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CPCCBC4006B

Technical Report Template

Student Name: Mohammad Saiful Islam

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Contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….03
Concrete elements………………………………………………………………………03
Concrete materials………………………………………………………………………03

Aggregate…………………………………………………………………………………..03
Water/Cement ratio…………………………………………………………………………………..04
Compressive Strength…………………………………………………………………………………..04
Concrete in cold/hot weather…………………………………………………………………………………..04
Workability of concrete…………………………………………………………………………………..04
Transporting…………………………………………………………………………………..06
Placing…………………………………………………………………………………..07
Compaction and vibration…………………………………………………………………………………..08
Formwork…………………………………………………………………………………..08
Edge forms with rebates…………………………………………………………………………………..09
Types of reinforcements…………………………………………………………………………………..09
Finishing…………………………………………………………………………………..09
Additives…………………………………………………………………………………..10
Curing…………………………………………………………………………………..10
Environmental Effect…………………………………………………………………………………..11

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1.
Introduction
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material in the world. Residential construction
represents a major market for concrete in the U.S. The main uses for concrete in residential
construction include footings, basement walls, and slabs on ground (floor slabs, driveways, sidewalks,
and parking areas), however concrete may also be used above ground for suspended slabs, wall and
roof systems. The residential concrete industry is least regulated of all segments of concrete industry.
Hence, a need was felt to identify the main problems faced during the construction and highlight the
important factors to be considered during construction.

2.
Concrete elements
Typical elements in residential building construction include footings, foundation walls and slabs on
ground. Detailed information on design and construction of these types of elements is provided in AS
Code. Footings are provided to distribute loads to the soil and to provide a platform for construction of
foundation walls and support posts. In addition to distributing the loads to the soils and minimizing
differential settlement that can cause cracking in walls above the footing, the footings can bridge
isolated areas of settled soil under the footing. Footings should be placed below the frost line and
concrete should not be cast in standing water or mud. During cold weather the soil should be
protected from freezing before and after concrete placement. A footing drainage system is usually
required to minimize lateral loads on foundation walls. Formwork for concrete walls is supported on
the footings. Forms may be re-usable or stay in place. Reusable forms may be made of wood,
aluminum, or a wood - steel combination. Stay in place forms are usually made from polystyrene foam
forms connected by plastic ties. Horizontal and vertical reinforcement is usually placed in concrete
walls to resist applied loads and control cracking due to shrinkage and temperature effects. Concrete
slabs are used as the floor in basement areas, or as the main floor in buildings without basements in
residential construction. Elevated slabs spanning between walls or column supports are sometimes,
used particularly in multi-occupancy residential construction with several floors above the ground level
(Bondy, 2005). Slabs are also used outdoors for sidewalks, driveways, carports, and parking areas.
Slabs on ground can be structural plain concrete without 4reinforcement although reinforcement is
often used to control cracking due to settlement, shrinkage and temperature effect.

3.
Concrete materials
Concrete consists of cementitious material (Portland cement, fly ash, slag etc), coarse
aggregate (gravel), fine aggregate (sand) and water. Admixtures and additives may also be added
to produce desired properties. The strength of the mix depends to a large extent on the proportions of
these ingredients. Each material in concrete has its own significance and changing proportions alters
the properties of concrete significantly. Concrete is usually supplied to the site by a ready mix
concrete supplier. Hence, the concrete mix supplier should be consulted prior to altering the
proportion of cement, aggregates or water. The information regarding the constituents of concrete is
presented in the following paragraphs.

4.
Aggregates
Aggregates occupy the major portion of concrete by volume and serve as inexpensive filler.
Aggregates should be chemically inert so that they do not react with cement or water which might
lead to deterioration of concrete. The size, shape, and surface texture of aggregate also affect the
quality of concrete. Aggregates should preferably be cubical or rounded. The aggregates size should
not be more than one fifth of the narrowest form dimension or one - third of the cross -sectional
dimension of a structural member or three quarters of the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing

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bars. They should be without impurities and well graded. Aggregates with high absorption should be
avoided as they may lead to high shrinkage. Alkali-silica reaction can occur between certain
aggregates and portland cement. This can be controlled by keeping concrete as dry as possible or by
using blended cements or using fly ash, slag, silica fume materials or certain admixtures.

5.
Water/Cement ratio
The cementitious pastes consist of cement and water that coats and bonds the aggregates together.
This paste also fills the voids between the aggregates. The strength of concrete depends primarily on
water cement ratio. If the amount of cement is increased, the strength of the concrete will increase.
However, there should be sufficient water present in the mix to hydrate all of the cement. Addition of
water more than the specified amount will provide ease of placing the concrete i.e. workability;
however, it will decrease the strength of the resulting mix and increase the potential for shrinkage
which may further increase development of cracks. Water cement ratio should be preferably less than
0.45. No additional water should be added at the job site to ready mix concrete unless water-cement
ratio at the time of batching is lower than the allowable. If the slump is lower than the maximum
allowed value, high range water reducing agents may be used. Retarders can be used when the
concrete mix truck has to travel a long distance from the concrete plant to the job site so that concrete
does not set before it reaches the site. Retarders temporarily stop the action of hydration of cement.

6
. Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete used for residential construction should not be lower than 2500
psi. This range is applicable only where the weathering probability is negligible. For construction of
driveways, stairs, curbs, slabs which will be exposed to weather, the minimum compressive strengthof
concrete should not be less than 4500 psi and slump should not be more than 5". Concrete has a
tendency to shrink when it dries. Cracks may develop when shrinkage is restrained. This restraint
may result from support conditions, reinforcing steel, connection between different parts of structure
etc. Cracks are generated as a result of shrinkage. Since shrinkage is greater at the surface, it
generates surface cracks initially. Concrete has low tensile strength. If the tensile stress on a concrete
component is greater than the tensile strength, concrete tends to crack. Joints may be provided to
control cracking. Concrete may crack randomly in slabs on ground if control joints are not provided to
divide the slab into smaller sections. Hence, control joints are created into concrete so that cracking
occurs at predetermined locations. These control joints are created by grooving and sawing the
concrete surface. Figure 6 shows the creation of control joint in a concrete slab

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7. Concrete in cold/hot weather
Concrete gets permanently damaged if it is exposed to freezing temperature before reaching a
compressive strength of 500 psi. Hence, for cold weather concreting special provisions are needed for
maintaining the placement temperature. Insulation products and supplemental heat may be needed to
maintain the concrete temperature. Accelerators can be used when casting concrete during cold
weather. Accelerators decrease the setting time of concrete to counter the effect of low temperature.
If the ambient temperature is less than 35 °F, concrete temperature should be maintained above 35
°F till the compressive strength reaches 500 psi. Frozen material containing ice should not be used in
the mix. Materials coming in contact with concrete like aggregates, reinforcement, form, should be
free from frost. ACI 306R provides detailed requirements for cold weather concreting.
Casting concrete in hot weather can also lower the ultimate concrete strength and serviceability of a
concrete member. In hot weather, water is evaporated from the mix, slump decreases rapidly and
cement sets up rapidly. The water at the surface may dry up quickly and if not cured adequately, it
may decrease the ultimate strength. Loss of water may lead to shrinkage and cracking.
Adding more water may compromise the ultimate strength of the mix. Sometimes dry sub grades and
formwork can absorb water from the concrete mix aggravating the problem. Thermal differential may
set up between two parts of the member which might lead to cracking. Retarders 15 are used in areas
where high temperature may decrease the setting time of concrete.

8. Workability of concrete
The concrete mix should be workable during placement and finishing. Properties like consistency,
setting time and bleeding also affect the strength of concrete. Some parameters concerning the
casting phase of concrete are discussed below.

8.1 Slump
Pre-mixed concrete manufacturers generally proportion the concrete mix with consideration to
the travel time and ambient temperature so that the concrete meets the specification at the time of
delivery. They are not required by AS 1379 to carry out a slump test on site, unless water is added to
the mix during the discharge of the concrete, in which case the concrete must be thoroughly re-
mixed in accordance with the Standard and a slump test carried out on there mainder of the batch
to ensure it remains within the tolerances of the specified slump. The tolerance for a slump up to 80
mm is ±15 mm and from 80 up to100 mm ± 20 mm. The amount of water added to the mix should
be recorded on the delivery docket. As stated above, the ordering of a higher slump initially(100
mm) should eliminate the need to add water onsite and hence the requirement to carry out slump
testing on site. If a builder has serious concerns that the concrete mix does not have the specified
slump, an on-site slump test should be requested. If the builder undertakes the slump testing,
samples should be taken on site from concrete discharged directly from the concrete truck.
The slump test is covered by AS 1012.3.1.

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The slump value of concrete should not be increased only by adding water as water may make the
cement paste thin and reduce the strength of concrete and increase shrinkage. If required, slump can
be increased by the use of admixtures.

8.2 Setting time

Setting time is the time concrete takes for initial stiffening once the water has been added to the mix.
It can vary from 4 to 8 hrs depending on the mix composition, cement properties, temperature of mix
and ambient temperature. The setting time of concrete increases with decrease in temperature.

8.3 Bleeding
After the concrete has been placed, solid material settles down whereas excess water rises to the
surface. This phenomenon is known as bleeding. During finishing, this water may get mixed with the
surface layer leading to creation of weakened zone and fine cracks, and surface defects such as
dusting and scaling. Hence, finishing should not be done while bleed water is present.

8.4 Air entrainment

Air entrainment admixtures help entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete. This improves the workability
of concrete. The amount of water required to achieve a certain consistency also decreases with the
use of air entrainment admixtures. As the amount of water decreases in the mix, the strength of
concrete increases and the problem of bleed water reduces. The bubbles remain as discrete voids
after hardening of concrete. These voids help in releasing the pressure during the freeze-thaw cycle.
It is required that concrete subjected to freezing and thawing should have between 5%-8% of
entrained air by volume. For regions of minimum weathering probability, there is no minimum air
entrainment requirement.

8.5 Concrete cover

Concrete cover for concrete cast against earth should be minimum 50 mm, for concrete exposed to
weather or earth, cover should be minimum 40 mm and for concrete not exposed to weather and
earth, cover should be minimum 20mm.

9 Transporting
9.1. General
When water is added to cement it triggers hydration, setting begins and the concrete mix begins
losing workability with time. Delays in deliveries from the batching plant, on the road and on the site,
should be avoided. Delays reduce the amount of time to place concrete while it is still workable.
Additional mixing of the concrete may be necessary on site, further delaying placement. Note that AS
1379 requires discharge of the concrete within 90 minutes from the commencement of mixing, or
before proper placement and compaction of the concrete can no longer be achieved, whichever
comes first. The setting process is also accelerated in high temperatures. To avoid premature setting
and difficult placement, the following procedures should be adopted:
Select a pre-mix supplier close to the site to
reduce traveling time.
 Provide good access for trucks to enter, and clear
space for turning and maneuvering, to allow for
the quick discharge of the load.
 Ensure that adequate labour is on hand to minimize the unloading time for the concrete.
Always try to finish the placement of all reinforcement, erection of formwork and site
inspections at least 24 hours beforehand.
 Check that all mechanical appliances (eg vibrators, screeds) are in working order the day
before placement to allow time for replacement or repair if needed.
 When pumping concrete, plan delivery schedules with enough time between loads to avoid
delaying trucks.
 Consider using a pump if the weather is unpredictable. Overnight rain can limit access
to the site and reduce the amount of time for placement.

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10 Placing
10.1 General
Common placement methods (other than chute placement and pumping) require barrowing the
concrete into position or manual shoveling; usually in successive placements. Barrowing concrete
over reinforcement is often necessary. Displacement of the reinforcement should be prevented by
providing running boards supported above the reinforcement on
blocks. It is important not to over-handle the concrete as this can lead to segregation of materials (see
glossary) and result in poor finishes. To minimize the risk of segregation, concrete should be placed
vertically and as near as possible to its final position. When it must be moved, it should be shoveled
into position and not be left to flow into position. Other techniques for avoiding segregation during
placement depend on the type of element being constructed and on the type of distribution equipment
being used. For flatwork and slabs incorporating ribs and beams (shallow forms) the techniques
shown in Figure 4.1 should be adopted. For walls and columns (deep, narrow forms), problems occur
when the concrete is dropped from too great a height and ricochets off the reinforcement and form-
faces, resulting in segregation. The means of avoiding this vary with the type of distribution equipment
being used Figure. The use of a tremmie could prove the most practical solution; however, the size of
the element and spacing of reinforcement must be able to accommodate the chute or tremmie.

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11 Compaction and vibration
10.1 General
Compaction of concrete is undertaken to improve its overall performance. Compaction is the process
that expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete thus increasing its density. It is important that
compaction continues until no further air bubbles can be seen emerging from the surface of the
concrete.

The most common form of compaction is vibration, undertaken with poker vibrators or surface
vibrators such as vibrating screeds. Other methods of compaction include form (external) vibration,
tamping and rodding.
Adequate compaction of concrete will:
≥ significantly increase its strength and density and thus allow the design strength to be achieved;
≥ enhance the bond to mesh and bar reinforcement plus any inserted structural anchors and hold
downs and thus provide anchorage;
≥ increase the abrasion resistance of the surface and thus reduce wear from traffic;
≥ increase the general durability and thus provide longer life;
≥ decrease the permeability and thus limit penetration of water and other aggressive substances (both
air-borne and contained in ground water);
≥ reduce the risk of plastic settlement cracking over deep beams and mesh/bar reinforcement (plus
other restraints within the concrete) as well as long term drying shrinkage cracking;
≥ improve the quality of off-form finishes by ensuring concrete completely fills the forms.

12. Formwork
Formwork is the temporary structure which moulds concrete into the desired shape, and holds it in the
correct position until it has hardened sufficiently and/or is able to support the loads imposed on it.
Formwork should have sufficient:
≥ strength to resist the pressure of the fluid concrete without damage or excessive deflection;
≥ stiffness to avoid bows/bulges outside the tolerances specified for the work;
≥ accuracy of construction to ensure correct surface levels and dimensions/shape;
≥ watertightness to prevent the loss of cement paste and/or matrix from the concrete (this can cause
ragged edges, hydration staining and honeycombing, which in turn can affect strength, durability and
result in poor off-form finishes);
≥ robustness to allow repeated stripping, storing and erection.

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Formwork should be coated with a form release agent to improve concrete finishes, aid in the removal
of the formwork and thus minimise possible damage to the concrete face from the stripping operation.
There are two basic types of release agents: barrier products which simply separate the concrete
from the formwork, and the more common reactive products which react with the concrete
constituents to form soap-like products that prevent the concrete from adhering to the formwork. A
release agent suitable for the type of formwork and finish required should be selected. Formwork is
left in place, primarily, to protect the edges of the slab from mechanical damage during site works
(while the concrete is hardening), and to avoid damage from the premature removal of the formwork
itself. Formwork is also an effective means of curing when it is left in place. If the formwork is stripped
before 3 days have elapsed, it is advisable to continue curing exposed surfaces with one of the
methods.

13. Edge forms with rebates

Many house slabs have rebates at the slab edge to allow an external skin of brickwork to sit on a
dampproof course (DPC) below the floor level. Figure 5.4 shows a typical construction method with
timber formwork for raft slab construction: the rebate form can be either solid timber, or more
commonly consist of brackets with a timber edge board along the inside of the rebate Figure 5.5. For
footing slab construction, an alternative to providing braced edge forms similar to Figure 5.3 (a) is
shown in Figure 5.6. With this formwork method, edge forms are secured to greased 25-mm steel
dowels placed into footing beams and removed after the slab has set. The holes are filled with grout
once the dowels have been removed. The external leaf of masonry is constructed off the footing with
a gap to the slab edge; and the internal wall is constructed off the slab and aligned with the slab
edge.

14. Types of reinforcement

Reinforcement is usually supplied in the firm of steel bars or steel wires welded together to form a
mesh. Bars are normally associated with beams and columns, and mesh with floors and walls. Bars
can either be of low or normal ductility steel, eg L12 or N12. Normal ductility bars will elongate more
under load and are the type nominated in AS 2870 for all slabs and footings where bars are required
or given as an alternative to mesh. All mesh is produced from cold drawn (and therefore low ductility)
wires and are prefixed with an ‘L’ for low ductility, eg 3-L11TM (three 11-mm-diameter low ductility
wires). Mesh for slabs is typically designated as SL72, SL82, etc. The ‘S’ stands for square mesh, ‘L’
for low ductility, the first digit is the nominal wire diameter; and the second digit indicates the spacing
of the wires in the mesh. Concrete may also be reinforced with fibres, the main type being steel.
Polypropylene fibres are also available but do not increase the tensile strength of a concrete member
in the same way as steel bars, mesh or fibres, but will, however, provide some control
of plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete.

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15. Finishing
15.1 Screeding
Screeding is the operation of levelling the concreteafter it is placed in the forms and roughly
distributed with shovels. It is done by hand, or by means of vibrating-beam screeds, which work off
the forms or guide rails. It should be done before bleedwater rises to the surface. Hand screeding
involves the use of a screed board (or beam) to strike off the concrete to the required height either off
forms of by use of a level. The striking surface of a screed board should always be straight and true.
The surface is struck off by pulling the screed board forward, while moving it back and forth in a
sawing-like motion across the top of the edge forms/concrete. A small roll or surcharge of concrete
should always be kept ahead of the screed. Surface hollows created by aggregate ‘roll out’ or
insufficient surcharge in front of the screed should always be filled immediately to ensure a flat
surface.

15.2 Floating
The purpose of floating is to make the surface even and open in texture, ready for finishing.
Floating is working the surface of concrete with bullfloats, hand floats or with rotary finishing machines
fitted with suitable floats or shoes. Generally, it should not begin until all bleedwater has evaporated
from the surface, or has been carefully removed with a hessian drag or garden hose; and the
concrete is hard enough to withstand foot traffic with only minor indentations in the surface. These
indentations are removed by the floating operation. Floating:
≥ embeds large aggregate particles beneath the surface;
≥ removes slight imperfections and produces a surface closer to a true plane;
≥ compacts the concrete and consolidates mortar at the surface, preparing it for finishing; and
≥ closes minor surface cracks, which might appear as the surface dries.

16. Additives
Water-reducing admixtures are chemical products that when added to concrete can create a desired
slump at a lower water-cement ratio than what it is normally designed. Water-reducing admixtures are
used to obtain specific concrete strength using lower cement content.

17. Curing
The concrete surface should be hard enough to prevent surface damage from placement activities.
Applying membrane-forming curing compounds. Membrane-forming curing compounds are used to
retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete. They can be clear or translucent and white
pigmented.

Reasons for curing

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To sum up the advantages of careful control of moisture and temperature in curing:

 The strength of concrete increases with age if curing conditions are favourable. Compressive
strength of properly cured concrete is 80 to 100 per cent greater than the strength of concrete
which has not been cured at all.
 Properly cured concrete surfaces wear well.
 Drying, shrinkage, cracking is reduced.
 Greater watertightness of constructions is assured.

Points to keep in mind when curing:

 Start curing operations as soon as possible after concrete has been placed.
 For proper curing concrete needs moisture.
 Continuity in curing is a must; alterations of wetting and drying promote the development of
cracking.
 If during curing the concrete is allowed to dry out - as may happen in hot weather - the
chemical stops right at the point where the concrete loses its moisture.
 The ideal curing temperature is 23°C.
 Cure concrete for at least 7 days.

The vicious cycle in inadequate curing must be obvious. If enough water evaporates from the
concrete before it has attained its maximum strength, there will not be sufficient water remaining in
the concrete to fully hydrate the cement and so achieve that maximum strength.

18. Environmental Effect:

A major component of concrete is cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and
contributes largely to those of concrete. The cement industry is one of the primary producers of
carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the
earth, the topsoil. One reason why the carbon emissions are so high is because cement has to be
heated to very high temperatures in order for clinker to form. A major culprit of this is alite (Ca3SiO5),
a mineral in concrete that cures within hours of pouring and is therefore responsible for much of its
initial strength. However, alite also has to be heated to 1,500 °C in the clinker-forming process. Some
research suggests that alite can be replaced by a different mineral, such as belite (Ca2SiO4). Belite is
also a mineral already used in concrete. It has a roasting temperature of 1,200 °C, which is
significantly lower than that of alite. Furthermore, belite is actually stronger once concrete cures.
However, belite takes on the order of days or months to set completely, which leaves concrete weak
for an unacceptably long time. Current research is focusing on finding possible impurity additives, like
magnesium, that might speed up the curing process. It is also worthwhile to consider that belite takes
more energy to grind, which may make its full life impact similar to or even higher than alite.

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