CHAPTER 1

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

1.1 Parallel Structure

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the
same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunction is called
“parallel structure.” The conjunction used in this pattern are and, but, or,nor.
These words are called coordinating conjunction.
For example:
a. Steve and his friend are coming to dinner.
Conjunction and can connect noun + and + noun , verb + and + verb.
b. These shoes are old but comfortable
Conjunction but can connect adjective+ but + adjective.
c. He wants to watch TV or listen to some music.
Conjunction or can connect infinitive + or + infinitive.
A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas
are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the
conjunction is optional.
1.2 Paired Conjunction
a. Both...And
Two subjects connected by both...and take a plural verb as in this
sentence. Both my mother and my sister are here.
b. Not only....but also, Either..or, and Neither ...nor.
When two subjects are connected by not only.... but also, either...or,
neither..nor the subject that is closer to the verb determines whether the
verb is singular or plural. For example:
- Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
- Not only my sister but also my parents are here.
1.3 Combining Independent Clauses with Coordinating Conjunction
Example : It was raining hard. There was a strong wind.
 This sentence contains two independent clauses (i.e., two complete
sentence). Notice the punction. A period, not a comma, is used to separate
two independent clauses. A conjunction may be used to connect two
independent clauses. Punctuation :
a. Usually a coma immediately precedes the conjunction, as in
sentence : It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.
b. In short sentences, the comma is sometimes omitted, as in sentence
: It was raining hard and there was a strong wind.
c. In informal writing, a conjunction sometimes begins a sentence, as
in sentence : it wa raining hard. And there was a strong wind.

In addition to and, but, or, and nor other conjunctions are used to
connect two independent clauses : so (meaning “therefore, as a result) for
(meaning “because”) yet (meaning ”but, nevertheless”). A comma alomst
always pecedes so, for, and yet when they are used as coordinating
conjunction.

EXERCISE 1. Choose the best answer.

1. Neither the teacher and the student ....here

a. is
b. are
c. was
The answers is a
2. These shoes are old....comfortable
a. and
b. but
c. or
The answer is b
3. He will leave at eight and arrive at ninne. What is the pattern of the
underlines word?
a. Adjective + and + adjective
 b. Verb + and + verb
c. Adverb + and adverb
The answer is b
4. I like coffee. I do not like tea. The correct conjunction to connect this
clause is....
a. But
b. Or
c. And
The answe is a
5. Both of my friends and my cousins ..... planning to come.
a. Is
b. Were
c. Are
The answer is c
 CHAPTER 2

COMPARISON

5.1. Making Comparisons With As...as

As..as is used to say that the two parts os a comparison are equal or the
same in some way. Negative form not as..as quite and nearly are often
used with the negatives. Common modifiers of as...as are just (meaning
“exactly”) and nearly/almost.

5.2. Comparative and Superlative

The comparative compares this to that or these to those. Form: -er or
more. A comparative is followed by than . then superlative compares one
part of a whole group to all the rest of the group. Form –est or most. A
superlative begins with the.

5.3. Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adjective and Adverbs

For most one-syllableadjectives, -er and -est are added. For most two
syllable adjectives, more and most are used. -Er and -est are used with two
syllable adjectives that end in -y. The -y is changed to –i. Some two
syllable adjectives use either –er/ -est or more/most. More and most are
used with long adjectives. Good and bad have irregular comparative and
superlative forms. More and most are used withh adverbs that end in –ly.
The –er and –est forms are used with one syllable adverbs.
5.4. Completing a comparative
In formal English , a subject pronoun follos than. In everyday, informal
spoken English an object pronoun often follows than. Frequently an
auxiliary verb follows the subject after than. A possessive noun (e.g.,
kate’s) or pronoun (e.g., mine) may follow than.
5.5. Modifying Comparatives
Very often modifies adjectives and adverbs. Very is not used to
modify comparative adjectives and adverbs. Instead, much, a lot, far are
used to modify comparative adjectives and adverbs. Another common
modifier ia a little/ a little bit.
5.6. Comparisons With Less..Than and Not as..as
The opposite of –er/more is expressed by less or not as...as. less and
not as..as are used with adjectives and adverb of more than one syllable.
Pnly not as..as (not less) is used with one-syllable adjectives or adverbs.
5.7. Unclear Comparison
Sometimes it is necessary to complete the idea following than in order
to make a comparison clear.
Unclear : Ann likes her dog better than her husband.
Clear : Ann likes her dog better than her husband does.
5.8. Using More with Nouns
When more is used with nouns, it often has the meaning of additional. It
is not necessary to use than. More is also used with nouns to make
complete comparisons by adding than. When the meaning is clear, the
noun may be omitted and more used by itself.
5.9. Repeating A Comparative
Repeating a comparative gives the idea that something becomes
progresively greater , i.e., it increases in intensity, quality, or quantity.
5.10. Using Double Comparatives
A double comparative has two parts. Both parts begin with the. The
second part of the comparison is the result of the first part. The more, the
merrier and the sooner, the better are two common expression.
5.11. Using Superlatives
Typical completionn when a superlative is used:
a. Superlative + in a place (the world, this class, my family, the
corporstion).
b. Superlative + adjective clause
 c. Superlative + of all
The least has the opposite meaning of the most. Notice the pattern with
one of : one of + PLURAL noun (+ singular verb).
5.12. Using The Same, Similiar, Different , Like, Alike
The same, similiar, and different are used as adjective. The same is
followed by as, similiar is followed by to, different is followed by from. A
noun may come between the same and as. In addition to following be, like
also follows certain verbs, primarily those dealing with the senses.

EXERCISE 2.
1. A bee is .....big.....a bird.
a. less...than
b. not as..as
The answer is b

2. My brother is..... interested in planning fpr the future .... I am.

a. less...than
b. not as...as
The answer is a

3. Alaska is big. It is...... state in the united states.

a. The bigest
b. One of the bigest
c. The most bigest
The answer is a

4. My pen .... your pen.

a. is like
b. the same
c. look alike
 The answer is a
5. She ..... her sister.
a. Is like
b. Look like
c. Looks like
The answer is c