Chapter 31 – Alternating Current

- Phasors and Alternating Currents

- Resistance and Reactance

- Magnetic-Field Energy

- The L-R-C Series Circuit

- Power in Alternating-Current Circuits

- Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits

- Transformers
1. Phasors and Alternating Currents
Ex. source of ac: coil of wire rotating with
constant ω in a magnetic field
sinusoidal
alternating emf.

v = V cos ωt i = I cos ωt
v, i = instantaneous potential difference / current.
V, I = maximum potential difference / current

voltage/current amplitude. ω = 2πf

Phasor Diagrams

- Represent sinusoidally varying voltages /

currents through the projection of a vector,
with length equal to the amplitude, onto a
horizontal axis.

- Phasor: vector that rotates counterclockwise

with constant ω.
- Diode (rectifier): device that conducts better in full wave rectifier circuit
one direction than in the other. If ideal, R = 0 in
one direction and R = ∞ in other.

Rectified average current (Irav): during any whole

number of cycles, the total charge that flows is same
as if current were constant (Irav).

2
irav = I
π

average value
of Іcos ωtІ or
Іsin ωtІ
Root-Mean Square (rms) values:

2 I V
irms = (i ) av = Vrms =
2 2

i 2 = I 2 cos 2 ωt

cos 2 ωt = 0.5 ⋅ (1 + cos 2ωt )

i 2 = 0.5 I 2 + 0.5 I 2 cos(2ωt )

2. Resistance and Reactance
Resistor in an ac circuit

vR = iR = ( IR) cos ωt = VR cos ωt (instantaneous

potential)

VR = IR (amplitude –max- of voltage across R)

- Current in phase with voltage
phasors rotate together

Inductor in an ac Circuit

- Current varies with time
self-induced emf

di/dt > 0
ε < 0
di
ε = −L
dt
Va > Vb
Vab = Va-Vb = VL = L di/dt > 0

di d
vL = L = L ( I cos ωt )
dt dt

(
vL = − IωL sin ωt = IωL cos ωt + 90
)
vL has 90º “head start” with respect to i.
Inductor in an ac circuit

i = I cos ωt
vL = IωL cos(ωt + 90
)
VL

v = V cos(ωt + ϕ )

φ = phase angle = phase of voltage relative to current

Pure resistor: φ=0

Pure inductor: φ = 90º
VL High ω
low I
Inductive reactance: X L = ωL I= Low ω
high I
ωL
Voltage amplitude: VL = IX L = IωL Inductors used to block high ω
Capacitor in an ac circuit
As the capacitor charges and discharges
at each t,
there is “i” in each plate, and equal displacement current
between the plates, as though charge was conducted
through C.

dq
i= = I cos ωt → ∫ dq = ∫ I cos ωtdt C = q / vC
dt
I
q= sin ωt
ω

q I I
vc = = sin ωt = cos(ωt − 90
)
C ωC ωC

I Pure capacitor: φ = 90º

VC =
ωC vc lags current by 90º.
 1
Capacitive reactance: XC =
ωC

VC = IX C (amplitude of voltage across C)

I = VCωC High ω
high I

Capacitor in an ac circuit
Low ω
low I

Capacitors used to block low ω (or low f)

high-pass filter
Comparing ac circuit elements:

- R is independent of ω.
- XL and XC depend on ω.
- If ω = 0 (dc circuit)
Xc = 1/ωC
∞

ic = 0

XL = ωL = 0

- If ω
∞, XL
∞
iL = 0

XC = 0
VC = 0
current changes direction so rapidly that no

charge can build up on each plate.
Example: amplifier
C in tweeter branch blocks low-f components of sound
but passes high-f; L in woofer branch does the opposite.
3. The L-R-C Series Circuit
- Instantaneous v across L, C, R = vad = v source
- Total voltage phasor = vector sum of phasors of
individual voltages.

- C, R, L in series
same current, i = I cosωt

only one phasor (I) for three circuit elements, amplitude I.

- The projections of I and V phasors onto

horizontal axis at t give rise to instantaneous
i and v.

VC = IR
(amplitudes = maximum
VL = IX L values)
VC = IX C
-The instantaneous potential difference between terminals a,d =
= algebraic sum of vR, vC, vL (instantaneous voltages) =
= sum of projections of phasors VR, VC, VL
= projection of their vector sum (V) that represents the source voltage v and
instantaneous voltage vad across series of elements.

V = VR2 + (VL − Vc ) 2 = ( IR) 2 + ( IX L − IX c ) 2 = I R 2 + ( X L − X c ) 2

Impedance: Z = R 2 + ( X L − X c )2

V = IZ

Z = R 2 + [ωL − (1 / ωC )]2

Impedance of R-L-C series circuit

 V −V I (X L − X C ) X L − X C Phase angle of the source
tan ϕ = L C = = voltage with respect to
VR IR R current

ωL − 1 / ωC
tan ϕ =
R

i = I cos ωt
v = V cos(ωt + ϕ )

V I
Vrms = I rms Z = Z
2 2
Example 31.5
4. Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
1
P = VI
2
2
V I 2 Vrms
Pav = = Vrms I rms = I rms R =
2 2 R

1
P = VI
2
 Power in a General Circuit

P = vi = [V cos(ωt + ϕ )][ I cos ωt ] = [V (cos ωt cos ϕ − sin ωt sin ϕ )][ I cos ωt ]

= VI cos ϕ cos 2 ωt − VI sin ϕ cos ωt sin ωt

1
Pav = VI cos ϕ = Vrms I rms cos ϕ
2
5. Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits
1 1
X L = XC ω 0L = ω0 =
ω0 C LC
6. Transformers
dΦ B dΦ B
ε 1 = − N1 ε 2 = −N2
dt dt

ε 2 N2
=
ε 1 N1

V2 N 2
=
V1 N1

V2 R
=
I1 ( N 2 / N1 )