Materials

Composites are composed of fiber reinforcements and a resin matrix that bonds the fibers. They
can also include core materials, fillers, additives and surface finishes to provide unique
performance attributes.

1.Resins
The primary functions of the resin are to transfer stress between the reinforcing fibers, act as a
glue to hold the fibers together, and protect the fibers from mechanical and environmental
damage. Resins used in reinforced polymer composites are either thermoplastic or thermoset.

There are two major groups of resins that make up what we call polymer materials—thermosets
and thermoplastics. These resins are made of polymers (large molecules made up of long chains
of smaller molecules or monomers).

Thermoset resins are used to make most composites. They’re converted from a liquid to a solid
through a process called polymerization, or cross-linking. When used to produce finished
goods, thermosetting resins are “cured” by the use of a catalyst, heat or a combination of the two.
Once cured, solid thermoset resins cannot be converted back to their original liquid form.
Common thermosets are polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, and polyurethane.

Thermosets cross link during the curing process to form an irreversible bond.

 Polyester: Unsaturated polyester resins (UPR) are the workhorse of the composites
industry and represent approximately 75% of the total resins used. A range of raw
materials and processing techniques are available to achieve the desired properties in the
formulated or processed polyester resin. Polyesters are versatile because of their capacity
to be modified or tailored during the building of the polymer chains. They have been
found to have almost unlimited usefulness in all segments of the composites industry.
 The principle advantage of these resins is a balance of properties (including mechanical,
chemical, and electrical) dimensional stability, cost and ease of handling or processing.
Polyester producers have proved willing and capable of supplying resins with the
necessary properties to meet the requirements of specific end user applications. These
resins can be formulated and chemically tailored to provide properties and process
compatibility.
 Epoxy: Epoxy resins have a well-established record in a wide range of composites parts,
structures and concrete repair. The structure of the resin can be engineered to yield a
number of different products with varying levels of performance. A major benefit of
epoxy resins over unsaturated polyester resins is their lower shrinkage. Epoxy resins can
also be formulated with different materials or blended with other epoxy resins to achieve
specific performance features. Epoxies are used primarily for fabricating high
performance composites with superior mechanical properties, resistance to corrosive
liquids and environments, superior electrical properties, good performance at elevated
temperatures, good adhesion to a substrate, or a combination of these benefits. Epoxy
resins do not however, have particularly good UV resistance.
 Vinyl Ester: Vinyl esters were developed to combine the advantages of epoxy resins
with the better handling/faster cure, which are typical for unsaturated polyester resins.
These resins are produced by reacting epoxy resin with acrylic or methacrylic acid. This
provides an unsaturated site, much like that produced in polyester resins when maleic
anhydride is used. The resulting material is dissolved in styrene to yield a liquid that is
similar to polyester resin. Vinyl esters are also cured with the conventional organic
peroxides used with polyester resins. Vinyl esters offer mechanical toughness and
excellent corrosion resistance. These enhanced properties are obtained without complex
processing, handling or special shop fabricating practices that are typical with epoxy
resins.
 Phenolic: Phenolics are a class of resins commonly based on phenol (carbolic acid).
Phenolics are thermosetting resins that cure through a condensation reaction producing
water that should be removed during processing. Pigmented applications are limited to
red, brown or black. Phenolic composites have many desirable performance qualities
including high temperature resistance, creep resistance, excellent thermal insulation and
sound damping properties, corrosion resistance and excellent fire/smoke/smoke toxicity
properties. Phenolics are applied as adhesives or matrix binders in engineered woods
(plywood), brake linings, clutch plates, circuit boards, to name a few.
 Polyurethane: Polyurethane is a family of polymers with widely ranging properties and
uses, all based on the exothermic reaction of an organic polyisocyanates with a polyols
(an alcohol containing more than one hydroxyl group). A few basic constituents of
different molecular weights and functionalities are used to produce the whole spectrum of
polyurethane materials. Polyurethanes appear in an amazing variety of forms. These
materials are all around us, playing important roles in more facets of our daily life than
perhaps any other single polymer. They are used as a coating, elastomer, foam, or
adhesive. When used as a coating in exterior or interior finishes, polyurethanes are tough,
flexible, chemical resistant, and fast curing. Polyurethanes as an elastomer have superior
toughness and abrasion in such applications as solid tires, wheels, bumper components or
insulation. There are many formulations of polyurethane foam to optimize the density for
 insulation, structural sandwich panels, and architectural components. Polyurethanes are
often used to bond composite structures together. Benefits of polyurethane adhesive
bonds are that they have good impact resistance, the resin cures rapidly and the resin
bonds well to a variety of different surfaces such as concrete.

Thermoplastic resins, on the other hand, are not cross-linked and, so, can be melted, formed, re-
melted and re-formed. Thermoplastic resins are characterized by materials such as ABS,
polyethylene, polystyrene, and polycarbonate.

Thermoplastics form extremely strong bonds within chain molecules.

These resins are recognized by their capability to be shaped or molded while in a heated semi-
fluid state and become rigid when cooled. We are surrounded by everyday household items made
of thermoplastics.

Thermoset Resins In Depth

Polyester
To avoid any confusion in terms, readers should be aware that there is a family of thermoplastic
polyesters that are best known for their use as fibers for textiles and clothing. Thermoset
polyesters are produced by the condensation polymerization of dicarboxylic acids and
difunctional alcohols (glycols). In addition, unsaturated polyesters contain an unsaturated
material, such as maleic anhydride or fumaric acid, as part of the dicarboxylic acid component.
The finished polymer is dissolved in a reactive monomer such as styrene to give a low viscosity
liquid. When this resin is cured, the monomer reacts with the unsaturated sites on the polymer
converting it to a solid thermoset structure.

Unsaturated polyesters are divided into classes depending upon the structures of their basic
building blocks. Some common examples would be orthophthalic (“ortho”), Isophthalic (“iso”),
dicyclopentadiene (“DCPD”) and bisphenol A fumarate resins. In addition, polyester resins are
classified according to end use application as either general purpose (GP) or specialty polyesters
such as fire retardant (FR).
Epoxy
Cure rates can be controlled to match process requirements through the proper selection of
hardeners and/or catalyst systems. Generally, epoxies are cured by addition of an anhydride or an
amine hardener as a 2-part system. Different hardeners, as well as quantity of a hardener produce
a different cure profile and give different properties to the finished composites. Since the
viscosity of epoxy is much higher than most polyester resin, it requires a post-cure (elevated
heat) to obtain ultimate mechanical properties making epoxies more difficult to use. However,
epoxies emit little odor as compared to polyesters.

Epoxy resins are used with a number of fibrous reinforcing materials, including glass, carbon and
aramid. This latter group is small in volume, comparatively high cost and is usually used to meet
high strength and/or high stiffness requirements. Epoxies are compatible with most composites
manufacturing processes, particularly vacuum-bag molding, autoclave molding, pressure-bag
molding, compression molding, filament winding and hand lay-up.

Curing Polyester and Vinyl Ester Resins

Resins must cure in a way that is compatible with the fabrication process. Some parts are small
and can be laid-up quickly. The faster a resin cures, the quicker the turnaround is on the molds
and the greater the production rates. Other parts may involve large lay-ups where more time is
required for the lamination process. In compression molding, pultrusion and sometimes RTM,
heated molds provide rapid curing.

The physical properties of a finished part are greatly affected by its cure. The hardness of the
laminate is affected by the curing process as well as the chemical resistance of the laminate
surface. Flexural, compressive, and tensile properties are partially determined by the efficiency
of the cure. The cure must be complete to develop the full potential of a resin. Thick laminates
require special attention. Resin exotherm must be controlled in order to prevent excessive
shrinkage, laminate warping, and other problems related to high exotherms during cure.

2.Reinforcements
Reinforcements can be oriented to provide tailored properties in the direction of the loads
imparted on the end product.

Many materials are capable of reinforcing polymers. Some materials, such as the cellulose in
wood, are naturally occurring products. Most commercial reinforcements, however, are man-
made. There are many commercially available reinforcement forms to meet the design
requirements of the user. The ability to tailor the fiber architecture allows for optimized
performance of a product that translates to weight and cost savings.

Although many forms of fiber are used as reinforcement in composite laminates, glass fibers
account for more than 90 percent of the fibers used in reinforced plastics because they are
inexpensive to produce and have relatively good strength-to weight characteristics.
Fibers
 Glass Fibers: Based on an alumina-lime-borosilicate composition, “E” or “E-CR” glass
produced fibers are considered the predominant reinforcements for polymer matrix
composites due to their high electrical insulating properties, low susceptibility to
moisture and high mechanical properties. E-CR glass is further distinguished from E-
glass by having superior corrosion resistance properties. Other commercial compositions
include “S” glass, with higher strength, heat resistance and modulus, H-glass with higher
modulus, and AR glass (alkali resistant) with excellent corrosion resistance. Glass is
generally a good impact resistant fiber but weighs more than carbon or aramid. Glass
fibers have excellent mechanical characteristics, stronger than steel in certain forms. The
lower modulus requires special design treatment where stiffness is critical. Glass fibers
are transparent to radio frequency radiation and are used in radar antenna applications.
 Carbon Fibers: Carbon fibers are made from organic precursors, including PAN
(polyacrylonitrile), rayon, and pitches, with the latter two generally used for low modulus
fibers. The terms “carbon” and “graphite” fibers are typically used interchangeably,
although graphite technically refers to fibers that are greater than 99 percent carbon
composition, versus 93-95 percent for PAN-based carbon fibers. Carbon fiber offers the
highest strength and stiffness of all the reinforcement fibers. High temperature
performance is particularly outstanding for carbon fibers. The major drawback to PAN-
based fibers is their high relative cost, which is a result of the cost of the base material
and an energy-intensive manufacturing process. Carbon fiber composites are more brittle
than glass or aramid. Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when used next to
metals. A barrier material such as glass and resin is used to prevent this occurrence.
 Aramid Fibers (Polyaramids): The most common synthetic fiber is aramid. Aramid
fiber is an aromatic polyimid that is a man-made organic fiber for composite
reinforcement. Aramid fibers offer good mechanical properties at a low density with the
added advantage of toughness or damage/impact resistance. They are characterized as
having reasonably high tensile strength, a medium modulus, and a very low density as
compared to glass and carbon. Aramid fibers are insulators of both electricity and heat
and increase the impact resistance of composites. They are resistant to organic solvents,
fuels and lubricants. Aramid composites are not as good in compressive strength as glass
or carbon composites. Dry aramid fibers are tough and have been used as cables or ropes,
and frequently used in ballistic applications. Kevlar® is perhaps the best known example
of aramid fiber. Aramid is the predominant organic reinforcing fiber replacement for steel
belting in tires.
 New Fibers: Polyester and nylon thermoplastic fibers have recently been introduced both
as primary reinforcements and in a hybrid arrangement with fiberglass. Attractive
features include low density, reasonable cost, and good impact and fatigue resistance.
Although polyester fibers have fairly high strengths, their stiffness is considerably below
that of glass. More specialized reinforcements for high strength and high temperature use
include metals and metal oxides such as those used in aircraft or aerospace applications.
Reinforcement Forms
Regardless of the material, reinforcements are available in forms to serve a wide range of
processes and end-product requirements. Materials supplied as reinforcement include roving,
milled fiber, chopped strands, continuous, chopped or thermoformable mat. Reinforcement
materials can be designed with unique fiber architectures and be preformed (shaped) depending
on the product requirements and manufacturing process.

 Multi-End and Single-End Rovings: Rovings are utilized primarily in thermoset

compounds, but can be utilized in thermoplastics. Multi-end rovings consist of many
individual strands or bundles of filaments, which are then chopped and randomly
deposited into the resin matrix. Processes such as sheet molding compound (SMC),
preform and spray-up use the multi-end roving. Multi-end rovings can also be used in
some filament winding and pultrusion applications. The single-end roving consists of
many individual filaments wound into a single strand. The product is generally used in
processes that utilize a unidirectional reinforcement such as filament winding or
pultrusion.
 Mats & Veils: Reinforcing mats and non-woven veils are usually described by weight-
per-unit-of-area. For instance, a 2 ounce chopped strand mat will weigh 2 ounces per
square yard. The reinforcement type, the fiber dispersion, and amount of binder that is
used to hold the mat or veil together dictate differences between mat products. In some
processes such as hand lay-up, it is necessary for the binder to dissolve. In other
processes, particularly in compression molding, and pultrusion the binder must withstand
the hydraulic forces and the dissolving action of the matrix resin during molding.
Therefore, from a binder point of view, two general categories of mats or veils are
produced and are known as soluble and insoluble binders.
 Woven, Stitched, Braided & 3-D Fabrics: There are many types of fabrics that can be
used to reinforce resins in a composite. Multidirectional reinforcements are produced by
weaving, knitting, stitching or braiding continuous fibers into a fabric from twisted and
plied yarn. Fabrics can be manufactured utilizing almost any reinforcing fiber. The most
common fabrics are constructed with fiberglass, carbon or aramid. Fabrics offer oriented
strengths and high reinforcement loadings often found in high performance applications.
Fabrics allow for the precise placement of the reinforcement. This cannot be done with
milled fibers or chopped strands and is only possible with continuous strands using
relatively expensive fiber placement equipment. Due to the continuous nature of the
fibers in most fabrics, the strength to weight ratio is much higher than that for the cut or
chopped fiber versions. Stitched fabrics allow for customized fiber orientations within the
fabric structure. This can be of great advantage when designing for shear or torsional
stability.
 Unidirectional: Unidirectional reinforcements include tapes, tows, unidirectional tow
sheet and roving (which are collections of fibers or strands). Fibers in this form are all
aligned parallel in one direction and uncrimped, providing the highest mechanical
properties. Composites using unidirectional tapes or sheets have high strength in the
direction of the fiber. Unidirectional sheets are thin and multiple layers are required for
 most structural applications. Typical applications for unidirectional reinforcements
include highly loaded designed composites, such as aircraft components or race boats.
 Prepreg: Prepregs are a ready-made material made of a reinforcement form and polymer
matrix. Passing reinforcing fibers or forms such as fabrics through a resin bath is used to
make a prepreg. The resin is saturated (impregnated) into the fiber and then heated to
advance the curing reaction to different curing stages. Thermoset or thermoplastic
prepregs are available and can be either stored in a refrigerator or at room temperature
depending on the constituent materials. Prepregs can be manually or mechanically
applied at various directions based on the design requirements.
 Milled: Milled fibers are chopped fibers having very short fiber lengths (usually less than
1/8”). These products are often used in thermoset putties, castings, or syntactic foams to
prevent cracking of the cured composition due to resin shrinkage.

3.Additives & Fillers

A wide variety of additives and modifier ingredients can be used to expand the usefulness of
polymers, enhance their process ability or extend product durability.

Although additives are generally used in relatively low quantity by weight compared to resins,
reinforcements and fillers, they perform critical functions. While additives and modifiers often
increase the cost of the basic material system, these materials always improve cost/performance.

Additive Functions
There are a number of additives that are used to modify and enhance resin properties that become
a part of the polymer matrix. These additives include

 Thixotropes: In some processes such as hand lay-up or spray-up, thixotropic agents may
be used. When “at rest,” resins containing thixotropic agents remain at elevated
viscosities. This reduces the tendency of the liquid resin to flow or drain from vertical
surfaces. When the resin is subjected to shear, the viscosity is reduced and the resin can
be easily sprayed or brushed on the mold. Fumed silica and certain clays are common
thixotropic agents.
 Pigments & Colorants: Pigment dispersions and color pastes can be added to resin or
gel coat for cosmetic purposes or to enhance weatherability. In the case of gel coats,
finely milled pigments are blended with resin using high shear mixers. Many pigments
react differently in polyester resin than in paint, and various pigments may slow down or
speed up resin gel time. Additives can be mixed in as part of the resin or applied as part
of the molding process (as a gel coat). A wide range of coatings can be applied after
molding.
 Fire Retardants: Most thermoset resins are combustible and create toxic smoke when
burned. Combustion resistance is improved by proper choice of resin, use of fillers or
 flame retardant additives. Included in this category are materials containing ATH
(alumina trihydrate), bromine, chlorine, borate and phosphorus.
 Suppressants: In open mold applications, styrene emission suppressants are used to
block evaporation for air quality compliance. These wax-based materials form a film on
the resin surface and reduce styrene emissions during curing.
 UV Inhibitors & Stabilizers: Both thermoset and thermoplastic composites may use
special materials which are added to prevent loss of gloss, crazing, chalking,
discoloration, changes in electrical characteristics, embrittlement and disintegration due
to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Additives, which protect composites by absorbing the UV,
are called ultraviolet absorbers. Materials, which protect the polymer in some other
manner, are known as ultraviolet stabilizers. In the event that a non-gel coated resin will
be exposed to sunlight, the addition of a UV stabilizer will slow the surface degradation.
 Conductive Additives: Most composites do not conduct electricity. It is possible to
obtain a degree of electrical conductivity by the addition of metal, carbon particles or
conductive fibers. Electromagnetic interference shielding can be achieved by
incorporating conductive materials.
 Release Agents: Release agents facilitate removal of parts from molds. These products
can be added to the resin, applied to molds, or both. Zinc stearate is a popular mold
release agent that is mixed into resin for compression molding. Waxes, silicones and
other release agents may be applied directly to the surface of molds.

Initiators, Promoters & Inhibitors

In polyesters, the most important additive is catalyst or initiator. Typically, organic peroxide
such as methylethylketone peroxide (MEKP) is used for room temperature cured processes, or
benzoyl peroxide is added to the resin for heat-cured molding. When triggered by heat, or used in
conjunction with a promoter (such as cobalt napthenate), peroxides convert to a reactive state
(exhibiting free radicals), causing the unsaturated resin to react (cross-link) and become solid.
Some additives such as TBC (tertiary butyl catechol) are used to slow the rate of reaction and are
called inhibitors. Accelerators such as DMA (dimethyl aniline) speed curing.

Fillers
Fillers not only reduce the cost of composites, but also frequently impart performance
improvements that might not otherwise be achieved by the reinforcement and resin ingredients
alone. Fillers are often referred to as extenders. In comparison to resins and reinforcements,
fillers are the least expensive of the major ingredients. Fillers can improve mechanical properties
including fire and smoke performance by reducing organic content in composite laminates. Also,
filled resins shrink less than unfilled resins, thereby improving the dimensional control of
molded parts. Important properties, including water resistance, weathering, surface smoothness,
stiffness, dimensional stability and temperature resistance, can all be improved through the
proper use of fillers.
Use of inorganic fillers in composites is increasing. When used in composite laminates,
inorganic fillers can account for 40 to 65% by weight. There are a number of inorganic filler
materials that can be used with composites, including:

 Calcium carbonate is the most widely used inorganic filler. It is available at low cost in
a variety of particle sizes and treatments from well-established regional suppliers,
especially for composite applications. Most common grades of calcium carbonate filler
are derived from limestone or marble and very common in automobile parts.
 Kaolin (hydrous aluminum silicate) is the second most commonly used filler. It is known
throughout the industry by its more common material name, clay. Mined clays are
processed either by air flotation or by water washing to remove impurities and to classify
the product for use in composites. A wide range of particle sizes is available.
 Alumina trihydrate is frequently used when improved fire/smoke performance is
required. When exposed to high temperature, this filler gives off water (hydration),
thereby reducing the flame spread and development of smoke. Composite plumbing
fixture applications such as bathtubs, shower stalls and related building products often
contain alumina trihydrate for this purpose.
 Calcium sulfate is a major flame/smoke retarding filler used by the tub/shower industry.
It has fewer waters of hydration, and water is released at a lower temperature. This
mineral filler offers a low cost flame/smoke retarding filler.

4. Core
Core materials are used extensively throughout the composites industry to fabricate stiff and yet
lightweight composites products.

Thermal conductivity, sound insulation, and fire resistance can also be improved by use of the
proper core material. The use of core materials is also called sandwich construction. The
“sandwich” consists of a face skin laminate, the core material, and the back skin laminate. The
use of a core creates a thicker laminate with a minimum increase in weight. Stiffness is a
function of the thickness of the laminate.

Bonded sandwich structures have been a basic component of the composites industry for over 45
years. The concept of using relatively thin, strong face sheets bonded to thicker, lightweight core
materials has allowed the industry to build strong, stiff, light and highly durable structures that
otherwise would not be practical. This technology has been demonstrated in boats, trucks,
automobiles, wind turbine blades and building panels. A 3% weight increase can increase the
flexural strength and stiffness by a magnitude of 3.5 times and 7 times respectively if cores and
skins are properly chosen. The structure then acts more or less monolithically.

Face sheets can be of almost any material. In the composites industry, the most common face
sheets are glass and carbon. Some core materials can be shaped, such as a waffle pattern or
corrugation to achieve the desired mechanical properties.
There are a number of types of core materials available, with a wide range of properties and
costs:

 Balsa: Balsa has a high-aspect ratio and directionally aligned cells such that the grain is
oriented in the direction of the maximum stress. Balsa has a proven track record in
products such as pleasure boat hulls, military aircraft, navy vessels, vehicles, wind
turbine blades and corrosion-resistant industrial tanks. End grain balsa’s closed-cell
structure consists of elongated, prismatic cells with a length (grain direction) that is
approximately 16 times the diameter. With densities generally between 6 and 16 pounds
per cubic foot, this material exhibits excellent stiffness and bond strength. End-grain
balsa is available in sheet form for flat panel construction or in a scrim-backed block
arrangement that conforms to complex curves.
 Cross-Linked PVC Foam: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam cores are manufactured by
combining a polyvinyl copolymer with stabilizers, plasticizers, cross-linking compounds,
and blowing agents. The mixture is heated under pressure to initiate the cross-linking
reaction and then submerged in hot water tanks to expand to the desired density. PVC
foams offer a good combination of strength and weight with densities ranging from 4 to
30 lb/ftᶟ.
 Thermoplastic Foam: Foamed thermoplastic polystyrene is very light, weighing only
about 2 lbs/ftᶟ. This material has very low mechanical properties, and polystyrene will be
attacked and dissolved by polyester resin. These foams will not conform to complex
curves. Use is generally limited to buoyancy rather than structural applications.
 Polyurethane Foam: Polyurethane is available either in sheet stock form or it can be
foamed in place when used as an insulation or buoyancy material. Polyurethane foam can
be blown in a wide range of densities, from 2 lb/ftᶟ to over 20 lb/ftᶟ. Because of its
relatively low shear values, this foam is generally not used in structural applications.
 Syntactic Foam: Syntactic foams are made by mixing hollow microspheres in resin. The
lightweight microspheres reduce the density of the resin and create a thick mixture that
can be applied by hand or sprayed. Sprayable syntactic foam is sometimes used as a
barrier coat between gel coat and a bulk laminate.
 Linear PVC Foam: Linear PVC foam core is produced mainly for the marine industry.
Its unique mechanical properties are a result of a non-cross-linked molecular structure,
which allows significant deflection before failure. In comparison to the crosslinked (non-
linear) PVC, this PVC will exhibit less favorable static properties and better impact
absorption capability.
 Honeycomb: Various types of manufactured honeycomb cores are used extensively in
the aerospace and transportation industry. Honeycomb materials include paper,
aluminum, phenolic resin impregnated fiberglass, polypropylene, and aramid fiber
phenolic-treated paper. Densities range from 1 to 6 lbs/ftᶟ. The physical properties vary to
a large degree with the specific material and density. Fabrication of extremely
lightweight panels is possible with honeycomb cores.
 PMI Foam: Polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam is generally used in advanced composites
prepreg composites construction, where its ability to withstand curing temperatures in
excess of 350o F is needed.
  Fiber Reinforced Core: Fiber reinforced composite core technology combines fiberglass
and closed-cell foam in an engineered architecture to create a very efficient sandwich
core solution with very high mechanical properties. It is well suited as a material for
static applications requiring high stiffness or as a replacement for wood and plywood.
 Core Fabrics (Laminate Bulkers): Various materials are used to produce the products
that are called either core fabrics or laminate bulkers. The purpose of these products is to
create a barrier to prevent print-out or to build laminate thickness quickly. In most cases,
core fabrics are non-woven materials using polyester filaments that are bonded into a
mat-like blotter configuration. These products are wet-out with resin and laminated
similarly to fiberglass reinforcement.

Surface Finishes
Used mostly for UV protection, corrosion resistance and aesthetics, surface finishes can be
molded in process or secondarily applied coatings.

Surface finishes can be critical to the long-term appearances of composite products. FRP
composites can accept a wide range of surface finishes, including gel coat, surface veils and
adhesives. Other surface finishes include aliphatic isocynates, polyurethanes, polyesters, acrylics
and epoxies and in some cases with fine sand added for additional protection.

 Gel Coat: A common surface finish for FRP composites is gel coat, a specifically
formulated polyester resin that is applied to the mold surface prior to laminate build-up. It
is designed to provide a cosmetic outer surface on a composite product and to provide
weatherability for outdoor products. Gel coats are used to improve weathering, filter out
ultraviolet radiation, add flame resistance, provide a thermal barrier, improve chemical
resistance, improve abrasion resistance, and provide a moisture barrier. Gel coats are
used to improve the product appearance such as the surface of a boat hull or golf cart. A
unique benefit of gel coats is that they are supplied in many colors by the incorporation of
pigments per the specification of the engineer.
 Surface Veils: In some composite designs, a surface veil is used to provide an improved
corrosion or weather barrier to the product. A surface veil is a fabric made from nylon or
polyester that acts as a very thin sponge that can absorb resin to 90% of its volume. This
helps to retain an extra layer of protective resin on the surface of the product. Surface
veils are used to improve the surface appearance and ensure the presence of a corrosion
resistance barrier for typical composites products such as pipes, tanks and other chemical
process equipment. Other benefits include increased resistance to abrasion, UV and other
weathering forces. Veils may be used in conjunction with gel coats to provide
reinforcement to the resin.
 Adhesives: Adhesives are used to attach composites to themselves as well as to other
surfaces. Adhesive bonding is the method of choice for bonding thermoset composites
and is sometimes used for thermoplastic composites. Adhesives should be used in a joint
design where the maximum load is transferred into the component using the loading
 characteristics of the adhesive and the composites material. The most common adhesives
are acrylics, epoxies, and urethanes. A high-strength bond with high-temperature
resistance would indicate the use of an epoxy, whereas a moderate temperature resistance
with good strength and rapid cure might use an acrylic. For applications where toughness
is needed, urethane might be selected.
 Ultraviolet Protection: FRP materials by their nature are susceptible to ultraviolet (UV)
degradation which usually begins with a cosmetic change in the color followed in time by
potential chalking, peeling and cracking, eventually leading to a loss of resin on the
material’s surface which is called fiber blooming. The rate of UV degradation is affected
by geographical location, resin type, fiber loading and filler packages. FRP composites
should be protected from UV by an opaque gel coat surface or by painting the exposed
surfaces. Incorporating UV screens into the matrix is also useful. Of these techniques, gel
coating is the most common because it provides good surface finish and a deep 10 to 20
mil (mm) thick protective surface.
 Painting: Painting systems are available for FRP composites finishes and are widely
used in both the architectural and marine fields. Properly prepared FRP composites can
also accept a wide variety of surface coatings, including oil- and water-based paint, as
well as plural component systems such as urethanes. The non-absorbent, inert nature of
FRP composites allow for surface paints to be applied. Paints need not be breathable and
no extraordinary surface preparation is required beyond proper abrasion and removal of
residual mold release agents. Ceramic tile, metal, wood, and other plastics can be
adhered to FRP surfaces, provided differential thermal properties and panel deflections
are allowed for either in the elasticity of the adhesive or mechanical attachment.

Gel Coat In Depth

Gel coats are considered resins but have a very special purpose. A gel coat is a specially
formulated polyester resin incorporating thixotropic agents to increase the gel coat’s viscosity
and non-sag properties, fillers for flow properties, pigments to give the desired color, and
additives for specific application properties, such as gel time and cure. Gel coats are primarily
used for contact molding (hand or spray lay-up). The gel coat, usually pigmented, provides a
molded-in finished surface that is weather and wear resistant. The gel coat helps in hiding the
glass reinforcement pattern that may show through from the inherent resin shrinkage around the
glass fibers. Considerations used for the proper selection of a gel coat are compatibility of the
underlying FRP materials to ensure good adhesion of the gel coat, as well as the operating
environment. Factors influencing the weatherability of a gel coated surface include the type of
gel coat resin, amount and type of fillers and colorants in the gel coat, and coating thickness.

The most common current usage of gel coats is “in-mold applications.” That is, the gel coat is
sprayed into the mold and the laminate is applied behind it. Adhesion of the laminating resin to
the gel coat is a critical issue. Thickness of the gel coat can vary depending on the intended
performance of the composites product. Gel coats are typically applied by spray application to
approximately 16-20 mils (0.003 mm) wet film thickness. While gel coats do not add any
structural strength to the FRP part, gel coats should be resilient. Gel coats should be able to bend
without cracking. They should be resistant to thermal cracking (cracking that may occur with
dramatic changes in temperature). The primary measurements of resilience are flexural modulus
and elongation.

Gel coat is not paint. Paint contains solvents that must evaporate for the paint to dry. Gel coat
does not have a solvent base; it has instead a reactive diluent called a monomer which cross-links
during curing. The monomer does not have to leave the system for the gel coat to cure; in fact, it
is beneficial to reduce monomer loss to lower emissions. Typical monomers used in gel coat are
styrene and/or methylmethacrylate (acrylic).

OPEN MOLDING PROCESS

1.Hand Lay-Up
Hand lay-up is the most common and least expensive open-molding method because it requires
the least amount of equipment. Fiber reinforcements are placed by hand in a mold and resin is
applied with a brush or roller. This process is used to make both large and small items, including
boats, storage tanks, tubs and showers.

Hand lay-up is an open molding method suitable for making a wide variety of composites
products from very small to very large. Production volume per mold is low; however, it is
feasible to produce substantial production quantities using multiple molds. Hand lay-up is the
simplest composites molding method, offering low cost tooling, simple processing, and a wide
range of part sizes. Design changes are readily made. There is a minimum investment in
equipment. With skilled operators, good production rates and consistent quality are obtainable.
Process:
Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high quality surface. When the gel
coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiberglass reinforcement is manually placed on the mold.
The laminating resin is applied by pouring, brushing, spraying, or using a paint roller. FRP
rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are used to consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the
reinforcement and removing entrapped air. Subsequent layers of fiberglass reinforcement are
added to build laminate thickness. Low density core materials such as end-grain balsa, foam, and
honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen the laminate. This is known as sandwich construction.

Molds:
Simple, single cavity molds of fiberglass composites construction are generally used. Molds can
range from small to very large and are low cost in the spectrum of composites molds.

2. Filament Winding
Filament winding is an automated open molding process that uses a rotating mandrel as the
mold. The male mold configuration produces a finished inner surface and a laminate surface on
the outside diameter of the product.

Filament winding results in a high degree of fiber loading, which provides high tensile strength
in the manufacture of hollow, generally cylindrical products such as chemical and fuel storage
tanks, pipes, stacks, pressure vessels, and rocket motor cases. The process makes high strength-
to-weight ratio laminates and provides a high degree of control over uniformity and fiber
orientation. The filament winding process can be used to make structures that are highly
engineered and meet strict tolerances. Because filament winding is computer-controlled and
automated, the labor factor for filament winding is lower than other open molding processes.
Process:
Continuous strand roving is fed through a resin bath and wound onto a rotating mandrel. The
roving feed runs on a trolley that travels the length of the mandrel. The filament is laid down in a
predetermined geometric pattern to provide maximum strength in the directions required. When
sufficient layers have been applied, the laminate is cured on the mandrel. The molded part is then
stripped from the mandrel. Equipment is available for filament winding on a continuous basis
with to axis winding for pressure cylinders. Filament winding can be combined with the
chopping process and is known as the hoop chop process.

Molds:
Filament winding uses mandrels of suitable size and shape, made of steel or aluminum, to form
the inner surface of the hollow part. Some mandrels are collapsible to facilitate part removal.

3.Spray-Up
Spray-up, or chopping, is an open mold method similar to hand lay-up in its suitability for
making boats, tanks, transportation components, and tub/shower units in a large variety of shapes
and sizes. A chopped laminate has good conformability and is sometimes faster to produce than a
part made with hand lay-up when molding complex shapes.

In the spray-up process, the operator controls thickness and consistency, therefore the process is
more operator dependent than hand lay-up. Although production volume per mold is low, it is
feasible to produce substantial production quantities using multiple molds. This process uses
simple, low cost tooling and simple processing. Portable equipment permits on-site fabrication
with virtually no part size limitations. The process may be automated.
Process:
As with hand lay-up, gel coat is first applied to the mold and allowed to cure. Continuous strand
glass roving and initiated resin are then fed through a chopper gun, which deposits the resin-
saturated “chop” on the mold. The laminate is then rolled to thoroughly saturate the glass strands
and compact the chop. Additional layers of chop laminate are added as required for thickness.
Roll stock reinforcements, such as woven roving or knitted fabrics, can be used in conjunction
with the chopped laminates. Core materials of the same variety as used in hand lay-up are easily
incorporated.

Molds:
These are the same molds as hand lay-up: simple, single cavity molds of fiberglass composites
construction. Molds can range from small to very large and are low cost in the spectrum of
composites molds.

CLOSED MOLDING
1.Continuous Lamination
Continuous lamination is used to produce composite products such as opaque and translucent flat
or corrugated paneling, truck trailer paneling, refrigerator liners, sanitary paneling, road signs
and other similar products.

Typically, high output machines up to 10 feet (3 meters) wide combine reinforcement and resin
on plastic film that is pulled through the process. A second plastic film is applied over the
reinforcement and resin to allow mixing and exclusion of air that is usually accomplished by
compaction rollers.
Cure is completed in an oven. Panels are automatically trimmed to width and cut to length.
Corrugated sheet is produced by forming shoes which hold the compacted sheet in the required
shape during cure. Special surface effects are created by using embossed carrier films that are
later removed. Both mat reinforcements and rovings chopped by special wide cutters are
employed in the process.

Polyester and acrylic modified polyesters (for improved water resistance) are the primary resins
for continuous lamination.

2.Centrifugal Casting
In centrifugal casting, reinforcements and resin are deposited against the inside surface of a
rotating mold. Centrifugal force holds the materials in place until the part is cured.

With centrifugal casting, the outside surface of the part, which is cured against the inside surface
of the mold, represents the “finished” surface. The interior surface of centrifugally cast parts can
be given an additional coating of “neat” or pure resin to improve surface appearance and provide
additional chemical resistance in the part. Large diameter composite pipe and tanks are
commercially produced by centrifugal casting.

Advantages of centrifugal casting include a finished exterior surface and containment of volatiles
during processing. The primary limitations of centrifugal casting are the ability to spin molds of
large size and relatively low productivity per tool.
3.Reinforced Reaction
Injection Molding (RRIM)
In the RRIM process, two or more reactive resins are metered and impingement-mixed under
high pressure to form a thermosetting polymer, injected into a mold, and then cured.

RRIM composites have a number of processing advantages including very fast cycle time, low
labor, low mold clamping pressure and low scrap rate. RRIM uses reinforcements to improve the
properties of the resin. With the use of reinforcements, polymerization shrinkage is reduced,
thermal expansion is reduced, droop and sag of the composite at elevated temperatures is
minimized and other key properties such as stiffness, tensile strength and tensile elongation are
generally improved. Milled fibers or flakes can be added directly to the resin before reacting in
the mixing head.

Metering is accomplished with high pressure pumps or injection cylinders. Typically, a small
mixing chamber is used. The two resin streams enter from opposite sides of mix chamber under
high pressure. Mixing occurs from the energy-intensive collision of these two resin streams.
Although the streams are mixed at very high pressure, the result is a low viscosity liquid. The
low viscosity mixed resin is easily injected into the mold at relatively low pressure, 50 psi
(345kPa). Polymerization takes place very quickly within the mold cavity with little or no
additional heat required.

Resins and Reinforcement:

The RRIM process requires special resins and reinforcements. A number of resins, including
epoxies, polyesters, nylons and polyurethanes have been successfully developed for RRIM
processing. Today, polyurethane is the predominate resin in RRIM. Most of the urethanes used
are elastomeric and range in flex modulus from 20,000 psi to well over 500,000 psi (170MPa to
3.5 GPa). The basic RRIM reinforcements are chopped or hammer milled glass fiber and glass
flake.

Variations on a RRIM theme:

Variations of the RRIM process include structural RIM (SRIM). In this process, chopped fiber
preforms or mats are positioned in the mold cavity. The mold is clamped and resin is injected
into the mold cavity. The reacting resin remains liquid long enough to completely fill the mold
and penetrate the reinforcing fibers. Then the resin quickly cures.

Applications:
Presently, transportation is the principal market for RRIM products. Automotive and truck
applications for RIIM parts include Class A body panels, fascia, bumper beams, spare tire
covers, floor pans and other similar products. The advent of controllable reactivity resins such as
polyuria/amide has introduced a trend toward larger machines, larger clamps and larger parts.
Very large RRIM molded parts weighing over 100 pounds have already been produced.
Breakthrough applications such as this clearly indicate that the future trend in RRIM products
will be toward increased market acceptable featuring larger and more sophisticated parts.
4.Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous process for the manufacture of products having a constant cross
section, such as rod stock, structural shapes, beams, channels, pipe, tubing, fishing rods, and golf
club shafts. Pultrusion produces profiles with extremely high fiber loading; thus, pultruded
products have high structural properties. The process can be readily automated and is adaptable
to both simple and complex cross-sectional shapes. Very high strengths are possible and labor
costs are low.

Process:
Continuous strand glass fiber, carbon fiber or basalt fiber roving, mat, cloth, or surfacing veil is
impregnated in a resin bath and then pulled (therefore the term pul-trusion) through a steel die by
a powerful tractor mechanism. The steel die consolidates the saturated reinforcement, sets the
shape of the stock, and controls the fiber/resin ratio. The die is heated to rapidly cure the resin.
Many creels (balls) of roving are positioned on a rack, and a complex series of tensioning
devices and roving guides direct the roving into the die.

Molds:
Hardened steel dies are machined and include a preform area to do the initial shaping of the
resin-saturated roving. The dies include heating which can be electric or hot oil. The latest
pultrusion technology uses direct injection dies, in which the resin is introduced inside the die,
rather than through an external resin bath.
5.Compression Molding
Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding complex,
fiberglass-reinforced polymer parts on a rapid cycle time. There are several types of compression
molding that are defined by the type of material molded: sheet molding compound (SMC), bulk
molding compound (BMC), thick molding compound (TMC), and wet lay-up compression
molding. Compression molding tooling consists of heated metal molds mounted in large
hydraulic presses. The process can be automated. Compression molding enables part design
flexibility and features such as inserts, ribs, bosses and attachments. Good surface finishes are
obtainable, contributing to lower part finishing cost. Subsequent trimming and machining
operations are minimized in compression molding and labor costs are low.

Process:
The mold set is mounted in a hydraulic or mechanical molding press and the molds are heated
from 250° to 400° F. A weighed charge of molding material is placed in the open mold. The two
halves of the mold are closed and pressure is applied. Depending on thickness, size, and shape of
the part, curing cycles range from less than a minute to about five minutes. After cure, the mold
is opened and the finished part is removed. Typical parts include automobile components,
appliance housings and structural components, furniture, electrical components, and business
machine housings and parts.
Molds:
Tooling usually consists of machined or cast metal or alloy molds that can be in either single or
multiple-cavity configurations. Steel molds are hardened and sometimes chrome plated for
enhanced durability. The molds are heated using steam, hot oil, or electricity. Side cores,
provisions for inserts, and other refinements are often employed. Mold materials include cast of
forged steel, cast iron, and cast aluminum. Matched metal molds can cost 50 times as much as an
FRP open mold and tooling in the $50,000-$500,000 range is not uncommon.

6.Resin Transfer Molding

Resin transfer molding (RTM) is an intermediate volume molding process for producing
composites. In RTM, resin is injected under pressure into a mold cavity. This process produces
parts with two finished surfaces.

By laying up reinforcement material dry inside the mold, any combination of material and
orientation can be used, including 3-D reinforcements. Part thickness is determined by the tool
cavity. Fast cycle times can be achieved in temperature-controlled tooling and the process can
range from simple to highly automated. RTM can use a wide variety of tooling, ranging from
low-cost composite molds to temperature controlled metal tooling. Vacuum assist can be used to
enhance resin flow in the mold cavity.
Process:
The mold is gel coated conventionally, if required. The reinforcement (and core material) is
positioned in the mold and the mold is closed and clamped. The resin is injected under pressure,
using mix/meter injection equipment, and the part is cured in the mold. The reinforcement can be
either a preform or a pattern cut roll stock material. A preform is a reinforcement that is formed
to a specific shape in a separate process and can be quickly positioned in the mold. RTM can be
done at room temperature; however, heated molds are required to achieve fast cycle times and
product consistency. Clamping can be accomplished with perimeter clamping or press clamping.

Molds:
RTM can utilize either hard or soft tooling depending upon the expected duration of the run. Soft
tooling would be either polyester or epoxy molds, while hard tooling may consist of cast
machined aluminum, electroformed nickel shell, or machined steel molds. RTM can take
advantage of the broadest range of tooling of any composites process. Tooling can range from
very low-cost to high-cost, life-long molds.

7.Vacuum Infusion Processing

Vacuum infusion processing is a variation of vacuum bagging in which the resin is introduced
into the mold after the vacuum has pulled the bag down and compacted the laminate.

Vacuum infusion can produce laminates with a uniform degree of consolidation, producing high
strength, lightweight structures. This process uses the same low-cost tooling as open molding
and requires minimal equipment. Vacuum infusion offers substantial emissions reduction
compared to either open molding or wet lay-up vacuum bagging.

The method is defined as having lower than atmospheric pressure in the mold cavity. The
reinforcement and core materials are laid-up dry in the mold by hand, providing the opportunity
to precisely position the reinforcement. When the resin is pulled into the mold the laminate is
already compacted; therefore, there is no room for excess resin. Vacuum infusion enables very
high resin-to-glass ratios and the mechanical properties of the laminate are superior. Vacuum
infusion is suitable to mold very large structures and is considered a low-volume molding
process.
Process:
The mold may be gel coated in the traditional fashion. After the gel coat cures, the dry
reinforcement is positioned in the mold. This includes all the plies of the laminate and core
material if required. A perforated release film is placed over the dry reinforcement. Next a flow
media consisting of a coarse mesh or a “crinkle” ply is positioned, and perforated tubing is
positioned as a manifold to distribute resin across the laminate. The vacuum bag is then
positioned and sealed at the mold perimeter. A tube is connected between the vacuum bag and
the resin container. A vacuum is applied to consolidate the laminate and the resin is pulled into
the mold.

Molds:
Molds are similar to those used for conventional open-mold processes.

8.Vacuum Bag Molding

Vacuum bag molding improves the mechanical properties of open-mold laminates. This process
can produce laminates with a uniform degree of consolidation, while at the same time removing
entrapped air, thus reducing the finished void content.

By reducing the pressure inside the vacuum bag, external atmospheric pressure exerts force on
the bag. The pressure on the laminate removes entrapped air, excess resin, and compacts the
laminate, resulting in a higher percentage of fiber reinforcement.
Vacuum bagging can be used with wet-lay laminates and prepreg advanced composites. In wet
lay up bagging the reinforcement is saturated using hand lay up, then the vacuum bag is mounted
on the mold and used to compact the laminate and remove air voids. In the case of pre-
impregnated advanced composites molding, the prepreg material is laid up on the mold, the
vacuum bag is mounted and the mold is heated or the mold is placed in an autoclave that applies
both heat and external pressure, adding to the force of atmospheric pressure. The prepreg-
vacuum bag-autoclave method is most often used to create advanced composite aircraft and
military products.

Structures fabricated with traditional hand lay up techniques can become resin rich and vacuum
bagging can eliminate the problem. Additionally, complete fiber wet-out can be accomplished if
the process is done correctly. Improved core bonding is also possible with vacuum bag
processing.

Process:
In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a flexible film (PVA, nylon, mylar, or polyethylene) is
placed over the wet lay up, the edges are sealed, and a vacuum is drawn. A more advanced form
of vacuum bagging places a release film over the laminate, followed by a bleeder ply of
fiberglass cloth, non-woven nylon, polyester cloth, or other material that absorbs excess resin
from the laminate. A breather ply of a non woven fabric is placed over the bleeder ply, and the
vacuum bag is mounted over the entire assembly. Pulling a vacuum from within the bag uses
atmospheric pressure to eliminate voids and force excess resin from the laminate. The addition of
pressure further results in high fiber concentration and provides better adhesion between layers
of sandwich construction. When laying non-contoured sheets of PVC foam of balsa into a female
mold, vacuum bagging is the technique of choice to ensure proper secondary bonding of the core
to the outer laminate.

Molds:
Molds are similar to those used for conventional open mold processes.
CAST POLYMERS MOLDING
Cast polymers are unique in the composites industry: they typically don’t have fiber
reinforcement and are designed to meet specific strength requirements of an application. Cast
polymer molding is used to produce parts of any shape or size.

1. Gel Coated Cultured Stone

Gel coat is a specialized polyester resin that is formulated to provide a cosmetic outer surface on
a composite product and to provide weather ability for outdoor products.

Several variations of cultured stone products are manufactured using a gel coated surface and a
resin-matrix casting process. In this process a gel coat film (usually clear) is sprayed on the mold
surface. Once the gel coat is sufficiently cured, a polyester resin matrix is blended by adding
various types of fillers to the resin. Pigments for both a solid background color and the look of
veins found in natural stone can be added. The resin matrix is then transferred to the mold, where
vibration is applied to level and compact the matrix. Following the cure, the part is removed
from the mold.

Gel coat is not paint. Paint contains solvents that must evaporate for the paint to dry. The
‘solvent’ in gel coat is styrene monomer and/or methyl metha crylate (acrylic), which cross-links
during curing. The monomer does not have to leave the system for the gel coat to cure; in fact, it
is beneficial to reduce monomer loss.
The appearance of the cultured stone products is determined by the type of filler used and by the
application of colorants to the matrix. Fillers come in a variety of materials. Many of the fillers
used in the composites industry are mineral substances. Mineral fillers have distinctive shapes
that relate to their chemical structure.

 Marble: The natural marble look is reproduced by formulating a matrix using calcium
carbonate filler. In some cases, other fillers or combinations of fillers may be used. Resin,
initiator, filler, and pigment are mixed to form a solid-color matrix. The marble veining
effect is created by adding a second pigment to the matrix and partially mixing it to
produce the desired look.
 Onyx: The process of manufacturing cultured onyx is similar to that of cultured marble,
except alumina trihydrate (ATH) filler is used. The cultured onyx matrix generally has a
higher resin content compared with cultured marble, and the combination of materials
creates a translucent appearance. Background and veining pigments are added to the
matrix to produce an onyx stone look.
 Granite: The cultured granite appearance is created by blending colored chips into the
resin matrix. These chips can be made from cultured marble castings, thermoplastics, or
even actual granite stone that has been ground into particles. The cultured granite matrix
usually consists of polyester resin, initiator, colored chips, and ATH filler.

2. Solid Surface Molding

Solid surface is a void-free casting made from a blend of polyester resin or acrylic resin,
initiator, ATH, color chips, and pigment.

Solid surface can be formulated to achieve a wide variety of looks and cosmetic effects, such
as simulating natural granite stone. For this reason, it is often used to manufacture products
like kitchen countertops.
In contrast to the gel coated surface of cultured marble, solid surface parts are homogeneous
throughout. This makes it possible to join fabricated pieces with inconspicuous seams and to
repair and refinish the surface to its original condition.

Solid surface, or densified, castings are made using vacuum-mixing techniques to produce a
matrix that is void free. This produces a material that presents a uniform surface when it is
cut, sanded, or bonded. Solid surface castings are post-cured at elevated temperatures (in the
range of 200 degrees Fahrenheit) to enhance the physical properties of the matrix and
produce a stable product. Solid surface can be compression molded, which is a high-pressure,
closed-molding process suitable for molding high volumes of complex solid surface parts.
The compression molding process uses matched metal-heated molds mounted in large
hydraulic presses.

Compression molding produces fast molding cycles and high part uniformity but requires a
high capital investment in tooling and equipment. Features such as inserts, ribs, bosses or
attachments can be molded in. Good surface finishes can contribute to lower part-finishing
costs. Subsequent trimming and machining operations are minimized in compression
molding. This process is capital intensive and labor-efficient. Labor costs are low due to the
fast cycle times and reduced post-mold finishing, while capital costs are high for heated-
metal tooling and molding presses. Compression molding is a good option for large
production volumes of uniform parts.

Engineered Stone Molding

Engineered stone refers to cast products that combine natural stone materials with polymer
casting resins. These products, by virtue of the actual stone in the matrix, are the hardest and
most durable product of all consumer-grade cast polymer products. Features include: high
heat resistance, low thermal expansion, and good stain or scratch resistance. The engineered
stone matrix bonds relatively large sized particles (compared with fillers) of natural stone
with a thermoset resin. Typically a small amount of resin (8 to 15 percent by weight) is
combined with the stone particles and poured into an open-cavity mold; or a vacuum-assisted
press technique can be used to extract air from the matrix and compress it into a low porosity
casting.