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2 AERODYNAMICS
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Effect of Shapes on Streamlined Flow
STREAMLINED
Boundary Layer
Unaffected airflow
STREAMLINED
Boundary Layer
STREAMLINED
Separation and turbulence at various
AOA
STALLING
AERODYNAMIC TERM
Stagnation point
Velocity = 0m/s
AIRFOIL
Airfoil Shape
• Medium and high speed aircraft – much less
curvature lift comes from their additional speed
through the air.
• Low speed aircraft – cambered not for high speed
(excess lift as well as drag)
AIRFOIL
CAMBER (CURVE)
• Camber curvature of an aerofoil (wing)
above and below the chord line
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
AIRFOIL @ AEROFOIL
• Any surface which produces a reaction (lift) as air
passes over it
• The airfoil should provide this reaction (lift), whilst
having a shape which presents the least possible
resistance, or drag, to its passage through air
AIRFOIL
T/C AND FINENESS RATIO
Thicness/Chord ratio = CD
AB
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
• Average distance between leading and trailing
edge of wing
• Mean chord = Wing Area
Wing Span
ANGLE OF ATTACK
• The acute angle formed between the relative wind
striking an airfoil and the chord line.
• Increasing the angle from zero degree to a maximum
(between 15 degrees and 18 degrees) will increase
lift, but will also increases drag.
CENTER OF PRESSURE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
o Angle formed by the
intersection of the wing
chord line and the
horizontal plane or
longitudinal axis of aircraft
o Positive Angle of Incidence
(AOI) – leading edge higher
than trailing edge
o Correct AOI low drag +
longitudinal stability
o ‘Wash out’ – higher AOI at
wing root than at wing tip
o ‘Wash in’ – higher AOI at
wing tip than at wing root
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
WASH IN AND OUT
• Wash in :
– Angle of incident increase from root to tip
– Tip will stall 1st
• Wash out :
– Angle of incident decrease from root tip
– Root will stall 1st
CENTER OF PRESSURE (c.p)
The position whereby the resultant force (lift) cuts
through chord line and considered to act
Total Lift
Shape of airfoil and angle of attack influence the c.p
Position of lines denotes
location and direction direction of lift
Length of line denote
magnitude of lift
Direction
of airflow
Center of Pressure
CENTER OF PRESSURE
CENTER OF PRESSURE (c.p)
o Position of c.p varies during flight as the angle of attack (AOA)
altered
a. Increase AOA – c.p moves forward
b. Decrease AOA – c.p moves backward
o In normal flight the AOA usually between 2˚ and 4˚ (seldom
below 0˚ or above 16˚)
Small AOA Medium AOA Large AOA
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Lift
Weight
Bernoulli’s theorem
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Venturi Effect
• A short circular tube with
large opening at both the
front and rear end +
restrictor between the
opening
• Venturi is a
convergent/divergent
duct
• Bernoulli’s Theory is
being proven by passing
a streamline flow of air
through a venturi duct
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Venturi Effect
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Venturi Effect
INLET CENTRE (THROAT) OUTLET
Airspeed normal Airspeed maximum Airspeed decrease
Pressure normal Pressure minimum Pressure increase
(equal to inlet area)
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Camber (Curved)
• Airflow around the cambered wing behave exactly as airflow
in a venturi tube
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
Airflow on wing (Lift distribution)
Increased Speed Provide 70% of the wing’s Total Lift
Decreased Speed
Decreased pressure
70% of Total Lift
Increased pressure
Providing 30% of the wing’s Total Lift
Decreased Speed
Increased Speed
30% of Total Lift
PRODUCTION OF LIFT
STREAMLINED
Streamline – shape or contour that presents a
minimum resistance to the air
A perfect streamlined form is similar to the top view
of a fish
Air flows around non-streamlined object air swirls
into eddies + streamline distorted disappear
Airstream becomes turbulent
Streamline air appears as smooth parallel lines
STREAMLINED
Effect of Shapes on Streamlined Flow
STREAMLINED
DRAG
DRAG
DRAG
RESISTANCE TO FORWARD MOTION
DRAG
FORM DRAG
Caused by the shape or form of the aircraft
• Reducing form drag
• Streamlining – aircraft shaped to produce least
resistance to the airflow
• For least resistance object length between 3-4
times greater than maximum thickness
• Fineness ratio – ratio between length and maximum
thickness
DRAG
PARASITE DRAG
A combination of many different drag forces
Any exposed object on an aircraft offers some
resistance to the airflow, and the more objects in
the airstream, the more parasite drag
Reducing parasite drag
• reducing the number of exposed parts to as few as
practical and streamlining their shape.
DRAG
Streamlining
DRAG
INDUCED AND TOTAL DRAG
• Lift created by the airfoil also created drag
induced drag
DRAG
THRUST AND WEIGHT
• Thrust is forward force produce by engine
• Determine by size and type use in propulsion
system
• Weight is a mass of aircraft act vertically
downward
• Determined by size and material used in
aircraft
FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT IN
THRUST FLIGHT
• The aircraft’s propelling force LIFT
• Arranged symmetrically to the Acts at right angle to the line of
centre line flight & through the Centre of
• Act parallel to the line of flight Pressure of the wings
DRAG
• Opposes the forward motion
WEIGHT@ GRAVITY • Regarded as a rearward acting
Acts vertically downwards through force
the Centre of Gravity
IDEAL ANGLE
POLAR CURVE
• Drag Polar is the relationship between the lift
and its drag interm on coefficeient
STALL
STALLING
AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION
• Any contamination on wing will affect its
performance
• Need to provide method to remove the
contamination during flying
• Type of contamination :
– Ice
– Snow
– Frost