CO2
(1). In order to resolve these issues, replacement of natural gas with
hydrogen could be a viable option as there is no such problem of
hydrogen availability. Hydrogen is one of the most available
elements on the earth. However, it is not available in its actual
form (H2), it is combined with other molecules including water
(H2O) and hydrocarbons (CxHy) [7]. So, the hydrogen element needs
to be dissociated from the feedstock/energy source. The significant
energy sources and suitable production methodology is given in
Fig. 1. Moreover, hydrogen utilization in CI engines could produce
almost zero HC, CH4 and CO emissions, and low CO2 emissions
along with an additional benefit of high thermal efficiency.
The existing natural gas infrastructure (storage, transportation and
dispensing) could also be used for hydrogen blended natural gas fuel.
The government of India is also taken further amendment by for-
mulating fuel policy for implementation of hydrogen blended natural
gas (hydrogen: 18% by volume) as a fuel for internal combustion
engines/vehicles [10].
1.3. Dual fuel technology
Typically in a dual-fuel engine, gaseous hydrogen fuel (main fuel) is
supplied to the engine during suction stroke and diesel fuel (pilot fuel)
is directly injected in to the combustion chamber at the end of
compression stroke to initiate the ignition as shown in Fig. 2[14].
Dual-fuel engines can operate either on dual-fuel mode if gaseous
hydrogen fuel is available or on single diesel fuel mode in the absence
of the gaseous fuel (fuel flexibility). Valve timing and process diagram
of hydrogen and diesel are shown in Fig. 3. Hydrogen was injected into
the intake manifold after the outlet valve closed (43° CA after TDC) in
order to avoid scavenging losses [15]. Start of hydrogen injection (SHI)
was maintained constant as 43° CA after TDC throughout the
experimentation whereas the end of hydrogen injection (EHI) was
varied with respect to the engine loading [15]. These injection timings
were optimized based on better performance and lower emissions for
diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel operation [15].
The hydrogen fuel could be added into a CI engine using three
Fig. 1. Energy sources and production methodologies for hydrogen.

473
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Fig. 2. Use of diesel and hydrogen fuels in a CI engine under dual-fuel technology.
Fig. 3. Valve timing and process diagram depicting hydrogen fuel injection timings [14].
techniques; (i) manifold injection, (ii) port injection, and (iii) direct in-
cylinder injection. It was experimentally evaluated that the fuel
induction technique would play a dominant role for better performance
of the engine [16]. Among all these techniques, manifold injection
system would offer significant benefits such as controlling of gaseous
fuel injection timing and duration, better mixing characteristics of fuel
with air, low temperature exposure to hydrogen injector (as the gas
injector generally mount at a larger distance from the combustion
chamber), and minor engine hardware modification (retrofitting of
hydrogen gas injector). The manifold injection system could be so
designed that the intake manifold does not contain any combustible
mixture other than in suction stroke, so avoiding back firing problem
[16]. However, in case of port and direct injection systems, back firing
of hydrogen is one of the major setbacks for effective utilization of
hydrogen in CI engines. In addition to this, hydrogen gas injector
would expose to high temperatures which arises durability and
reliability issues for long run engine operations. Gas injector used for
port/direct injection system, should be made up of high temperature
compatible material. The literature review on hydrogen based dual-fuel
engines is broadly classified into four major aspects; (i) performance
characteristics, (ii) combustion characteristics, (iii) emission character-
istics of dual-fuel engines, and (ii) research challenges for hydrogen
utilization under dual-fuel mode. The detailed discussion on these
issues is given below.
474
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
2. Effect of hydrogen usage on performance characteristics
of dual-fuel engines
2.1. Effect of hydrogen on thermal efficiency
Many studies reported the fact of increasing trend in thermal
efficiency at high and moderate loads, and decreasing trend at low
loads with increasing hydrogen quantity in hydrogen based dual-fuel
engines [2,17–19]. Thermal efficiency of a hydrogen based dual-fuel
engine could be determined using Eq. (1). It is observed from Fig. 4
that at 20% load, thermal efficiency of a CI engine decreased from
13.4% with 0% hydrogen mass share (base biodiesel mode) to 8% with
29% hydrogen mass share (dual-fuel mode) [20]. At low load (20%
engine loading), thermal efficiency of hydrogen dual-fuel engine
(3.7 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) reduced as the energy derived from
hydrogen increased [19]. Similarly at 9% load, the efficiency decreased
from 19.57% with base diesel mode to 17.37% with diesel-hydrogen
dual-fuel mode (62.5 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) [21]. The findings
of Santoso et al. confirmed that at lower load of 10 Nm (BMEP:
1.9 bar), indicated efficiency of a hydrogen dual-fuel engine decreased
from 57.9% with 50% hydrogen energy share to 54.3% and 49% with
90% and 97% hydrogen energy shares respectively (Fig. 4) [22].
Hydrogen energy share in a hydrogen based dual-fuel engine could
be determined using Eq. (2). At the low load conditions, injected diesel
(ignition source) is low in quantity and introduction of hydrogen
further reduces the quantity of diesel supply resulting in misfiring.
Lata et al. stated the reasons for the efficiency reduction are due to
lower charge temperature at the end of compression process, low flame
velocity of the lean gaseous fuels-air mixture and enough time available
in transferring heat to the adjacent cylinder walls [21].
Brake Power
Thermal efficiency = ×100
(ṁ hydrogen × CVhydrogen)+(ṁ diesel × CVdiesel)
(1)
ṁ hydrogenl × CVhydrogen
Hydrogen energy share = ×100
(ṁhydrogen × CVhydrogen)+(ṁ diesel × CVdiesel)
(2)
Where, ṁ : Mass flow rate of fuel, kg/s, CV: Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg
K, Brake power, kW, Hydrogen energy share, %
It is evident from Fig. 4 that at high load (BMEP: 5.3 bar), brake
thermal efficiency of a CI engine increased from 29.9% with diesel
mode to 31.6% with 10.1% hydrogen energy share [23]. In another
study, the efficiency increased from 27.3% with base diesel mode to
28.7% with 13.4% hydrogen energy share in a CI engine at 75% load
(BMEP: 3.99 bar) (Fig. 4). At high load, the inducted hydrogen-air
mixture is reasonably rich which would lead to improvement in
combustion rate due to high flame velocity of hydrogen [23]. The
trend of increase in thermal efficiency at high load was confirmed by
many other researchers [24–26]. At 5.8 bar BMEP, about 10%
improvement in the efficiency was observed in a CI engine under
dual-fuel mode (Fig. 4) [24]. The work of Wu H-W and Wu Z-Y
represents a significant improvement in thermal efficiency of a CI
engine under hydrogen dual-fuel mode with 30% hydrogen energy
share [25]. The investigations of Yadav et al. indicates improvement in
the thermal efficiency of a CI engine (4.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm)
from 23.35% with base diesel mode to 26.07% with hydrogen dual-fuel
mode (16.4% H2 energy share) at 75% load (BMEP: 4 bar) [26]. The
significant improvement in thermal efficiency of a CI engine under
diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel mode could be due to improvement in
mixing of fuel with air, improvement in degree of constant volume
combustion, reduction in combustion irreversibility and reduction of
unburned fuel quantity. Degree of homogeneity in air-fuel mixture
distribution in combustion chamber of the engine increases signifi-
cantly with addition of hydrogen fuel [27]. As the diffusivity of
hydrogen (0.63 cm2/s) is higher than base diesel (0.038 cm2/s), there
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Fig. 4. Brake thermal efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen flow rate at moderate and higher loads (a) from [23] and (b) from [24] (c) from [22] and (d) from [20].
could be a significant improvement in mixing rate of air with hydrogen
gaseous fuel. In addition to this, as the gaseous fuel is typically
inducted into the engine during suction stroke, more time is available
for air-fuel mixture formation process. Thus, combined effects of the
higher diffusivity and the availability of more mixing time would
increase the amount of air-hydrogen premixed charge, resulting in
better combustion and enhanced thermal efficiency.
2.2. Effect of hydrogen on exergy efficiency of dual-fuel engines
Fig. 5 shows exergy efficiency of a CI engine (7.4 kW rated power at
1500 rpm) for different hydrogen energy shares at different loads.
Fig. 5. Exergy efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen energy share [2].
475
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Exergy efficiency increased from 29.1% with base diesel to 31.7% with
18% hydrogen energy share at rated load [2]. The efficiency increased
significantly with high amounts of hydrogen energy shares at 75% and
50% loads as shown in the figure. This could be attributed due to
increase in combustion efficiency by decrease in total irreversibility of
the system as compared to conventional mode [2]. The combustion
irreversibility of a dual-fuel engine decreases with increasing amount of
hydrogen substitution as the combustion with high temperature
reduces entropy generation [2]. The irreversibility in the dual-fuel
engine decreased from 3.14 kW with base diesel mode to 1.73 kW with
hydrogen dual-fuel mode [2].
2.3. Effect of hydrogen on volumetric efficiency
Edwin et al. utilized hydrogen in a CI engine and found a significant
reduction in volumetric efficiency from 91% with diesel mode to 85%
with dual-fuel mode (13.4% hydrogen energy share) due to displace-
ment of air with hydrogen that would otherwise be inducted (Fig. 6)
[23]. Experimental investigations carried out by other researchers are
also confirmed the reduction in volumetric efficiency with increasing
amounts of hydrogen in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode [24,28].
Intake air flow rate may decrease significantly with injection of gaseous
hydrogen fuel into the intake manifold of the engine due to replace-
ment of the air with the gaseous fuel. It could be observed from Fig. 6,
that the volumetric efficiency decreased significantly with increasing
engine load and hydrogen amount [29]. The maximum reduction in the
efficiency was about 6%, with 20% hydrogen substitution in the engine
(49 kW rated power at 1800 rpm) [29]. It may be noted that increase in
the engine load leads to increase in heat release rate and subsequently
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Fig. 6. Volumetric efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen energy share (a) from [23] and (b) from [29].
increase in the intake system temperature. As a consequence, the
intake air density may decrease and thus decreases the volumetric
efficiency of the engine [29]. However, the percentage reduction in the
efficiency would depend on engine configuration and its operating
conditions.
2.4. Effect of hydrogen on exhaust gas temperature
As hydrogen has higher heat content (120 MJ/kg) than base diesel
(42.5 MJ/kg), the in-cylinder temperature in a CI engine is higher with
combustion of hydrogen than diesel. In case of diesel-hydrogen dual-
fuel engines, as hydrogen gas is a major energy source, the combustion
temperature (in-cylinder temperature) is significantly high as com-
pared to base diesel engine. Exhaust gas temperature increased from
364 °C to 427 °C with increase in hydrogen energy share to 10.1% as
shown in Fig. 7. High heating value of hydrogen (120 MJ/kg) could be
the main reason for increase in the exhaust gas temperature. Edwin
Geo also reported that the main reason for the increase in the
temperature might be due to high amount of heat energy release at
the end of expansion stroke [23]. The studies of Chintala and
Subramanian revealed that the exhaust gas energy increased from
24% with base diesel to 25.7% with 33.6% hydrogen energy share at
75% load [2]. Varde and Frame also stated the reasons for increase in
the exhaust temperature with increasing hydrogen energy share are
due to rapid combustion and high flame temperature of hydrogen for a
given equivalence ratio [24]. Late occurrence of in-cylinder peak
pressure at low hydrogen energy shares could be possible due to
delayed burning of hydrogen in the combustion chamber. The equiva-
Fig. 7. Exhaust gas temperature variation with respect to hydrogen energy share (a) from [23] and (b) from [24].
476
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
lence ratios of hydrogen-air charge used in the experiments conducted
by Varde and Frame [24] were leaner than the lean flammability limit
for hydrogen at ambient conditions. At low hydrogen energy shares, all
the hydrogen inducted in to the combustion chamber may burn late
during expansion stoke which causes slight decrease in the exhaust gas
temperature as shown in Fig. 7(b). However, increasing the amount of
hydrogen increased the exhaust gas temperature due to rapid combus-
tion and high flame temperature for a given equivalence ratio.
3. Effect of hydrogen usage on combustion characteristics of
dual-fuel engines
Combustion process in a dual-fuel engine is combined processes of
CI and SI engines. As the hydrogen is supplied during suction stroke, it
mixes with air during suction and compression processes and form
high degree of homogeneous hydrogen-air charge. At the end of the
compression stroke, the diesel fuel is injected which spontaneously
ignites due to its high cetane number. The ignited diesel fuel actually
acts as an ignition source for igniting the premixed hydrogen-air charge
which surrounds the diesel spray. A review on the important combus-
tion characteristics such as in-cylinder pressure, in-cylinder tempera-
ture, heat release rate etc. in hydrogen based dual-fuel engines is given
below.
3.1. Effect of hydrogen on in-cylinder pressure
With hydrogen addition in a CI engine, in-cylinder pressure
increases at high and medium loads whereas the pressure decreases
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Fig. 8. Combustion reaction rate with respect to degree CA at lower load [22].
Fig. 9. In-cylinder pressure variation with respect to degree CA at low load [22].
at lower loads [19,22,23,30,31]. Typically in a conventional CI engine,
the amount of diesel fuel supplied for low load operation is lower than
high load operation. In case of a dual-fuel engine, diesel fuel supply
quantity decreases in correspondence to increasing amount of hydro-
gen for the same power output. Reduction in the amount of diesel fuel
(an ignition source) could have more negative impact at lower load
than at high and medium loads. The findings of Santoso et al.
confirmed that the engine operation with decreased amount of diesel
fuel leads to late start of combustion and lower in-cylinder pressure
[22]. It may be noted that under dual-fuel mode, the reduced amount
of diesel pilot fuel may form less number of ignition centers due to poor
spray characteristics and diesel fuel-air mixing characteristics. Szwaja
et al. stated that the formation of less number of ignition centers leads
to significant reduction in combustion reaction rate at lower load [31].
For example, at lower load of 1.9 bar BMEP, the combustion reaction
rate decreased from 17.8 s−1 with 50% hydrogen energy share to
7.6 s−1 with 90% hydrogen energy share as shown in Fig. 8.
Experimental results of Santoso et al. revealed that the in-cylinder
pressure decreased significantly with increasing hydrogen energy share
from 50% to 97% at lower load as shown in Fig. 9[22]. At a lower load
of 1.9 bar BMEP, the in-cylinder peak pressure decreased from 73 bar
with 50% hydrogen energy share to 64 bar with 90% hydrogen energy
share (Fig. 9). However, at high and medium loads, these trends are in
contrast to lower load results. High burning velocity of the hydrogen
leads to rapid and complete oxidation of the air-fuel charge which
enhances the in-cylinder pressure significantly. For example, the in-
cylinder peak pressure increased from 76.4 bar with base diesel mode
(0% hydrogen energy share) to 88.4 bar with dual-fuel mode (18.8%
hydrogen energy share) at 100% load [32] (Fig. 10). Similarly, the in-
cylinder peak pressure increased from 79 bar with 5% hydrogen energy
share to 88 bar with 25% hydrogen share as seen in Fig. 10. Liew et al.
clearly distinguished the in-cylinder pressure variations at high load
(70%) and low load (15%) as shown in Fig. 11. The in-cylinder peak
pressure decreased from about 59 bar with 0% hydrogen energy share
to about 48 bar with 6% hydrogen energy share at 15% load, whereas
477
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
the pressure increased from about 108 bar with 0% hydrogen volume
share to about 122 bar with 6% hydrogen volume share at 70% load
(Fig. 11) [33]. A clear conclusion emerged from the above literature
discussion that in a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, in-cylinder pressure
increases at high and moderate loads whereas it decreases at lower
loads.
3.2. Effect of hydrogen on heat release rate
Heat release rate in a dual-fuel engine could be divided into three
phases as depicted in Fig. 12 [30]. In first phase, heat energy released
due to premixed combustion of a major part of diesel fuel and a minor
part of the hydrogen fuel entrained in the diesel spray. The second
phase represents the premixed combustion of the major part of the
hydrogen fuel and small amount of the diesel. Finally, the third phase
of the combustion represents the diffusion combustion of the leftover
parts (end charge) of both fuels [30]. Lata et al. also stated the similar
analogy of three phase combustion for dual-fuel operation; first by
premixed burning of diesel fuel and a part of hydrogen-air mixture that
is entrained during the ignition delay period [21]. In second phase, the
combustion is due to auto ignition of hydrogen-air charge in the close
vicinity of diesel spray zone and diffusive burning of remaining diesel
fuel. In the third phase, heat energy is released by flame propagation
from spray zone to hydrogen-air charge which is spread over the entire
part of the combustion chamber [21]. On the contrary, Masood et al.
described the combustion concept of dual-fuel mode in two phases, just
like as diesel mode. The first stage is mainly due to the combustion of
diesel and the hydrogen entrained in the diesel spray, while the second
stage is mainly due to the combustion of remaining hydrogen by flame
propagation from the ignition centers formed by the diesel spray to
entire combustion chamber [19].
Karim interpreted the heat release rate in a dual-fuel engine with
three overlapping components as shown in Fig. 13 [34]. The first (I)
component is due to the combustion of the pilot diesel fuel. The second
(II) component is due to the combustion of the gaseous fuel which is in
the immediate vicinity of the ignition and combustion centers of the
pilot fuel. The third (III) component is due to any pre-ignition reaction
activity and subsequent turbulent flame propagation (and sometimes
autoignition) within the overall lean mixture [34]. Under light load
condition, with very lean gaseous fuel-air mixtures, the major percen-
tage of heat energy comes from the ignition and successive rapid
combustion of the small pilot diesel zone (I). Some amount of heat
energy also releases due to combustion of part of the gaseous fuel-air
mixture entrained into the pilot diesel fuel. It is observed from Fig. 13
that combustion of gaseous fuel-air charge which is away from the pilot
diesel zone releases very less amount of heat energy (component III).
Hence, a dual-fuel engine at low load condition, gives poor perfor-
mance with increasing gaseous fuel share or decreasing the pilot diesel
amount. The extent of this deterioration in performance of the engine
depends largely on the pilot fuel quantity supplied, the type of gaseous
fuel used, operating conditions and the type of engine. At low load
engine operation, not only the ignition delay increases with addition of
gaseous fuel but also a significant proportion of the fuel will not burn
completely [34]. However, at high load condition, as the heat energy
releases mainly from the combustion of gaseous fuel-air charge away
from pilot diesel zones (Component III) (Fig. 13), no such problem
arises due increasing gaseous fuel energy shares. In case of hydrogen
based dual-fuel operation, with increasing hydrogen energy share, the
increasing trend in heat release rate at high load (70%) and decreasing
trend at low load (15%) were reported in literature [33] (Fig. 14).
3.3. Effect of hydrogen on in-cylinder temperature
In hydrogen based dual-fuel engines in-cylinder temperature dur-
ing combustion increases with increase in hydrogen energy share at
high and medium loads. The work of Subramanian and Chintala
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Fig. 10. In-cylinder pressure variation with respect to degree CA at high load (a) from reference [31] (b) from reference [32].

indicates that the in-cylinder peak temperature increased from about

1774 K with base biodiesel blend (B20: 80% diesel+20% biodiesel)
operation (0% hydrogen energy share) to 1845 K with 20.4% hydrogen
energy share under dual-fuel mode (Fig. 15) [35]. This increment could
be attributed due to increase in the in-cylinder pressure with increase
in hydrogen energy share.

3.4. Effect of hydrogen on ignition delay

In a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, ignition delay decreases with

increasing hydrogen energy share at high and moderate loads [36]
whereas it increases at low load [34]. Increasing amount of hydrogen
gaseous fuel could produce high amount of free radicals concentration
which leads to improvement of pre-ignition reactions and thus reduc-
tion in the ignition delay. However, Lata et al. reported a fluctuating
trend in the ignition delay variation with respect to increasing amount
of hydrogen fuel substitution as seen in Fig. 16 [37]. Initial increase in
the ignition delay could be due to reduction in partial pressure of
oxygen with the increasing amount of hydrogen gaseous fuel. The other
reason could be due to reduction in the in-cylinder temperature of
hydrogen-air charge because of high overall specific heat of the charge
[37]. Szwaja et al. also found similar results of decrease in the ignition
delay in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode with 5% hydrogen addition
[31]. The introduction of a gaseous fuel with the intake air could have a
significant effect on the air-fuel charge during compression affecting
the processes of pre-ignition and subsequent combustion of the pilot
and the gaseous fuel-air charge [34].
3.5. Effect of hydrogen on combustion duration
In a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, combustion duration decreases due
Fig. 12. Heat release rate diagram for conventional dual-fuel combustion [30].
to high flame velocity of hydrogen gaseous fuel. In addition, increasing
hydrogen energy share leads to enhanced reaction rate due to produc-
tion of high concentration of free radicals such as O, H, and OH at high
temperatures. Many studies reported the decreasing trend in combus-
tion duration with increasing hydrogen energy share in dual-fuel
engines [23,33,38]. For example, Liew et al. observed that at low load
(15%), no significant effect with addition of small amount of hydrogen
i.e., up to 4% volume and then increased with 5% hydrogen volume
onwards as seen in Fig. 17. However, at medium and high loads (30%
and 70% loads) the combustion duration decreased gradually with
increasing hydrogen volume share [33]. A drastic change in combus-
tion duration was also observed with the addition of 2% hydrogen at

Fig. 11. Difference between in-cylinder pressure curves at high and low loads [33].

478
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Fig. 13. Different components of energy release rate in a dual-fuel engine under (a) heavy load (b) light load conditions [34].

70% load (high load) [33]. However, at low load the combustion
duration increased drastically with high amount of hydrogen share
[33]. Similar decreasing trend for the combustion duration at high and
moderate loads in hydrogen dual-fuel engines were reported by other
researchers [23,38] (Fig. 17). On the contrary, Lata et al. reported a
fluctuating trend at lower load (10%) with increasing hydrogen volume
share under dual-fuel mode [38].

3.6. Effect of hydrogen on combustion efficiency

Reaction rate of any fuel can be determined using Arrhenius Eq.

(3). It is evident from the equation that fuel oxidation rate is directly
proportional to combustion temperature. This reaction rate increases
exponentially with increasing in-cylinder temperature during combus-
tion. As combustion temperature increases with increasing hydrogen
Fig. 15. Variation of in-cylinder temperature with respect to degree crank angle under
energy share, reaction rate increases exponentially resulting to sig-
dual-fuel mode [35].
nificant improvement in combustion efficiency. For example, the
combustion efficiency increased from 93.4% with 1% hydrogen volume
76 bar with 0% hydrogen energy share to about 80 bar with 12.5%
share to about 98% with 6% hydrogen volume share at 100% load as
hydrogen energy share as shown in Fig. 19[23]. Liew et al. observed an
shown in Fig. 18[33]. The similar trend of significant increase in the
insignificant influence with low amount of hydrogen substitution but
efficiency in a CI engine (7.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) under dual-
beyond 3.5% hydrogen volume share, the peak pressure increased
fuel mode was reported by the authors [14].
substantially [33]. The peak pressure increased from about 110 bar
RR=k1 × exp(−Ea / Ru T) × [Fuel]k2 × [Oxidizer]k3 (3) with 3.5% hydrogen volume share to about 121 bar with 6% hydrogen
volume share at 100% load [33]. However, the in-cylinder peak
Where, RR: Reaction rate, T: In-cylinder temperature, K, Ea: Activation
pressure decreased with increase in hydrogen substitution level at
energy, kJ, Ru: Universal gas constant, kJ/kg-mol K, k1, k2, k3:
20% and 40% loads as shown in Fig. 19 [20]. At 20% load, the pressure
Constants
decreased from 53.5 bar with 0% hydrogen mass share (base biodiesel
operation) to 49.5 bar with 29% hydrogen mass share under dual-fuel
3.7. Effect of hydrogen on in-cylinder peak pressure
mode [20].

In a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, in-cylinder peak pressure increases

with increasing amount of hydrogen substitution at high and medium 3.8. Effect of hydrogen on rate of pressure rise
loads where as it follows a reverse trend at low load [23,24,33]. For
example, Edwin et al. reported that the peak pressure increased from With increasing amount of hydrogen fuel substitution, rate of

Fig. 14. Heat release rate with respect to degree CA different loads [33].

479
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

pressure rise increases at higher loads whereas it decreases at lower

loads in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode. For example, Edwin et al.
found an increase in the maximum rate of pressure rise from about
5.2 bar/°CA with base diesel mode to about 6.1 bar/°CA with 12.5%
hydrogen energy share at 100% load (higher load) as shown in Fig. 20
[23]. However, the maximum rate of pressure rise decreased from
about 2.9 bar/°CA with base diesel mode to about 2.3 bar/°CA with
28% hydrogen energy share at 25% load (lower load) [23].

4. Effect of hydrogen usage on emission characteristics of

dual-fuel engines

Utilization of hydrogen in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode could

provide solutions to all carbon based emissions reduction including
CO, HC, CO2 and smoke/PM.

4.1. Effect of hydrogen on CO emission

Heywood stated that CO emission from internal combustion

Fig. 16. Ignition delay variation with respect to hydrogen fuel substitution at different
loads [37]. engines are primarily controlled by the air/fuel ratio of the mixture
in combustion chamber and in-cylinder temperature [39]. The CO

Fig. 17. Combustion duration variation with respect to hydrogen fuel substitution (a) from [33] (b) from [38] (c) from [23].

480
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Fig. 18. Combustion efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [33] (b) (a) from [14].

Fig. 19. In-cylinder peak pressure variation with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [23] (b) from [20].

Fig. 20. Maximum rate of pressure rise with respect to hydrogen energy share at different loads [23].

emission formation is promoted by fuel-rich mixture, and tends to
increase constantly with increase in the equivalence ratio. However, as
CI engines operate at lean mixtures, CO emission level will be low even
with base diesel operation. The CO emission further decreases in case
of hydrogen dual-fuel engines as the equivalence ratio decreases
significantly with hydrogen addition. The CO emission decreases
substantially at all loads with increasing amount of hydrogen substitu-
tion level. For example at 100% load, CO emission decreased from
3.14 g/kWh with base diesel mode (0% hydrogen energy share) to
2.31 g/kWhwith 10.1% hydrogen energy share under dual-fuel mode
[23]. Senthil Kumar et al. reported near zero CO emission with about
28% hydrogen mass share in a CI engine at 20%, 40% and 60% loads as
seen in Fig. 21[20]. Miyamoto et al. also reported the similar findings
of less CO emission about 3 g/kWh in a hydrogen based dual-fuel
engine [36]. The CO emission formed during the hydrocarbon combus-
tion mechanism is given by Eq. (4) [39].
RH→R→RO2→RCHO→RCO→CO (4)

481
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Fig. 21. Variation of emissions with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [20] (b) from [36].

The CO formed during the combustion via this route is then In case of hydrogen dual-fuel engines, this reaction rate increases
oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2) as given in Eq. (5). This reaction significantly due to increase in the combustion temperature, which
rate is dependent on the temperature exponentially as shown in Eq. (6). reduces CO emission level drastically.

482
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
CO+OH→CO2+H (5)
The rate constant for this reaction is
k f ,CO = 6.76 × 1010 exp(T /1102) (6)
Where, T: In-cylinder temperature, K; kf,CO: Reaction constant for CO
formation
4.2. Effect of hydrogen on HC emission
Formation of HC emission in CI engines is generally due to
incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon fuel. Various research
studies confirmed the significant reduction in HC emission in hydrogen
based dual-fuel engines at all loads [23,24,28,40]. For example, at
100% load, HC mass emission level decreased from 0.55 g/kWh to with
base diesel mode (0% hydrogen energy share) to 0.44 g/kWh with
10.1% hydrogen energy share under dual-fuel mode [23]. Senthil
Kumar et al. reported decrease in HC emission from 130 ppm and
40 ppm with 0% hydrogen mass share to 70 ppm and 20 ppm with 18%
hydrogen mass share in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode at 100% and
20% loads respectively (Fig. 21) [20]. The emission reduction could be
postulated that the increase in in-cylinder temperature due to rapid
and better combustion. Miyamoto et al. also reported the similar
findings of significant decrease in HC emission to about 1 g/kWh
(Fig. 21) [36].
4.3. Effect of hydrogen on NOx emission
In hydrogen based dual-fuel engines with increasing hydrogen
energy share, the NOx emission increases at high and medium loads
while decreases at low loads. For example, Senthil Kumar et al. found a
drastic increment in the NO emission at 100% load as shown in
Fig. 21[20]. The NO emission increased from about 740 ppm with base
diesel operation to about 930 ppm with 18% hydrogen mass share
(Fig. 21). However, at 20% and 40% loads, the effect of hydrogen
addition on the NO emission was insignificant [20]. Miyamoto et al.
reported a slight decrease in the NO emission with small amounts of
hydrogen addition and then a significant increase in the emission as
shown in Fig. 21(b) [36]. On the contrary, Dhole et al. reported
decrease in NOx emission from 1.8g/kW h without hydrogen to 0.67g/
kW h with 50% hydrogen volume substitution at 13% load in a direct
injection multi-cylinder CI engine [41]. This is due to increase in
fraction of H2O which decreases the cylinder peak temperature with
hydrogen addition [42]. However, at high load when more than 1% of
hydrogen was substituted, NOx emission increases as a result of faster
hydrogen combustion due to high diffusivity and the high flame speed
[43]. As the combustion of hydrogen is possible at a wide range of air
fuel ratios, the combustion of rich air-hydrogen mixture at high
temperatures creates an ideal environment for NOx emission formation
[30]. In case of variable speed engines, for a particular load and
hydrogen energy share, the NOx emission is higher with low speed than
high speed [44]. Although combustion temperature is increased with
hydrogen addition, the emission is lower at higher speeds due less
residence time. The summary of literature information on variation of
NOx emission from hydrogen dual-fuel engines is given in Table 2.
4.4. Effect of hydrogen on smoke/PM emission
Smoke emission in CI engines is mainly caused due to the
heterogeneous air-fuel mixture and it decreases significantly with
increase in degree of homogeneity in the air-fuel mixture. It generally
occurs at regions wherever the insufficient air/oxygen presents (for
oxidation) in the combustion chamber. If the air fuel ratio decreases,
the smoke emission may increase significantly. At high loads, the
smoke emission is high due to the fact that, rich mixture is supplied in
order to meet the high load demand. The smoke emission decreased
483
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
drastically to almost zero level with the addition of hydrogen in a CI
engine along with diesel fuel at all loads [32]. This could be postulated
that with addition of hydrogen gas, degree of homogeneity in the air
fuel mixture increases that leads to better combustion and low smoke
emission. The smoke emission decreased from 15.4% opacity with base
diesel mode to 3.8%opacity with dual-fuel mode (18.8% hydrogen
energy shares) at 100% load [32]. Similarly, Miyamoto et al. also
reported the similar findings of zero smoke emission with hydrogen
substitution in a CI engine (Fig. 21) [36]. The smoke/PM emission
formation is mainly due to rich mixture at local points (i.e., localized
rich mixture even though global lean mixture is available in CI
engines), heterogeneous combustion, lubricating oil, unburnt hydro-
carbons, and dominant diffusion combustion phase. With hydrogen
addition, the emission level decreased drastically due to improvement
in degree of homogeneity, reduction in hydrocarbons, and reduction in
diffusion combustion phase [36].
The smoke/soot emission of a dual-fuel engine is significantly lower
as compared to conventional base diesel mode particularly at high
loads. The emission increases drastically with increasing load in case of
base diesel mode whereas increasing load has no significant influence
on the emission in case of dual-fuel mode [52]. At equilibrium
condition, the smoke formation occurs when carbon to hydrogen ratio
(C/O) exceeds unity (Eq. (7)) [39]. The critical C/O ratio for the
emission formation decreases significantly with decreasing in-cylinder
temperature. As the hydrogen fuel has no carbon element, the
corresponding C/O ratio becomes zero and thus the fuel doesn't form
smoke emission in case of dedicated hydrogen fuelled internal combus-
tion engines. However, in a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, the emission
forms due to the oxidation of pilot diesel fuel. In the hydrogen dual-fuel
engine, C/O ratio may decrease significantly with decreasing diesel
fuel, which results in drastic reduction of the smoke emission.
CxHy+aO2→2a CO+(y/2) H2+(x−2a) Cs (7)
The corresponding equivalence ratio is given in Eq. (8).
⎛C⎞ y
Equivalence ratio, ∅ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ (1 + )
⎝O⎠ 4x (8)
Earlier experimental studies carried out on a CI engine by Heywood
revealed a fact that the most of the smoke/PM emission forms mainly
due to incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels [39].
Christodoulou and Megaritis reported mainly three reasons for
smoke/soot emission decrease; (i) reduction in carbon content in
diesel-hydrogen mixture (carbon is the main soot component), (ii)
enhancement in soot oxidation rate due to high in-cylinder tempera-
ture rise with hydrogen combustion, and (iii) enhancement in soot
oxidation due to increase in OH radicals with hydrogen-oxygen
reactions [44]. Tsolakis reported that total particle number and total
particle mass decreased from 0.55 cm−3 and 98.66 mg/cm3 with base
diesel mode to 0.37 cm−3 and 77.64 mg/cm3 with 20% hydrogen added
EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) in a 8.6 kW direct injection CI engine
under dual-fuel mode [53]. Research findings of Liew et al. also
confirms a significant reduction in PM emission with increasing
hydrogen volume share as shown in Fig. 22 [48]. A drastic reduction
in the emission from about 0.26 g/kWh with base diesel mode (0%
hydrogen volume share) to 0.06 g/kWh with 7% hydrogen volume
share under dual-fuel mode was observed at low load (10% load)
(Fig. 22) [48]. The addition of up to 2% hydrogen at 10% load reduced
the PM emission significantly but beyond 2% hydrogen the reduction
rate was relatively low as seen in Fig. 22 [48].
4.5. Effect of hydrogen on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
Utilization of hydrogen in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode is one
of the promising solutions to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
(carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)) at
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Table 2
Literature summary of NOx emission variation in hydrogen dual-fuel engines.

Reference Engine details Effect on NOx emission

Köse and Ciniviz [45]
Christodoulou and Megaritis [44]
Wu et al. [46]
Singh Yadav et al. [47]
Liew et al. [48]
Liew et al. [49]
Liu et al. [50]
Rahul Banerjee and Bose[51]
Nc=4, CR=17:1, P=58 kW@2250 rpm
Nc=4, CR=18.2:1, Engine capacity=1998.23 cc
Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW@2400 rpm
Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.5 kW@1500 rpm
Nc=6, CR=16:1, P=265 kW@1800 rpm
Nc=6, CR=16.5:1, P=276 kW@2100 rpm
Nc=6, P=276 kW@2100 rpm
Engine capacity=10.8 L
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=5.2 kW@1500 rpm
• Increased from 2200 ppm without H to 2900 ppm with 7.5% H at 2200 rpm
• Decreased
2 2
from 1370 ppm without H to 1010 ppm with 7.5% H at 1000 rpm
• Increased
2 2
about 29% with 25.3% H at 5 bar BMEP and 2500 rpm
•1. Decreased
2
Insignificant effect at low load and speed
about 59.5% with 20% H +40% EGR at 60% load
2
1. Increased from 440 ppm without H2 to 470 ppm with 0.04 kg/h H2 at 80% load and
1500 rpm
• At low load, the addition of H2 had mild effect
• At medium to high loads, the addition of a small amount of H2 ( < 3–5%) slightly
reduced
• At high load, significantly increased with the addition of 4% volume of H2
• Increased from 4.8g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 6.4g/kW h with 6% volume at 70%
load and 1200 rpm
• Decreased from 7g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 0.8g/kW h with 6% volume at 10%
load and 1200 rpm
• Increased from 4.57g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 5.28g/kW h with 4% volume at
70% load
• Decreased from 5.6g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 1.8g/kW h with 6% volume at 15%
load
Increased from 810 ppm without H2 to 1211 ppm with 0.15 kg/h H2 flow rate at 80%
load

volume share Fig. 23[48]. Korakianitis et al. reported that CO2

emission in a 11 kW rated power CI engine decreased from 190 g/
kWh with base biodiesel mode to 104 g/kWh with hydrogen-biodiesel
dual-fuel mode (hydrogen consumption: 0.0005 kg/s) [54]. Similarly,
Miyamoto et al. found a significant reduction in CO2 emission from
688 g/kWh with base diesel mode to 425 g/kWh with hydrogen dual-
fuel mode (10% hydrogen energy share) [36]. Methane emission is one
of the GHG emissions that have higher global warming potential of 25
than CO2 emission. Few studies were available on formation of CH4
emission in CI engines. The research findings of Subramanian and
Chintala indicate the CH4 emission reduction about 22% with use of
hydrogen (20% energy share) in a biodiesel fuelled CI engine [35]. The
future emission regulation for CI (compression ignition) engines
targets CO2 (Carbon dioxide) emission reduction along with other
regulated emissions (CO, HC, NOx and PM).
Fig. 22. Variation of PM emission with respect to hydrogen volume share [48].

5. Concluding remarks of hydrogen dual-fuel engines

A literature summary of performance, combustion and emission

characteristics of hydrogen dual-fuel engines at different loads is given
in Table 3. It could be concluded from the table that the utilization of
hydrogen in CI engines under dual-fuel mode yields both the benefits of
thermal efficiency improvement and emissions (carbon based) reduc-
tion significantly.

6. Review on research challenges for hydrogen dual-fuel

operation

Hydrogen based dual-fuel engines offer significant benefits includ-

Fig. 23. CO2 emission variation with respect to hydrogen volume share [48].
source level. Subramanian et al. addressed the control strategies for
GHG emissions mitigation through fuel economy improvement, utili-
zation of alternative fuels, improvement in traffic management system,
and system weight reduction [35]. The findings of Liew et al. reveals
drastic reduction in CO2 emission at all loads (low, moderate and high
loads) as shown in Fig. 23 [48]. For example at 10% load, CO2 emission
decreased from about 920 g/kWh with base diesel operation (0%
hydrogen volume share) to about 240 g/kWh with 7.5% hydrogen
ing high thermal efficiency, high combustion efficiency, high degree of
constant volume combustion, less combustion irreversibility, and near
zero carbon based emissions (HC, CO, CO2 and PM) [2]. However, the
dual-fuel technology has the following major research challenges for its
effective implementation in future emerging energy systems.
6.1. High levels of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission
In hydrogen dual fuel engines, combustion with hydrogen produces
high in-cylinder temperature which is favourable for NOx emission
formation. At high combustion temperature, nitrogen present in the
air-fuel mixture inside engine cylinder could easily react with oxygen
and leads to drastic increase in the emission. Ultra-lean combustion

484
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Table 3 sections.
Summary of effects of hydrogen on performance, combustion and emission character-
istics of dual-fuel engines.
6.2. Knocking at high amount of hydrogen substitution
Description of the With increasing H2 With increasing H2
parameter energy share at higher energy share at
and moderate loads lower loads Maximum hydrogen energy share in a dual-fuel engine is typically
restricted by onset of knocking. Knocking could be defined as abnormal
Thermal efficiency Increases (higher than base Decreases
combustion phenomenon which constraints the improvement in engine
diesel mode)
Exergy efficiency • Increases at higher load Fluctuating trend performance. Knocking combustion could be detected in several ways
• Fluctuating trend at such as in-cylinder pressure based detection, cylinder block vibration
moderate loads measurement, acoustic wave measurement analysis, heat transfer
Volumetric efficiency Decreases Decreases based analysis, etc. Both rate of pressure rise (RPR) and heat release
Exhaust gas temperature Increases Increases
rate together can be used for an analysis of the knock tendency in a CI
In-cylinder pressure and Increases Decreases
in-cylinder peak engine [55]. Torregrosa supported the fact that the knocking combus-
pressure tion in a CI engine is directly proportional to its maximum rate of
In-cylinder temperature Increases Decreases pressure rise [56]. If a CI engine operates with knocking, the engine
and in-cylinder peak
gets severe damage including breakage of piston rings, piston melting,
temperature
Start of combustion Advances Retards and erosion of cylinder head. So, CI engines typically operate with less
Heat release rate Increases Decreases hydrogen energy share for knock prevention in the engine. A suitable
Ignition delay Decreases/fluctuating trend Fluctuating trend technology needs to be identified and assessed for substitution of high
Combustion duration Decreases Increases hydrogen energy share in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode for knock
Combustion efficiency Increases Decreases
free operation.
Rate of pressure rise Increases Decreases
HC emission Decreases Decreases It may be noted that the primary requirement of any gaseous fuel
CO emission Decreases Decreases for dual-fuel engines is that the gaseous fuel-air mixture would not
Smoke/PM emission Decreases Decreases autoignite spontaneously [34]. Failing to do so can lead to the onset of
CO2 emission Decreases Decreases
knock, high rate of pressure rise, high peak pressure and overheating of
NOx emission Increases Increases
the cylinder walls. The knock limited power output of a dual-fuel
engine with any gaseous fuel and pilot liquid fuel setting has been
(i.e., pi≤0.5), which is identical with low temperature combustion, is an shown to deteriorate logarithmically with the inverse of the intake
effective means for minimizing NOx emissions in CI engines [43]. absolute temperature [34]. Hydrogen addition in a CI engine leads to
Various NOx emission reduction technologies such as exhaust gas production of knocking or detonation because of its lower ignition
recirculation (EGR), water injection, homogeneous charge compression energy, wider flammability range, and shorter quenching distance [57].
ignition (HCCI) and injection time retarding etc. are reported in With hydrogen fuel, knocking problem could occur not only at the end
literature. An engine with EGR could reduce NOx emission because it stage of combustion as is typical for gasoline engines but also at earlier
dilutes the intake air and lowers the combustion temperature with the stages [58–61]. Heavier knocking occurs when hydrogen is self-ignited,
penalty of lower volumetric efficiency and power output. It also unlike hydrogen burning under controlled ignition [31,61]. Chintala
increases smoke/PM emission; hence, it may not be viable option for and Subramanian found an occurrence of autoignition of hydrogen-air
NOx reduction in hydrogen dual-fuel engines. Therefore, other alter- charge at a higher hydrogen energy share of 18.8% in a CI engine as
natives such as water injection and HCCI mode operations are focused shown in Fig. 24[14].
in this study and brief literature review of these topics are given in next Szwaja et al. investigated on a CI engine (swept volume: 1.65 l and
compression ratio: 17:1) under (i) HCCI (homogeneous charge com-

Fig. 24. Autoignition of hydrogen-air mixture at higher hydrogen energy share [14].

485
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Fig. 25. High frequency component of in-cylinder pressure with respect to degree CA [31].

Fig. 26. Maximum limit of hydrogen energy shares in dual-fuel engines (a) from [31] (b) from [14] (c) from [24].

pression ignition) mode with 100% hydrogen and (ii) dual-fuel mode
with varying hydrogen energy share [31]. They expressed the knocking
tendency in terms of high frequency component of in-cylinder pressure
(HFCP) for three modes (diesel mode, dual-fuel mode, and pure
hydrogen mode) as shown in Fig. 25 [31]. The HFCPs were measured
from the in-cylinder pressure after applying a band-pass (3–15 kHz)
Butterworth digital filter from Matlab signal processing tools [31]. It
could be concluded from the figure that the frequency fluctuation
component amplitude varies significantly with increase in hydrogen
energy share. Neat hydrogen mode (HCCI mode) is characterized by a

486
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

relatively ultra-high amplitude of the HFCP, which reaches 4 MPa [31].
With reference to higher mean peak pressure about 250 kPa (mean
peak pressure for 120 HFCPs) and lambda approaches to 1 (which
promotes to knock), they concluded that about 17% hydrogen energy
share was the maximum limit in the engine at rated load (with base
compression ratio of 17:1) as shown in Fig. 26 [31]. Similarly, Chintala
and Subramanian reported the knocking tendency in a hydrogen based
dual-fuel engine (7.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm with compression
ratio of 19.5:1) in terms of ringing intensity (Fig. 26) [14]. The ringing
intensity was increased radically with increasing hydrogen energy
share. With base compression ratio and at 100% load, the ringing
intensity reached to 4.9 MW/m2 (Upper limit: 5 MW/m2) with about
19% hydrogen energy share. So they concluded in their investigation
that about 19% hydrogen share was the maximum amount that could
be substituted in the engine for knock free operation at 100% load
(with base compression ratio of 19.5:1) [14]. However, the knock
limited hydrogen energy share was enhanced with reduction of
compression ratio as seen in the figure. Many other research studies
also confirm that the knocking problem in a dual-fuel engine gets
rapidly intensified with increase in compression ratio of the engine
[59,62]. Varde and Frame in their experimental study on a CI engine
(single cylinder direct injection engine with compression ratio of
17.4:1), measured acoustic noise levels in the test cell at two different
locations, about two meters from the engine. The noise level increased
drastically from about 99 dB with 6% hydrogen energy share to about
107 dB with 14% hydrogen energy share (Fig. 26). It could be observed
that the acoustic noise level increased sharply when the fuel mixture
contained more than 11% of hydrogen energy, as shown in Fig. 26 [24].
6.3. A limited hydrogen energy share
Hydrogen based dual-fuel engines suffer a major obstacle of limited
hydrogen energy substitution. The details of literature review on the
maximum amount of hydrogen utilized in CI engines under dual-fuel
mode are given in Table 4. It could be observed from the table that the
maximum hydrogen energy share achieved at high loads is in the range
of 6–25%. However, this energy share could further increased to 30%
at low loads. It may be noted that the engine loading is a predominant
factor that affects the hydrogen substitution levels. At low and medium
loads higher amounts of hydrogen could be substituted than at high
loads [2]. For example, the hydrogen energy share increased from
18.8% at 100% load to 48.4% at 50% load in a direct injection CI engine
[2]. High amounts of hydrogen supply to CI engines under dual-fuel
mode create several problems including abnormal rate of pressure rise,
high in-cylinder peak pressure, too advanced combustion, high in-
cylinder peak temperature, autoignition of premixed hydrogen-air
charge, and loss of available work due to advanced combustion
[27,36,63,64]. Miyamoto reported autoignition of hydrogen-air charge
for a higher hydrogen fraction than 8% volume in a diesel-hydrogen
dual-fuel engine [36]. Similarly spontaneous autoignition of air-
gaseous fuel (propane) was found in a diesel-propane dual-fuel engine
due to its high reactivity nature like hydrogen fuel [64]. Wong and
Karim stated reasons for autoignition of hydrogen-air charge are due to
high polytropic index of hydrogen, higher in-cylinder temperature, and
increasing preignition chemical reactions [63]. Selim, in his experi-
mental investigation, found that the increasing mass of gaseous fuel
(Liquefied Petroleum Gas/Methane/ Natural gas) leads to significant
increase in the maximum rate of pressure rise in a single cylinder
variable compression indirect injection CI engine (Ricardo E6: 9 kW
rated power) [65]. He also concluded that the gaseous fuel existing in
the combustion chamber could be more susceptible to autoignite with
increasing in-cylinder temperature. The autoignition of premixed
hydrogen-air (in the intake manifold) problem is more susceptible
with manifold injection method; however, this problem could be
avoided/reduced with the use of port injection method. With port
injection of hydrogen, the start of combustion timing may control as
per desirable degrees CA which allows slight improvement in hydrogen
substitution as compared to manifold injection strategy. However, the
detailed comparative analysis between intake manifold and intake port
injection strategies under dual-fuel mode needs to be investigated in
future.
From the literature review it is observed that the aforementioned
triple problems (research challenges) could be addressed using low
temperature combustion strategies. A number of specific strategies
including HCCI/PHCCI (partial homogeneous charge compression
ignition) [27], water injection [73], compression ratio reduction [14],

Table 4
Literature summary of the maximum hydrogen energy share in hydrogen dual-fuel engines.

Reference Engine details Strategy used Amount of H2 substitution

Saravanan et al. [18]
Edwin et al. [23]
Mathur et al. [66]
de Morais et al. [29]
Nguyen and Mikami [67]
Bose et al. [68]
Yadav et al. [26]
Christodoulou and Megaritis [44]
Dhole et al. [41]
Wu H-W and Wu Z-Y [25]
Saravanan et al. [69]
Wu H-W and Wu Z-Y [70]
Adnan et al. [71]
Buomsik Shin et al. [72]
Miyamoto et al. [36]
Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.7 kW@
1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4.4 kW @
1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4 kW @ 1500 rpm
Nc=4, CR=17:1, P=49 kW@1800 rpm
Nc=1, CR=16.7:1, P=5 kW@1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=5.9 kW@
1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4.4 kW@
1500 rpm
Nc=4, CR=18.2:1, P=55 kW@1500 rpm
Nc=4, CR=17.5:1, P=62.5 kW@
1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW@2400 rpm
Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.7 kW@
1500 rpm
Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW @2400 rpm
Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=7.4 kW@
3600 rpm
Nc=4, CR=17.3:1, P=107 kW @
4000 rpm
Nc=1, CR=16.7:1, Engine capacity=551
cc
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
Continuous manifold
induction
Timed port injection
Timed port injection
Timed port injection
Timed port injection
Timed manifold injection
Timed manifold injection
6.7% energy share at 100% load
12.7% energy share at 100% load
14.8% energy share at 100% load (without power loss)
20% energy share at 80% load
10% volume of intake air (or) 15% energy share (approx.) at
100% load
H2 flow rate of 0.15 kg/h (or)17.6% energy share (approx.) at
100% load
16.4% energy share at 100% load
8% volume of intake air (or) 12.8% energy share (approx.) at
100% load
25% energy share at 80% load
30% energy share at 30% load
10% energy share at 100% load
20% energy share at 60% load
A constant flow rate of 5 lpm (or) 11.5% energy share (approx.)
at 100% load
10% energy share at low load (11.8 kW) and 1500 rpm
10% volume share at high load and 16% volume at lower load

487
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
retarded injection timing of liquid fuel (pilot fuel) [32], lowering the
intake air and water jacket temperatures [34], use of high cetane
number pilot fuel [32], and EGR could be used to enhance the
hydrogen energy share and reduce the NOx emission in a dual-fuel
engine. The literature review on the strategies used for hydrogen
energy share enhancement is described in Section 7.
7. Review on strategies used for enhancement of hydrogen
energy share
Detailed literature information on PHCCI strategy, water injection,
and compression ratio reduction in hydrogen based dual fuel engines is
given in this section.
7.1. Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition (PHCCI)
strategy
Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition (PHCCI) mode is
a low temperature combustion strategy, generally used for simulta-
neous reduction of NOx and PM emissions. For instance, Arjan and
Ingemar reported 98% reduction in NOx emission and 95% reduction
in smoke emission in diesel HCCI mode as compared to the conven-
tional diesel combustion mode [74]. Increasing quantity of premixed
charge increases the degree of homogeneity or reduces degree of
heterogeneity resulting in simultaneous reduction of both the emis-
sions. With high quantity of premixed charge, NOx emission decreases
due to reduction in localized in-cylinder temperature during the
combustion, whereas the PM emission decreases due to high degree
of homogeneity. Saxena and Bedoya concluded that the diesel engines
with high quantity of premixed charge would lead to low temperature
combustion resulting in reduction in NOx and PM emissions [75].
From the literature survey, it is found that very few studies were
reported on utilization of gaseous fuels along with liquid diesel fuel for
PHCCI/HCCI operation. For example, Chintala and Subramanian
conducted experiments on a CI engine with PHCCI strategy for
enhancing the amount of hydrogen substitution level [27]. The hydro-
gen energy share increased from 18.8% hydrogen energy share (total
premixed charge energy (TPE): 25.4%) with conventional hydrogen
dual fuel mode to 24.4% (TPE: 56.4%) with PHCCI dual fuel mode
[27]. Homogeneous premixed charge which comprises of diesel,
hydrogen, and air was prepared using hydrogen manifold injection
and diesel split injection (port and direct injections) [27]. The total
premixed charge energy (TPE) supplied to the engine was classified
into three modes; (i) energy supplied by diesel direct injection (DI), (ii)
energy supplied by diesel port injection (PI), and (iii) energy supplied
by hydrogen manifold injection (MI). The percentage of total premixed
charge energy (TPE) was determined using Eqs. (9–12) [27].
E premixed,DI + E premixed,PI + E premixed,MI
TPE =
h diesel (ṁ premixed,DI + ṁ diesel,PI) + (ṁhydrogen,MI ×hhydrogen)
Where TPE: total premixed charge energy, %
E premixed,DI = Calorific Valuediesel ṁ premixed,DI , kW
E premixed,PI = Calorific Valuediesel ×ṁ diesel,PI ,kW
E premixed,MI = Calorific Value hydrogen ×ṁ hydrogen,MI ,kW
Increasing the premixed charge quantity either by additional fuel
like hydrogen (diesel-hydrogen) or increasing mixture preparation time
by injecting some portion of diesel fuel during suction stroke (some
diesel portion by auxiliary injection and remaining portion by main
injection) would lead to PHCCI mode. Some studies on the simulta-
neous utilization of two different fuels under dual-fuel PHCCI opera-
tion were reported in the literature. Utilization of gaseous fuels
including natural gas and hydrogen along with diesel under dual-fuel
mode would enhance the premixed charge energy significantly. Under
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
dual-fuel PHCCI operation, homogeneous premixed charge could be
prepared by using direct and port injections to control the ignition
timing and heat release rate during the combustion [76]. Ibrahim and
Ramesh studied the performance, emission and combustion character-
istics of a hydrogen-diesel HCCI engine (3.7 kW at 1500 rpm). They
reported the increase in thermal efficiency from 30.2% with diesel-
HCCI mode to 31.9% with hydrogen-diesel HCCI mode at 4 bar brake
mean effective pressure [77].
7.2. Water injection strategy for CI engines
Water addition into a CI engine is the most effective means for
reducing the in-cylinder temperature reduction as it cools thermal
sources of ignition as well as reduces the chemical reaction rate. The
capability of water to absorb heat of combustion specifically at high
temperature range reduces the temperature of combustion products
[73]. This reduction in the in-cylinder temperature could help to
enhance the hydrogen energy share in CI engines. Water addition into
a hydrogen based dual fuel engine reduces the chances of back firing,
knocking tendency in the engine. Prabhukumar et al. inducted water
along with the intake charge of a hydrogen dual-fuel engine. Water
injection into a dual fuel engine via intake manifold along with
hydrogen, increases the knock limited power output as it significantly
decreases the unburned mixture temperature [78]. Some other re-
searchers investigated on a CI engine gen-set system under hydrogen
dual-fuel mode using diluents such as helium, nitrogen and water [79].
They found that hydrogen could be substituted for diesel fuel up to 38%
of full-load energy with no penalty of efficiency and power output.
However, they succeeded up to 66% hydrogen energy substitution
along with water injection for smooth knock free engine operation and
drastic reduction of exhaust smoke and NOx emissions. Similarly,
Chintala and Subramanian reported the improvement in hydrogen
energy share from 20% without water 39% with specific water
consumption of 270 g/kWh in a biodiesel-hydrogen dual fuel engine
(7.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) [40].
Water addition into CI engines could also decrease NOx emission
significantly due to reduction localized in-cylinder temperature. For
example, Subramanian reported that the injection of water in a DI
diesel engine using timed manifold injection system decreases NO
emission significantly from 1034 ppm with base diesel to 643 ppm with
water injection at 100% load operation [80]. Tauzia et al. investigated
the effect of water (as vapour and as liquid) injection on ignition delay,
rate of heat release and emission of an automotive turbocharged direct
injection diesel engine [81]. They utilized the water mass of about 60–
65% of the fuel and achieved 50% NOx reduction. Tesfa et al. used
manifold water injection system to reduce the problem of high NOx
emission from a biodiesel fuelled CI engine [82]. It was reported that
water injection of 3 kg/h resulted in NOx reduction by 50% without
deteriorating engine performance due to reduction in premixed
×100
(9) combustion temperature. However, HC, CO and smoke emissions
increased with increase in water content with intake air [83]. Gonca
reported about 34% reduction in NO emission with supply of the
(10) optimum steam rate i.e., 20% of injected fuel by mass in a 13 kW direct
injection diesel engine [84]. From the literature survey, it is emerged
(11) that water addition into a CI engine could increase hydrogen energy
share and decrease the NOx emission drastically due to occurrence of
(12)
low temperature combustion.
7.3. Compression ratio (CR) reduction
A very few studies on influence of compression ratio on hydrogen
energy share improvement in diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engines are
available. For example, Masood et al. reported an increment in the
amount of hydrogen substitution from 0.096 kg/h with 24.5:1 com-
pression ratio to 0.138 kg/h with 16.35:1 compression ratio in a
hydrogen fuelled dual-fuel engine [19]. Similarly, Chintala and
488
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491

Table 5 kWh[73]. A literature summary on performance, combustion and

Comparative summary of water injection and compression ratio reduction strategies emission characteristics of dual-fuel engines with compression ratio
under dual-fuel mode at high load condition [14,40].
reduction and water injection strategies is given in Table 5.
Description of the Conventional Water CR reduction
parameter dual-fuel mode addition strategy 8. Conclusions
strategy
The following conclusions are drawn based on the literature
Thermal efficiency Increases Decreases Decreases
In-cylinder pressure Increases Decreases Decreases information related to hydrogen based dual-fuel engines.
and in-cylinder
peak pressure
In-cylinder Increases Decreases Decreases
• With increasing hydrogen energy share in a dual-fuel engine,
thermal efficiency of the engine increases significantly at high and
temperature and
moderate loads whereas the efficiency decreases at low loads.
•
in-cylinder peak
temperature As hydrogen is carbon free energy carrier, all carbon based emis-
Start of combustion Advances Retards Retards sions such as hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
Heat release rate Increases Decreases Decreases dioxide (CO2), and smoke/particulate matter in diesel engines under
Ignition delay Decreases Increases Increases
dual-fuel mode decreases substantially at all loads.
Combustion duration
Rate of pressure rise
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases • Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission increases drastically with hydro-
HC emission Decreases Increases Increases gen addition in a dual-fuel engine at high and moderate loads due to
CO emission Decreases Increases Increases high in-cylinder temperature.
Smoke emission
NOx emission
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
• In-cylinder pressure and in-cylinder temperature increases signifi-
cantly with increase in hydrogen energy share in a dual-fuel engine
at high and moderate loads.
Subramanian reported a significant improvement in hydrogen energy • Start of combustion in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode advances
share from about 19% with compression ratio of 19.5:1 to 59% with with increase in amount of hydrogen substitution. Beyond a critical
compression ratio of 16.5:1 in a hydrogen dual fuel engine (7.4 kW energy share of hydrogen, autoignition of premixed hydrogen-air
rated power at 1500 rpm) [14,73]. With increase in compression ratio mixture could occur that may result in combustion with knocking.
of a diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engine (3.7 kW at 1500 rpm) from • High levels of NOx emission, abnormal combustion at high hydrogen
16.35:1 to 24.5:1, the percentage increase in the in-cylinder peak energy shares, and limited hydrogen energy share are the major
pressure, thermal efficiency and NOx emission were reported about triple problems associated with hydrogen dual-fuel operation.
42%, 27% and 38% at 100% load [19]. Similarly, with the same engine • The aforementioned triple problems could be resolved by low
operating conditions, the percentage reduction in HC, CO, and PM temperature combustion strategies including water injection and
emissions were about 17%, 21%, and 16% [19]. Britto and Martins reduction of compression ratio of the engine.
carried out investigations on a variable compression ratio CI engine
under diesel-ethanol dual-fuel mode [85]. They conducted the tests References
with three different compression ratios (14:1, 16:1, and 17:1) and
found that the compression ratio of 16:1 was the optimum for higher [1] EU CO2 Emission standards for passenger cars and light-commercial vehicles,
Policy Update. International Council on Clean Transportation. 〈http://www.theicct.
ethanol substitution (greater than 50% energy share) based on knock- org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCTupdate_EU-95gram_jan2014.pdf〉;
ing limits. Bora et al. in their experimental investigation, reduced the January 2014 [accessed 03.0315].
compression ratio of a CI engine (3.5 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) [2] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. Assessment of maximum available work of a
hydrogen fueled compression ignition engine using exergy analysis. Energy
from 18:1 to 16:1 under diesel-biogas dual-fuel mode [86]. Their 2014;67:162–75.
results indicated that the maximum replacement of the biogas at 100% [3] Regulations and Standards: Light-Duty (Transportation and Climate). US
load was about 79.5%, 76.1%, 74% and 72% (on volume basis) at Environmental Protection Agency. 〈http://www3.epa.gov/otaq/climate/regs-light-
duty.htm〉 [accessed 03.03.15].
compression ratios of 18:1, 17.5:1, 17:1 and 16:1 respectively. At 100% [4] Vehicle emission tests: beyond the VW case. European Parliamentary Research
load, the efficiency of the engine under dual-fuel mode decreased from Service (EPRS). 〈http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2015/
20.04% with compression ratio of 18:1 to 18.25%, 17.07% and 16.42% 568355/EPRS_ATA(2015)568355_EN.pdf〉; October 2015 [accessed 12.06.15].
[5] Fayaz H, Saidur R, Razali N, Anuar FS, Saleman AR, Islam MR. An overview of
with compression ratio of 17.5:1, 17:1 and 16:1. This is due to hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(8):5511–28.
reduction in combustion efficiency and in-cylinder temperature with [6] Babu MKG, Subramanian KA. Alternative transportation fuels, utilisation in
reduction of compression ratio [86]. With increase in compression combustion engines. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2013.
[7] Salvi BL, Subramanian KA. Sustainable development of road transportation sector
ratio of the engine from 16:1 to 18:1, they found the percentage
using hydrogen energy system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51:1132–55.
decrease in HC and CO emissions was about 42% and 27% and the [8] Mathai R, Malhotra RK, Subramanian KA, Das LM. Comparative evaluation of
percentage increase in NOx and CO2 emissions was about 67% and 28% performance, emission, lubricant and deposit characteristics of spark ignition
[86]. It is also observed that compression ratio of any dual-fuel CI engine fueled with CNG and 18% hydrogen-CNG. Int J Hydrog Energy
2012;37(8):6893–900.
engine was increased to enhance the engine performance. However, for [9] Subramanian KA, Singal SK, Saxena M, Singhal S. Utilization of liquid biofuels in
enhancement of hydrogen energy share, compression ratio of the automotive diesel engines: an Indian perspective. Biomass Bioenergy
engine needs to be reduced in order to bring down the in-cylinder 2005;29(1):65–72.
[10] National Hydrogen Energy Road Map - 2006 (Abridged Version, 2007). National
temperature and to increase knocking resistance. hydrogen energy board, ministry of new and renewable energy government of
Combined use of compression ratio reduction and water injection India. 2007.
strategies in a CI engine under dual fuel mode could yield a maximum [11] Indian Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu has Launched First CNG Train [press
release]. Indian Railways. 〈http://www.railwayindia.co.in/
benefit of hydrogen energy share enhancement. Chintala and indianrailwayministersureshprabhuhaslaunchedfirstcngtrain.html〉,[accessed 24.
Subramanian analysed the combined effect of compression ratio 01.15]; 2015.
reduction and water injection on enhancement of hydrogen energy [12] Cummins Dual Fuel Engines. 〈http://cumminsengines.com/dual-fuel〉 [accessed 5.
05.15.
share in a hydrogen based dual fuel engine [73]. They found a [13] Demonstration of Caterpillar C-10 Dual-Fuel Engines in MCI 102DL3 Commuter
significant enhancement of hydrogen energy share from about 19% Buses, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-540-26758. 〈http://
with conventional dual fuel mode (base compression ratio of 19.5:1) to www.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/26758.pdf〉 [accessed 26.01.15.
[14] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. Experimental investigations on effect of different
about 79% with CR of 16.5:1 and water consumption of 340 g/
compression ratios on enhancement of maximum hydrogen energy share in a

489
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
compression ignition engine under dual-fuel mode. Energy 2015;87:448–62.
[15] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. A CFD (computational fluid dynamics) study for
optimization of gas injector orientation for performance improvement of a dual-fuel
diesel engine. Energy 2013;57:709–21.
[16] Das LM. Fuel induction techniques for a hydrogen operated engine. Int J Hydrog
Energy 1990;15(11):833–42.
[17] Haragopala Rao B. Hydrogen for dual fuel engine operation. Int J Hydrog Energy
1983;8(5):381–4.
[18] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. An experimental investigation on manifold-injected
hydrogen as a dual fuel for diesel engine system with different injection duration.
Int J Energy Res 2009;33(15):1352–66.
[19] Masood M, Mehdi SN, Ram Reddy P. Experimental investigations on a hydrogen-
diesel dual fuel engine at different compression ratios. J Eng Gas Turbines Power
2007;129(2):572.
[20] Senthil Kumar M. Use of hydrogen to enhance the performance of a vegetable oil
fuelled compression ignition engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2003;28:1143–54.
[21] Lata DB, Misra A. Theoretical and experimental investigations on the performance
of dual fuel diesel engine with hydrogen and LPG as secondary fuels. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2010;35(21):11918–31.
[22] Santoso WB, Bakar RA, Nur A. Combustion characteristics of diesel-hydrogen dual
fuel engine at low load. Energy Procedia 2013;32:3–10.
[23] Edwin Geo V, Nagarajan G, Nagalingam B. Studies on dual fuel operation of rubber
seed oil and its bio-diesel with hydrogen as the inducted fuel. Int J Hydrog Energy
2008;33(21):6357–67.
[24] Varde K, Frame G. Hydrogen aspiration in a direct injection type diesel engine-its
effects on smoke and other engine performance parameters. Int J Hydrog Energy
1983;8(7):549–55.
[25] Wu H-W, Wu Z-Y. Using Taguchi method on combustion performance of a diesel
engine with diesel/biodiesel blend and port-inducting H2. Appl Energy
2013;104:362–70.
[26] Yadav VS, Soni SL, Sharma D. Engine performance of optimized hydrogen-fueled
direct injection engine. Energy 2014;65:116–22.
[27] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. Experimental investigation on effect of enhanced
premixed charge on combustion characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine.
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math 2014;6(1–2):3–16.
[28] Bose PK, Maji D. An experimental investigation on engine performance and
emissions of a single cylinder diesel engine using hydrogen as inducted fuel and
diesel as injected fuel with exhaust gas recirculation. Int J Hydrog Energy
2009;34(11):4847–54.
[29] de Morais AM, Mendes Justino MA, Valente OS, Hanriot SdM, Sodré JR. Hydrogen
impacts on performance and CO2 emissions from a diesel power generator. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2013;38(16):6857–64.
[30] Wagemakers AMLM, Leermakers CAJ. Review on the effects of dual-fuel operation,
using diesel and gaseous fuels, on emissions and performance. SAE Int 2012, SAE
no. 2012-01-0869.
[31] Szwaja S, Grab-Rogalinski K. Hydrogen combustion in a compression ignition
diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34(10):4413–21.
[32] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. An effort to enhance hydrogen energy share in a
compression ignition engine under dual-fuel mode using low temperature com-
bustion strategies. Appl Energy 2015;146:174–83.
[33] Liew C, Li H, Nuszkowski J, Liu S, Gatts T, Atkinson R, et al. An experimental
investigation of the combustion process of a heavy-duty diesel engine enriched with
H2. Int J Hydrog Energy 2010;35(20):11357–65.
[34] Karim GA. Combustion in gas fueled compression ignition engines of the dual fuel
type. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2003;125(3):827.
[35] Subramanian KA, Chintala V. Reduction of GHGs emissions in a biodiesel fueled
diesel engine using hydrogen. In: ASME 2013 internal combustion engine fall
technical conference; October 13–16; Dearborn: Michigan. Paper no. ICEF2013-
19133, http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ICEF2013-19133http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/
ICEF2013-19133〉; 2013.
[36] Miyamoto T, Hasegawa H, Mikami M, Kojima N, Kabashima H, Urata Y. Effect of
hydrogen addition to intake gas on combustion and exhaust emission character-
istics of a diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36(20):13138–49.
[37] Lata DB, Misra A. Analysis of ignition delay period of a dual fuel diesel engine with
hydrogen and LPG as secondary fuels. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36(5):3746–56.
[38] Lata DB, Misra A, Medhekar S. Investigations on the combustion parameters of a
dual fuel diesel engine with hydrogen and LPG as secondary fuels. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2011;36(21):13808–19.
[39] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engines fundamentals. New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc.; 1988.
[40] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. Hydrogen energy share improvement along with NOx
(oxides of nitrogen) emission reduction in a hydrogen dual-fuel compression
ignition engine using water injection. Energy Convers Manag 2014;83:249–59.
[41] Dhole AE, Yarasu RB, Lata DB, Priyam A. Effect on performance and emissions of a
dual fuel diesel engine using hydrogen and producer gas as secondary fuels. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2014;39(15):8087–97.
[42] Sukjit E, Herreros JM, Dearn KD, Tsolakis A, Theinnoi K. Effect of hydrogen on
butanol–biodiesel blends in compression ignition engines. Int J Hydrog Energy
2013;38(3):1624–35.
[43] White CM, Steeper RR, Lutz AE. The hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine:
a technical review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2006;31(10):1292–305.
[44] Christodoulou F, Megaritis A. Experimental investigation of the effects of separate
hydrogen and nitrogen addition on the emissions and combustion of a diesel
engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38(24):10126–40.
[45] Köse H, Ciniviz M. An experimental investigation of effect on diesel engine
performance and exhaust emissions of addition at dual fuel mode of hydrogen. Fuel
490
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Process Technol 2013;114:26–34.
[46] Wu H-W, Wu Z-Y. Investigation on combustion characteristics and emissions of
diesel/hydrogen mixtures by using energy-share method in a diesel engine. Appl
Therm Eng 2012;42:154–62.
[47] SinghYadav V, Soni SL, Sharma D. Performance and emission studies of direct
injection C.I. engine in duel fuel mode (hydrogen-diesel) with EGR. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2012;37(4):3807–17.
[48] Liew C, Li H, Liu S, Besch MC, Ralston B, Clark N, et al. Exhaust emissions of a H2-
enriched heavy-duty diesel engine equipped with cooled EGR and variable
geometry turbocharger. Fuel 2012;91(1):155–63.
[49] Liew C, Li H, Gatts T, Liu S, Xu S, Rapp B, et al. An experimental investigation of
exhaust emissions of a 1999 Cummins ISM370 diesel engine supplemented with
H2. International. J Engine Res 2012;13(2):116–29.
[50] Liu S, Li H, Liew C, Gatts T, Wayne S, Shade B, et al. An experimental investigation
of NO2 emission characteristics of a heavy-duty H2-diesel dual fuel engine. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2011;36(18):12015–24.
[51] Banerjee R, Bose PK. An experimental investigation on the potential of hydrogen in
the reduction of the emission characteristics of an existing four-stroke single-
cylinder diesel engine operating under EGR. Int J Green Energy 2011;9(1):84–110.
[52] Lounici MS, Loubar K, Tarabet L, Balistrou M, Niculescu D-C, Tazerout M.
Towards improvement of natural gas-diesel dual fuel mode: an experimental
investigation on performance and exhaust emissions. Energy 2014;64:200–11.
[53] Tsolakis A, Hernandez JJ, Megaritis A, Crampton M. Dual fuel diesel engine
operation using H2. Effect on particulate emissions. Energy Fuels
2005;19(2):418–25.
[54] Korakianitis T, Namasivayam AM, Crookes RJ. Hydrogen dual-fuelling of com-
pression ignition engines with emulsified biodiesel as pilot fuel. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2010;35(24):13329–44.
[55] Abdelaal MM, Rabee BA, Hegab AH. Effect of adding oxygen to the intake air on a
dual-fuel engine performance, emissions, and knock tendency. Energy
2013;61:612–20.
[56] Torregrosa AJ, Broatch A, Novella R, Mónico LF. Suitability analysis of advanced
diesel combustion concepts for emissions and noise control. Energy
2011;36(2):825–38.
[57] Sivabalakrishnan R, Jegadheesan C. Study of Knocking Effect in Compression
Ignition Engine with Hydrogen as a Secondary Fuel. Chin J Eng 2014;2014:1–8.
[58] Szwaja S, Bhandary K, Naber J. Comparisons of hydrogen and gasoline combustion
knock in a spark ignition engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32(18):5076–87.
[59] Karim GA. Hydrogen as a spark ignition engine fuel. Int J Hydrog Energy
2003;28(5):569–77.
[60] Naber J. Hydrogen combustion under diesel engine conditions. Int J Hydrog
Energy 1998;23(5):363–71.
[61] Szwaja S, Naber JD. Dual nature of hydrogen combustion knock. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2013;38(28):12489–96.
[62] Liu Z, Karim GA. Knock characteristics of dual-fuel engines fuelled with hydrogen
fuel. Int J Hydrog Energy 1995;20(11):919–24.
[63] Wong YK, Karim GA. A kinetic examination of the effects of the presence of some
gaseous fuels and preignition reaction products with hydrogen in engines. Int J
Hydrog Energy 1999;24(5):473–8.
[64] Polk AC, Gibson CM, Shoemaker NT, Srinivasan KK, Krishnan SR. Analysis of
ignition behavior in a turbocharged direct injection dual fuel engine using propane
and methane as primary fuels. J Energy Resour Technol 2013;135(3):1–10.
[65] Selim MYE. Sensitivity of dual fuel engine combustion and knocking limits to
gaseous fuel composition. Energy Convers Manag 2004;45(3):411–25.
[66] Mathur HB, Das LM, Patro TN. Hydrogen fuel utilization in CI engine powered end
utility systems. Int J Hydrog Energy 1992;17(5):369–74.
[67] Nguyen TA, Mikami M. Effect of hydrogen addition to intake air on combustion
noise from a diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38(10):4153–62.
[68] Bose PK, Deb M, Banerjee R, Majumder A. Multi objective optimization of
performance parameters of a single cylinder diesel engine running with hydrogen
using a Taguchi-fuzzy based approach. Energy 2013;63:375–86.
[69] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. Performance and emission studies on port injection of
hydrogen with varied flow rates with Diesel as an ignition source. Appl Energy
2010;87(7):2218–29.
[70] Wu H-W, Wu Z-Y. Combustion characteristics and optimal factors determination
with Taguchi method for diesel engines port-injecting hydrogen. Energy
2012;47(1):411–20.
[71] Adnan R, Masjuki HH, Mahlia TMI. Performance and emission analysis of
hydrogen fueled compression ignition engine with variable water injection timing.
Energy 2012;43(1):416–26.
[72] Shin B, Cho Y, Han D, Song S, Chun KM. Hydrogen effects on NOx emissions and
brake thermal efficiency in a diesel engine under low-temperature and heavy-EGR
conditions. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36(10):6281–91.
[73] Chintala V, Subramanian KA. Experimental investigation of hydrogen energy share
improvement in a compression ignition engine using water injection and com-
pression ratio reduction. Energy Convers Manag 2016;108:106–19.
[74] Helmantel A, Denbratt I. HCCI operation of a passenger car common rail DI diesel
engine with early injection of conventional diesel fuel. SAE International; 2004.
[75] Saxena S, Bedoya ID. Fundamental phenomena affecting low temperature com-
bustion and HCCI engines, high load limits and strategies for extending these
limits. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2013;39(5):457–88.
[76] Yeom K, Jang J, Bae C. Homogeneous charge compression ignition of LPG and
gasoline using variable valve timing in an engine. Fuel 2007;86(4):494–503.
[77] Ibrahim MM, Ramesh A. Experimental investigations on a hydrogen diesel
homogeneous charge compression ignition engine with exhaust gas recirculation.
Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38(24):10116–25.
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
[78] Prabhukumar GP, Swaminathan S, Nagalingam B, Gopalakrishnan KV. Water
induction studies in a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
1987;12(3):177–86.
[79] Mathur HB, Das LM, Patro TN. Hydrogen-fuelled diesel engine: performance
improvement through charge dilution techniques. Int J Hydrog Energy
1993;18(5):421–31.
[80] Subramanian KA. A comparison of water–diesel emulsion and timed injection of
water into the intake manifold of a diesel engine for simultaneous control of NO
and smoke emissions. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52(2):849–57.
[81] Tauzia X, Maiboom A, Shah SR. Experimental study of inlet manifold water
injection on combustion and emissions of an automotive direct injection Diesel
engine. Energy 2010;35(9):3628–39.
[82] Tesfa B, Mishra R, Gu F, Ball AD. Water injection effects on the performance and
491
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
emission characteristics of a CI engine operating with biodiesel. Renew Energy
2012;37(1):333–44.
[83] Sarvi A, Fogelholm C-J, Zevenhoven R. Emissions from large-scale medium-speed
diesel engines: 1. Influence of engine operation mode and turbocharger. Fuel
Process Technol 2008;89(5):510–9.
[84] Gonca G. Investigation of the effects of steam injection on performance and NO
emissions of a diesel engine running with ethanol–diesel blend. Energy Convers
Manag 2014;77:450–7.
[85] Britto RF, Jr., Martins CA. Experimental analysis of a diesel engine operating in
Diesel-Ethanol Dual-Fuel mode. Fuel 2014;134:140–50.
[86] Bora BJ, Saha UK, Chatterjee S, Veer V. Effect of compression ratio on
performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a dual fuel diesel engine
run on raw biogas. Energy Convers Manag 2014;87:1000–9.