Geography 221

Physical Geography Lab

Fall 2017

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 L A B S C H E D U L E FA L L 2 0 1 7
WE E K STARTING ENDING
COURSE INTRODUCTION 21 August 25 August

LAB 1: FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS 28 August 1 September

LAB 2: SOLAR RADIATION/EARTH-SUN 4 September 8 September

GEOMETRY

LAB 3: GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE 11 September 15 September

EXAM 1 18 September 22 September

LAB 4: GREENHOUSE EFFECT 25 September 29 September

LAB 5: PLATE TECTONICS 2 October 6 October

LAB 6: AEOLIAN PROCESSES 9 October 13 October

EXAM 2 16 October 20 October

LAB 7: RIVER PROCESSES 23 October 27 October

LAB 8: COASTAL PROCESSES 30 October 3 November

LAB 9: BIOGEOGRAPHY 6 November 10 November

LAB 10: GEOGRAPHY OF SOILS 13 November 17 November

NO CLASS- THANKSGIVING/FALL BREAK 20 November 24 November

EXAM 3 27 November 1 December

University Holidays

4 September, Labor Day

20 November – 24 November, Fall Break

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Lab Exercise 1 Name _____________________
Fundamental Skills Lab section ________________
GEOG 221 Lab instructor ______________

In this lab, you will:

Familiarize yourself with the Scientific Method
Learn to construct and test hypotheses
Learn to interpret maps

Materials:
Lab Computer Workstation

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer
questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In
many cases, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a
predictable way.

The steps of the scientific method are to:

 Ask a Question
 Do Background Research
 Construct Your Hypothesis
 Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an
Experiment
 Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
 Communicate Your Results

It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. A

"fair test" occurs when you change only one factor
(variable) and keep all other conditions the same.

This is easy to do in scientific disciplines that

traditionally operate in controlled laboratory settings
where one variable can easily be adjusted. In Physical Geography, much of our work is conducted by
observing the complex natural world outside of laboratory settings, which makes controlling variables
somewhat more challenging and “fair tests” difficult to achieve. However, the scientific method’s
process of hypothesis construction and testing is still central to the practice of Physical Geography.

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Constructing and Testing a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. Again, the classic format of
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen" is geared towards laboratory
manipulation experiments, but they can be adjusted to address observations in the natural world as well
along the lines of “If ___[variable A]____ is different, then ____[variable B]_____ will
increase/decrease/disappear, etc.

Example: A scientist wants to know what makes plants grow larger.

Classic Hypothesis Format: “If I increase the amount of fertilizer applied, a plant will grow larger.”

Natural World Hypothesis Format: “In areas with higher soil nutrient content, a plant will grow larger.”
Note here that the experimental manipulation of the classic format is replaced by a spatial sampling
pattern (ie – studying areas with different naturally occurring nutrient content).

You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis
should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. Deciding what variables to
measure is an important part of hypothesis testing. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can
exist in differing amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent,
dependent, and controlled.

The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist or that varies in nature. To achieve a
fair test (see definition above), an experiment can only have one independent variable. As the scientist
changes the independent variable, he or she observes what happens. In nature, it is often difficult to
isolate manipulations or differences to one independent variable in a study design.

The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent variable to see how it responds to the
change made to, or, variation in the independent variable. The new value of the dependent variable is
caused by and depends on the value of the independent variable.

Experiments also have controlled variables. Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to
remain constant, and s/he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables. Most experiments
have more than one controlled variable. Some people refer to controlled variables as "constant variables."

Example of Variables:

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In a good experiment, the scientist must be able to measure the values for each variable. Weight or mass
is an example of a variable that is very easy to measure. However, imagine trying to do an experiment
where one of the variables is love. There is no such thing as a "love-meter." You might have a belief that
someone is in love, but you cannot really be sure, and you would probably have friends that don't agree
with you. So, love is not measurable in a scientific sense; therefore, it would be a poor variable to use in
an experiment.

Exercise 1: Hypothesis

Let’s return to the example hypotheses presented above regarding plant growth:

Classic Hypothesis: “If I increase the amount of fertilizer nutrients applied, a plant will grow larger.”

Natural World Hypothesis: “In areas with higher soil nutrient content, the plant will grow larger.”

1.1 Using the examples above, how would you go about testing each of these hypotheses? First,
identify the independent, dependent and controlled variables in your hypothesis. Then develop
a test describing how you would test your hypothesis.

Classic Format:

Natural World Format:

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1.2 Which hypothesis did you find harder to test? Why?

1.3 What are some potentially uncontrolled variables in each case?

Now try to write your own hypothesis using what you have just learned about hypothesis construction and
testing. For this exercise we will focus on a subject that you should be quite familiar with: college
students. Consider the relationship between time invested in doing homework, attending class, studying
and grade performance (GPA).

The question you are asking is, “How is time investment related to grade performance?”

1.4 Write a hypothesis.

1.5 How would you test your hypothesis? Be sure to identify the independent, dependent and
controlled variables in your experiment.

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Introduction to Map Interpretation

Many geographers were first attracted to the discipline of geography through exposure to maps. Some
were highway maps unfolded during long car trips while on vacation. Others may have been topographic
maps used when hiking or camping. Although in the past maps were printed exclusively on paper, today
many are often electronically displayed. Indeed, there has even been some talk that paper maps will
disappear in the not too distant future. Whether you are looking at a paper map or an electronic one, there
are skills that must be mastered in order to use the map. In this lab, we look at the components of maps
that will allow you to understand distance, area, latitude and longitude, and be able to specify precise
locations. We begin with a look at map scale.

Map Scale

One way to think about a map is as a model of the surface of the Earth, or more often a part of that
surface. As is true with models of buildings or airplanes, a comparative measure must be provided that
relates the model to the real thing. This comparative measure is known as scale. Suffice it to say that
using a map that lacks a scale is like driving a car without an odometer; as you move from one point to
another, you have no idea how far you have gone (or still have to go). A map that lacks a scale is
virtually worthless for most geographic contexts.

But how to display scale? Perhaps the most familiar method is with a bar, usually placed at the bottom of
the map. This scale, called a graphic scale, provides a way to compare the distance on a map with that on
the surface of the Earth. Its major advantage is that it’s easy to understand and use in most circumstances.
Also, if a map is enlarged or reduced, the scale continues to show distance relationships correctly. Here is
an example of a graphic scale:

0 100 Kilometers

The units of measure must be provided with this type of scale. This can generate problems if, for
example, you are accustomed to the metric scale (as is most of the world), but the scale shows feet or
miles. The best way around this problem is to provide two or more graphic scales, commonly one using
the English system and the other the metric system.

Another type of scale, and one that is often portrayed in conjunction with a graphic scale, is a verbal
scale. As the name implies, it relates distance on the map to distance on the surface. Here is an example:

One inch represents 10 miles

Similar to the graphic scale, the verbal scale has the problem of being unit specific. Consequently, some
maps have a couple of verbal scales, each displaying a different unit of measure. Another problem with
the verbal scale is that should the map be enlarged or reduced, the scale no longer applies. A new one
must be calculated.
To get around the problem of units of measurement, geographers typically use the third type of scale
known as a fractional scale or representative fraction. This scale shows the ratio of a measurement on
the map to distance on the surface of the Earth. The trick is that the same units of measure must be used
for the distance on the map and on the surface. For example, if a map has a representative fraction of
1/24,000 (often shown as 1:24,000), one inch on the map represents 24,000 inches on the surface;
likewise, one centimeter represents 24,000 centimeters on the surface. The beauty of the fractional scale is

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that it is not tied to a particular unit of measure. However, if the map should be enlarged or reduced, a
new representative fraction must be calculated.

Returning now to our scale of 1:24,000, we noted that one inch on the map represents 24,000 inches on
the surface. For most people, 24,000 inches carries little meaning. We know it is a long way, but that is
about it. The next step in using a fractional scale usually involves converting the units for the surface
measurement into something more readily understood.

Exercise 2: Map scale

2.1 Assume you are working with a map that has a scale of 1:100,000. Answer the following
questions.

A. One inch on the map represents inches on the surface.

B. One foot on the map represents feet on the surface.

C. One inch on the map represents feet on the surface.

D. One centimeter on the map represents meters on the surface.

2.2 Suppose a map has the following verbal scale: One inch represents 20 miles. For a map of this
scale, answer the following question. Show your work in the space provided

A. One inch on the map represents how many feet on the surface?
(Hint: 1 mile = 5,280 feet)

B. Convert the scale to a fractional scale using inches. That is, one inch on the map
represents inches on the surface.

Think about the area and level of detail shown by the world map versus the map of Manhattan. The world
map is considered a small scale map, the map of Manhattan a large scale map. Consider the relationship
between the terms small scale/large scale and the size of the fractional scale. Note that a small scale map
depicts a large area, and a large scale map shows a small area. The large scale map generally includes
more detail.

2.3 What is the fractional scale for the world map posted near the lab door?

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2.4 Look at the two Manhattan topographic maps provided by the lab instructor.

A. What is the fractional scale for the smaller scale map? ____________________________

B. What is the fractional scale for the larger scale map? _____________________________

C. Rank the following fractional scales from the smallest scale map (1) to the largest scale map
(6). Use the following fractional scales:

1:1000 1:200,000 1: 1,250 1: 1,250,000 1: 25,000 1: 1,000,000

Exercise 3: Latitude and longitude

Describing location is a fundamental first step in many geographic problems. Hundreds of years ago,
geographers realized the need for a coordinate system that would allow them to specify location. This
geographic grid, as it is often called, survives to this day. Consisting of measures of latitude and
longitude, it allows you to specify very accurately the location of objects both large and small.

The system of latitude and longitude is based on a series of north-south trending lines known as meridians
and east-west trending lines called parallels. As the name parallels suggests, the lines are equidistant from
one another everywhere on the globe. In contrast, meridians converge toward the north and south poles.
Parallels are used to determine the latitude of a location, whereas meridians provide the longitude.

3.1 From information provided in the text, fill-in-the-blanks in the following statements, using the
following options: N-S, E-W, equator, or Prime Meridian.

A. Degrees of latitude run in a(n) _____________________ direction and measure in a(n)

_____________________ direction from the ___________________.

B. Degrees of longitude run in a(n) _____________________ direction and measure in a(n)

_________________________________ direction from the ___________________.

Because parallels are parallel to one another, 1o of latitude (1o of North-South distance) is approximately
111 km (69 miles) regardless of where you are on the globe. In contrast, meridians, which are used to
provide longitude, converge at the two poles. As a result, the distance covered by 1o of longitude (East-
West distance) varies across the globe. Simply put, 1o of longitude represents a greater distance at the
equator than it does at 45o N latitude.

In thinking about the distance represented by a degree of longitude or latitude, it becomes clear that we
need a more precise method to specify location. Fortunately, the system of latitude and longitude provides
such a method. Each degree of latitude or longitude is divided into 60 minutes (written as 60'). As this still
covers a great distance, each minute of latitude or longitude is divided into 60 seconds (written as 60").

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Using minutes and seconds allows us to be much more precise in giving the location of something. For
example, the latitude and longitude of Centralia, Kansas, is: 39o 42' 31'’ N 96o 07' 30'’ W. The following
exercise will help you to become familiar with the use of latitude and longitude on a world map.

3.2 Find the latitude and longitude in degrees and minutes for the following locations in the index
of Goode’s World Atlas. Remember, latitude is written first, then longitude, e.g., 52 N or S,
122 E or W.

Buenos Aires, Argentina: ______________________________________

Nairobi, Kenya: _____________________________________________

Tehran, Iran: _____________________________________________

We now turn to a more detailed type of map to examine latitude and longitude, the U.S. Geological
Survey topographic maps. These maps, which were first produced in 1889, are available for nearly all of
the United States. Because topographic maps are so detailed, geographers use them in a number of ways.
As you can see, they illustrate much of the physical and cultural landscape, including the system of
longitude and latitude.

3.3. Look at the Manhattan, KS, quadrangle (scale 1:100,000) supplied by your lab
instructor.

A. What is the latitude and longitude of each corner of the map (provide an answer in degrees and
minutes)?

SE Corner _____________________________________________________________

NE Corner _____________________________________________________________

NW Corner ____________________________________________________________

SW Corner _____________________________________________________________

B. Now provide the latitude and longitude (to the nearest minute) for the following landmarks.

Manhattan Municipal Airport: _____________________________________________

Washington Marlatt Memorial Park: _________________________________________

Milford Dam: ___________________________________________________________

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Lab Exercise 2 Name _____________________________
Solar Radiation & Earth-Sun Geometry Lab section ________________________
GEOG 221 Lab instructor ______________________

In this lab, you will:

Analyze the relationship between solar angle and energy

Measure solar zenith angle
Derive a relationship to calculate zenith angle and use for other locations
Observe the effect of solar radiation on a spherical object
Integrate all of these observations to understand the Earth's seasons

Materials

Flashlight
Graph paper
Protractor
2m piece of PVC pipe
Tape Measure
Ruler
Calculator with trig functions

Relevant Reading

Exploring Physical Geography, Ch. 2

Introduction

Solar radiation is the energy source that drives all meteorological, climatological, and biological activity
on the Earth. Because of the shape of the Earth, its distance from the sun, and the geometrical
relationship between the two, solar radiation is not evenly distributed over the entire Earth's surface. In
fact, the distribution of solar radiation over the Earth varies in both space and time, and changes over
daily and annual cycles. As the course progresses, you will see that, this heterogeneous distribution of
radiation is a direct determinant of weather and climate, and an indirect control over the distribution of
soils and life forms. Understanding the Earth-sun geometry is therefore crucial to understanding nearly
all of physical geography.

Exercise 1: Energy per unit area

Place your graph paper flat on the table top. Position the ruler so that it is in the center of the graph paper,
and perpendicular (i.e. at a 90º) to the table top. Now, place your flashlight so that it is 15 cm away from
the graph paper, pointing straight down at it (see Figure 1). Now, very carefully remove the ruler, while
holding the light steady at the same distance from the graph paper. Lightly circle the area on your paper
illuminated by the light. It will be easiest to do this with a partner; one of you holds the light while the
other circles the illuminated area. Your instructor will dim the lights in the lab room, which should also
make this activity easier.

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Figure 1. Configuration of flashlight and scale for measuring the effect of illumination angle on energy.
The flashlight is at 90º.

When you've finished marking the illuminated area on the graph, count the number of boxes that are
inside the circle, including partial boxes. Use your ruler to determine the square area for each box, and
then fill in your information on the table below. The illumination angle for this first measurement was
90º.

Now, repeat this process, but this time make your illumination angle 60º. Use the protractor to measure
the angle (see Figure 1). Continue repeating this process until you have made measurements at each angle
on the table below. Fill in your answers in the table below

1.1 You will notice another column on the table, labeled “Energy per unit area”. This information is not
immediately available, but you can figure it out easily. First, we need to determine the area of each
cell in the graph paper. For the sake of having the same area for everyone, each cell is 0.04m2. The
light bulb in your flashlight emits about 10 watts of energy. Fill this information in the following
table.

Angle Number of Squares Area Energy per Unit area

Illuminated
90º

60º

30º

1.2 Using the axes below, graph this information with angle on the X-axis and energy per unit area on the
Y-axis. Make sure to clearly label both axes, including your units! Connect the points in your
graph with a smooth line.

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1.3 In the space below, explain how varying the illumination angle affected the energy received, and also
why you think the graph looks the way it does.

1.4 Looking ahead, how do you think this process might play out at the much larger scale of the Earth-
sun system?

Exercise 2. Calculating Solar Elevation and Zenith Angle

As you composed your answer to the previous question, you (hopefully) realized that as the angle of the
sun increases (that is, as the sun gets higher in the sky) the energy per unit of area of the sunlight that
reaches the ground also increases. If temperature is related to the intensity of solar illumination (which it
is), this should mean that higher sun angles are associated with more energy and higher temperatures.
This relationship can be quantified using Lambert's Law, which quantifies the relationship between
energy and illumination angle as a function of the sine of the angle between them. Those of you who
have had trigonometry or college-level algebra will be familiar with the sine function. For the others, sine
(and all the other trigonometry functions) summarizes the relationship between the lengths of the sides of
a triangle. It is a convenient way to express angular quantities, and therefore useful for quantifying
radiation.

The sun’s position in the sky is measured using an angle measurement called the solar altitude. Imagine
a giant protractor sitting with 0° on the horizon and 90° above your head (figure 2). The sun’s “position”

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on this diagram is its altitude. Everybody (hopefully) knows that the sun isn’t really traveling across the
sky, but we’re imagining right now…

Figure 2. Depiction of suns position over Earth at various angels

2.1 You can measure solar altitude in a number of ways, but one of the easiest is by using the
shadow of an object perpendicular to the ground. To understand how this works, think for a
moment about shadows on a sunny day.

a. When are they the longest? _________________________________

b. When are they the shortest? _________________________________

c. How does this correspond to the height of the sun above the horizon?

From your instructor, get a 2m long piece of PVC pipe and a tape measure. Go outside and find a flat
surface where there's a clear view of the sun (if it's cloudy outside, your instructor will just provide you
with the necessary information). Place the pipe so that it is perpendicular to the ground, then measure the
length of the shadow that it casts (see figure 3, working in pairs will make this easier).

Figure 3. Depiction of shadow cast by standing item (such as a flag pole).

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Lambert's law tells us that if we know the length of the shadow and the height of the object casting it, we
can calculate the solar elevation. The exact formula is:

PH
tan 1  = SA
SL

where PH is the height of the pole (2m), SL is the length of the shadow in meters and SA is the solar
altitude. You'll need to use a calculator with trigonometric functions to do these calculations.

2.2 In the space below, calculate the solar elevation based on your measurements. Show all your
work, clearly label your variables, and include units.

2.3 If the solar elevation were higher, what would happen to the shadow length?

Exercise 3. Latitudinal Variation in Solar Angle

As you already know, the sun's angle changes over the course of the day, but it also changes seasonally.
The graph below shows the sun's angle at solar noon (the time when the sun reaches its highest point in
the sky) for Manhattan (Latitude 39.19ºN) over the course of a year.

3.1 Put a mark on the graph above that corresponds to the solar altitude measurement you just made. In
the space below, explain the following: does your mark exactly match the line on the graph? Why
or why not? Be specific.

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 In the previous exercises, we assumed that the surface on which the solar radiation is arriving is flat. At
the scale of the entire Earth, this is not the case. The Earth is a (roughly) spherical object and this shape
plays a large role in producing the heterogeneous distribution of solar energy that we discussed earlier.
We'll consider the effect of the spherical Earth by doing a thought experiment calculation that extends the
results from Exercise 2.

The graph depicting the sun altitude at solar noon (above) was made using an equation that relates the
solar altitude to a number called the solar declination. The solar declination is the latitude at which the
sun’s rays shine directly down at noon. Put another way, if you were standing at the latitude of the solar
declination, the sun would be directly overhead at local noon. The solar declination at noon on September
21st is 0°, which is at the Equator. If you repeated Exercise 3 at that place on that day, the upright pole
would have no shadow!

Find today's SD by reading it from the graph below. You'll have to estimate its value by interpolating
between the vertical dashed lines.
Latitude

Days of the Year

3.2 What is today's Solar Declination?

Once you have determined the declination, calculate the noon-time solar altitude for the latitudes listed in
the table below. You should recognize these latitudes from your in-class discussion of solar geometry and
the seasons. (If not, go back and read the relevant parts of your text book). These latitudes represent the
locations at which certain maximum and minimum solar angles are reached. They are also used to define
the solstices, equinoxes, and seasons.

3.3 Using the table on the following page, determine the solar angle and energy at the top of the
atmosphere given the instructions below. A blank space has been provided below the graph to
show your work.

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Fill in the Solar Angle column using equation given below, and Solar Declination you determined from
the graph. You can calculate these by hand, or do it with a spread sheet.

SA=90− (LAT − SD )

Notice that the table has one more column, labeled Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere. In this
column, we will put the energy per unit area of sunlight, which is measured in Watts per Square Meter.
The amount of solar radiation arriving on a perpendicular surface at the top of the atmosphere is called the
Solar Constant, and has a numerical value of about 1365 W/m². As we saw earlier, Lambert's Law says
that as the solar altitude decreases, the energy arriving on a surface should also decrease, and we can
quantify this decrease by multiplying the solar constant times the sine of the solar altitude/angle.
Using this relationship, fill in the last column on the table.

Latitude Solar Angle/Altitude Energy at the Top of the

Atmosphere
90
23.5
0
-23.5
-90

Note that this calculation does not tell you how much energy actually reaches the Earth’s surface. This is
a topic for a later lab.

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Lab Exercise 3 Name_____________________
Global Energy Balance and Section____________________
Temperature Distribution Instructor_________________
Geog 221

In this lab, you will:

Discover which regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are most
important in the Earth energy system
Understand the distribution of global radiation
Discover how different materials heat and cool at different rates
Define net radiation
Determine the relationship between net radiation and temperature
Show how seasonal variations in net radiation and temperature result from Earth-sun geometry

Materials
4 pans, 2 with sand, 1 with soil, 1 with water
1 thermometer
Heat Lamp
Calculator

Relevant Reading
Exploring Physical Geography, Ch. 2 & 3

Introduction
In the previous lab, you learned how the geometrical relationship between the Earth and incoming solar
radiation results in a heterogeneous and seasonally asymmetric distribution of energy arriving in the Earth
system. You saw that because the Earth is spherical, the energy per unit of area arriving at the lower
latitudes (i.e. closer to the equator) is greater than that at higher latitudes. You further saw that the tilt of
the Earth's rotational axis relative to the plane of the ecliptic results in an inter-annual latitudinal shift in
the concentration of solar energy. You saw that when the Earth's rotational axis is parallel to the incoming
radiation, incoming energy is symmetric around the equator – in other words, it is the same in both the
northern and southern hemispheres. These times are referred to as the equinoxes (see figure 1). One way
to define an equinox is that it is the day at which the sun is directly over the equator at solar noon, this
will happen twice per year.

Figure 1. Diagram showing Earth-Sun position during an equinox and solstice.

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At other times during the year, the rotational axis of the Earth is inclined in such a way that the northern
hemisphere receives more direct solar radiation than does the southern hemisphere. This is because the
subsolar latitude, the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead at solar noon moves further to the
north as the north-pole end rotational axis inclines more towards the sun. The effect of this sunward tilt
of the rotational axis is for the northern hemisphere to receive more solar radiation per unit area than does
the southern hemisphere, where the axial tilt is away from the sun and produces less concentration of
solar radiation. The day on which the sunward inclination of the Earth relative to the sun reaches its
maximum is called a solstice. You can also define a solstice as the day on which the subsolar latitude
corresponds to one of the two tropics. When the subsolar latitude corresponds to the Tropic of Cancer (in
the northern hemisphere), it is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, and the winter solstice in
the southern hemisphere. When the solstice occurs at the Tropic of Capricorn, the hemispherical seasons
are reversed.

So far, everything we have discussed should be familiar to you. Through life experience, you are also
familiar with the idea that temperature changes with the seasons (summer is, on average, warmer than
winter). You also know that mean temperatures change with latitude – the tropics are rightly thought of as
warm and temperate, whereas the poles are not generally considered a desirable place for those who wish
to visit the beach! You are probably also beginning to see that the distributions of radiation and
temperature are related, and you are correct. However, the relationship is not quite as simple as it seems,
and in the following series of activities, you will discover some of the complexities.

Exercise 1: A model for radiation and temperature

You will begin to explore the relationship between radiation and temperature using a simple physical
model. Your lab instructor will have already set up the model, which consists of four small pans, two
containing sand, one containing soil, and one containing water. Each pan will be under a heating lamp.
Before you begin, pour approximately 500 ml of water in the one of the pans filled with sand. Note the
temperature of all three pans. Then, turn on the light. Now, check the temperature of all three pans every
10 minutes for half an hour. Spend the time between measurements carefully reviewing pages 78-81 in
your text, becoming familiar with albedo, latent heat, specific heat and sensible heat, and working on
Exercise #2.

1.1 Each time you check the temperature, record it in this table.

*These temperatures will vary, but all of them should continue to rise in temperature as the time goes on,
with soil ending up the highest.

Time Wet Sand Dry Sand Soil Water

0
10
20
30

Once you have completed collecting your data, graph the trajectory of temperature for each of the three
surface on the bivariate axes below. Use a different type of line for each surface (or a different color, if

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you have colored pencils). As always, remember that when plotting data, the dependent variable, or the
variable whose behavior you are interested in goes on the y-axis.

1.2 You should notice some differences in the temperatures of your surfaces. Let's compare them,
beginning with the water and the dry sand. Which of the two was warmer?

Sand

1.3 Why is there a temperature difference between the two surfaces?

Specific heat of water is higher than sand so it heats slower.

1.4 Next, compare the dry soil with the dry sand. Which is warmer?

Soil

1.5 What properties of the soil and sand do you think account for the difference in temperature?

Color is darker so it absorbs more; lower albedo

Simple demonstration above illustrates one of the most crucial surface properties controlling the surface
radiation budget. The soil in the pan was darker (i.e. less reflective) than the sand, and therefore absorbed
more of the energy emitted by the lamp. When a material absorbs energy it must undergo some change in
state (this follows from the Second Law of Thermodynamics, one of the most important physical laws
controlling the disposition of energy in the Earth system). In this instance, the change in state was a
change in temperature, and since the dark surface absorbed more energy, its state change was greater than
that of the lighter surface. This probably agrees with your own experiences – if you plan to go out on a
warm, sunny summer day, you probably choose to wear lighter, more reflective colors so that your
'temperature state' does not increase to uncomfortable levels.

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1.6 The reflectivity of the Earth’s surface is so important that it is assigned a specific name. What is that
term? albedo
Although we don't have the necessary thermometers to do this experiment, if you could measure the
temperature of the air just above the soil, you would find that it is also higher than the temperature over
the sand. This is because the air is in contact with the sand and soil, and it heated by it. This type of
energy exchange is called sensible heat. This will be important later when we talk about air
temperatures.

1.7 Now, let's compare the two sand surfaces, dry and wet. Which is warmer? Dry sand

The physical reason for the difference between the two sand surfaces is not quite as straightforward as it
was for sand vs. soil. The albedos of the two sand surfaces are essentially the same, so we can eliminate
that as a cause. The obvious difference between them is that one is wet and the other dry. Consider latent
and sensible heat, as well as the special properties of water.

1.8 Why does this matter? Again, using your text, explain the physical process that is operating
here. Be sure you identify the type of heat (latent vs sensible) that is mainly responsible for this
process.

Water has high specific heat so it heats slowly, but mainly because more energy goes towards latent heat
than sensible heat because water is evaporating. Latent heat and evaporation (same as above)

1.9 Thinking back to the results from comparing the water to the dry sand, can you generalize the effect
of wetness on the temperature of surfaces?

Wetness cools

Experiment Question
Football fans that watch or attend early season games (that are typically played in late summer, when it
can be quite hot) are often told by the announcers that the temperature on the playing surface is much
hotter than the air temperature. This is especially true for games played on artificial turf. Why does
artificial turf heat up faster than grass?

Grass contains moisture so portion of solar radiation goes to latent heat to transpire water thus
there is less specific heat.

Exercise 2 – Radiation in the atmosphere

In our discussion of the distribution of solar radiation over the Earth, we saw that it varies in time
and space, however during this discussion we considered only patterns of radiation at the top of the
atmosphere. Before solar radiation can have any effect on the Earth system, it must pass through the
dense layer of gasses, aerosols, and other particles that comprise the atmosphere.
The Earth's atmosphere is mainly composed of two gasses, Nitrogen and Oxygen. These are both
small molecules, so that they preferentially scatter radiation at shorter wavelengths. Other constituents of
the atmosphere, such as aerosols and water droplets, can scatter longer wavelengths of light. A

21
comprehensive look at atmospheric processes is beyond the scope of this exercise, but we can do a quick
activity that will illustrate some of the consequences of the atmosphere on the Earth's radiation budget.
The amount and wavelength of energy radiated by any physical body is a function of its
temperature. The hotter the object, the more energy it emits and the shorter the wavelength of that energy
(this follows from Planck's Law, a fundamental law of radiant energy). The sun has a coronal temperature
of about 6,000 K. If you plot the energy emitted by an object at that temperature, you get the curve on the
left in the diagram below. The earth has a mean surface temperature of about 300K, yielding the curve on
the right.

Figure 2. Emission curves of the Sun and Earth.

Using Figure 2 (above), answer questions 1-4. Go to the “Geodiscoveries” on KSOL then “Earth-Sun
Geometry and the Seasons” then “Electromagnetic Spectrum” to help you understand the different
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2.1 At what wavelength is the maximum amount of light energy being emitted by the sun?

.5 micrometer and it has little energy emitted

2.2 What region of the spectrum is this?

Visible - Green

22
2.3 At what wavelength is the maximum amount of light energy being emitted by the Earth?

10 micrometer
2.4 What region of the spectrum is this?

Infrared
When we consider the radiation budget of the Earth, we generally divide radiation into two broad
categories, shortwave and longwave. It should be clear from your previous answer what the wavelengths
of these two regions are, and why we are concerned mainly with these two regions.

To conclude this section, answer these questions:

2.5 What would happen to the absorbed radiation of a surface if its albedo increased?

Decrease

2.6 What would happen to absorbed radiation of a surface if its albedo decreased?

Increase

We will now look at net radiation and its effect on temperature. Net radiation is the balance between
incoming radiation and outgoing radiation.
2.7 Look at the table below. Why does the timing of net radiation not coincide exactly with
temperature?

Temporal Lag Release of heat from earth occurs after peak isolation

23
 Daily Net Radiation and Temperature
800 35

700
30
600
Net Radiation (W/m-2)

500 25

TEmperature (˚C)
400
20
300
15
200

100 10
0
5
-100

-200 0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (Military hours)

Net Radiation Temperature

Exercise 3 – Global patterns of radiation and temperature

In the course folder on your computer, you will find a PowerPoint file called Global Radiation Maps.ppt.
The images on it are time-averages of data collected by sensors on-board the Earth Radiation Budget
Experiment (ERBE) satellite. The ERBE satellite was placed in orbit specifically to measure the time and
space patterns of the earth's radiation budget.

Use the maps on Slide #1 to answer the following:

3.1 Describe the latitudinal differences in solar radiation at the surface in July versus January.

July peak radiation is in N hemisphere while Jan it is in the Southern Hemisphere this is due to the winter
and summer solstice resulting in more direct sunlight in their respective regions.

3.2 What do you think is the main cause for this?

3.3 Solar radiation at the surface does show a definite latitudinal pattern, but the distribution is not
perfectly latitudinal. Identify a few things that may be altering this pattern.

Cloud cover, albedo of water, mountains.

Use the maps on Slides 2 and 3 to answer the following:

24
3.4 What property of the Earth's surface is most important for determining the distribution of
absorbed radiation?

Albedo

3.5 Use the map below to sketch a latitudinal pattern for January. (Slide 2)

Based on the information in slides 1 and 2, you can determine a general pattern of temperature over the
globe.

Warmer at equator and cooler at the polls. Warmer over land than water

3.6 In general, what latitudinal region(s) have the highest mean annual net radiation? (Slide 4)

Equitorial and land

3.7 Which are lowest?

poles and water

3.8 Does this pattern agree with the temperature patterns you identified in question 3.1?

Yes

Now look at slide 5 of the powerpoint you have been working with. Each of the lines on slide 5 shows
temperature change from night to day. So a line of 3˚ C means temperature only changes 3˚ from night to
day.

3.9 Where would you find the greatest temperature changes over the course of a day? Be as general
as possible.
Land because of low specific heat.

25
3. 10 What happens to the temperature values as they pass from ocean to continental surfaces

Cluster at continents

3.11 Why do you think you see this pattern?

High Albedo of land leads to large temperature changes. Latent heat and mixing of water results in more
uniform temperatures along with a high specific heat.

3.12 How do you think the differences between the thermal properties of water and land might
affect the magnitude and range of temperatures in far inland areas (like Kansas) versus coastal
areas?

Inland areas absorb more of the incoming radiation while having higher sensible heat and since solar
radiation varies by latitude we see a more dramatic shift in temperatures.

26
Lab Exercise 4 Name_____________________
Scientific Inquiry, Weather Data Lab Section ________________
and the Greenhouse Effect Lab Instructor _____________
GEOG 221

In this lab, you will:

Learn more about the nature of scientific inquiry
Become aware of several existing resources on scientific literacy
Recognize that careful analysis of observations can lead to scientific understanding
Analyze weather observations from sensors at the Konza Prairie Biological Station
Use a simplified model of the global greenhouse to better understand that CO2 is a major driver of
temperature change for our planet.

Materials:
Lab Computer Workstation with an internet connection and with Excel software.

Part I: The Nature of Scientific Inquiry

Project 2061 was conceived by the American Association for the Advancement of Science as a long-term
effort to improve scientific literacy for all Americans. The effort started in 1985 when Haley’s Comet
was visible to Earthlings, with the recognition that Haley’s Comet would again be visible in 2061. A goal
of Project 2061 is to enable a transformation of the way Americans learn and apply scientific information.
A 1993 book from the project, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, is an outstanding resource that was
designed to shape the future of science education for decades. Benchmarks can be found online at:
http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/index.php (Link 1)

Navigate within the online resource to the section in Chapter 1 (The Nature of Science) to the section on
Scientific Inquiry (1b) and read the five short paragraphs.

1. Identify two things that characterize scientific literacy:

In Lab Exercise 1, you learned that the scientific method involves a sequence of steps and a deductive
approach called hypothesis testing.
2. Does Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy suggest that ‘the rigid sequence of steps commonly
depicted in textbooks as "the scientific method"’ is synonymous with scientific literacy. If not, what
differences exist between the scientific method and science literacy?

27
Within Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy, each chapter has a box labeled: “View Research”. Click on
that box and go to the section for Scientific Inquiry and read the three sections on Experimentation,
Theory (explanation) and evidence, and the Nature of knowledge.

3. What does research suggest about development through the stages of right/wrong, mere opinion,
and informed suggest regarding the stage that most high school students are at?

In the first decade of the 21st century, a concern developed about the lack of science literacy among
Americans and several efforts were undertaken to identify key concepts associated with varying aspects
of science literacy. The material developed for climate literacy can be accessed at:
http://climate.noaa.gov/education/pdfs/ClimateLiteracyPoster-8_5x11_Final4-11.pdf (Link 2)

4. Which of the 7 Principles (they begin on page 10 of the PDF) do you think will be the most
difficult aspect for Americans to learn? And, what is your rationale?

At that same time, AAAS Project 2061 developed an abbreviated 32 page guide, “Communicating and
Learning About Global Climate Change” was created, which can be accessed online at:
http://www.aaas.org/news/press_room/climate_change/mtg_200702/climate_change_guide_2061.pdf
(Link 3)
The guide begins with material on the nature of science and technology and then covers scientific
investigations. Materials specifically dealing with weather and climate are on pages 18 and 19. In AAAS
terminology, the material on p.19 (the text boxes and connecting arrows) is a map (some would call this a
concept map) and the items that extend vertically above a label at the bottom of the page (e.g., water
cycle) is a strand. Examine the material on p. 18-19 and then answer the following questions:

5. Which of the four strands provides benchmarks that will lead to an understanding of the
seasons?

And, at what grade level is the explanation for the seasons placed?

28
6. At what grade level do science education scholars think it is appropriate to cover the topic of
climate change?

Science began thousands of years ago with observations and empirical description of phenomena. This
has been called an inductive approach to building knowledge.
Within the last several hundred years, a second paradigm developed based on what is called a deductive
approach. Hypotheses are developed based on existing theory and then related research questions are
addressed to help advance that theory. As computers enabled considerable computational capability, a
third paradigm that involves system modeling and running simulations developed. Weather forecasts are
based on the improvements that have occurred within this paradigm. The Fourth Paradigm is sometimes
referred to as eScience and involves massive streams of multiple types of data coming from an ever
expanding network of sensors across the planet. eScience involves capturing all that information and
helping to transform the data streams into information and can be used to build improved knowledge
about how things work.
Data  Information  Knowledge
Some have suggested that working with the new information and knowledge to make good decisions
regarding how humans can best manage our planetary “spaceship” requires wisdom:
Data  Information  Knowledge  Wisdom

Part II: Weather Data Analysis

For the next part of this lab, you will grab some weather station data and work with that data using
capabilities with an Excel spreadsheet to get some information about the nature on the weather at the
Konza Prairie Biological Station.

Go to the data access site for the Konza Long-Term Ecological Research [LTER] project:
http://www.konza.ksu.edu/KNZ/pages/data/knzdata.aspx (Link 5)

Type AWE01 into the search box and hit Search

Next select the only option that should be displayed AWE01-Meteorological data
Click to view the files

Select the AWE012 directory to access the daily data

Select 1 years worth of data by selecting appropriate dates and click download
Type in your email address, name, then select “University” and “Education” to access the files – you are
asked for this information so that the data manager for the Konza can help justify the value of the work
s/he does.

29
Open the file

You should get a lengthy text file with 365 rows [or 366] and at least 12 columns of data

From the File dropdown menu, select Save Page As and save the text file to the computer’s desktop

Once you have a text file on your Lab Computer Workstation desktop, open the Excel software
Use the File dropdown menu to Open the file. Use the open box to select the Desktop as the location to
find the file, and be sure to indicate you are looking for a text file – select the file you have just saved

The Text Import Wizard can help you bring the file into spreadsheet
In the first box, select Delimited
In the second box, select comma this action should put vertical lines in the sample box separating the data
columns
For the third box, select Finish

7. What information is in each of the columns:

A B C D E F

G H I J K L

8. What scale are the temperature data in? degrees K degrees C degrees F

9. What is the formula to convert temperature in °C into °F ?

10. What year did you select? __________

11. Determine the average temperature for the year you selected. The easiest way to do this is to
take the average of all the values in the average temperature column.

12. What was the average temperature ______°C What is that in °F ______°F

13. On how many days did it rain? [Highlight the entire column of precipitation values and use
the formula: COUNTIF(range, criteria) or COUNTIF(M1:M365,”> 0”) _________ rain days

14a. What was the total amount of rainfall? _______

30
14b. What units were used to measure rainfall? _________

15. How many inches of rain were received in the year you selected: _______ in

16. On which day of the year was the highest temperature recorded and how warm was it?

____________ date ________°C

Part III: A Simulation Model of the Global Greenhouse

For the final part of this lab, you will run the Greenhouse Effect model. The simplified model you will be
using was downloaded from: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/greenhouse (Link 6). The PhET site
at the University of Colorado is funded by the National Science Foundation [and others] to provide
interactive simulations to help enable science literacy.

17. When the Greenhouse Effect simulation begins, the settings are set for “today.” What is the
listed carbon dioxide concentration?

_______ ppm What does ppm stand for? ____________________

If you have 2,000,000 molecules of gas, how many of those molecules will be CO2? __________

What is the average temperature of the planet? __________°F

18. Now, move the Greenhouse Gas slider to the far left [so there are no GHGs]. What is the
corresponding temperature for the global system? __________°F

The difference in temperature between these first two simulations is an indication of the
importance of the Greenhouse Effect for our planet. What is that temperature difference?
__________°F

What happens to the temperature if you add 3 clouds? __________________________

In general, how do clouds impact temperature? __________________________

19. Now click on the button to run the ice age simulation. What is the average temperature for the
planet? __________°F

And, what is the corresponding level of CO2? ______ ppm

20. Based on the simulations you have run, what can you conclude about the relationship between
the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and the average temperature for the Earth?

31
Lab Exercise 5 Name _____________________
Tectonics Lab Section ________________
GEOG 221 Lab Instructor ______________

In this lab, you will:

 Learn to relate large-scale topographic features on Earth’s surface to lithospheric plates, the
underlying asthenosphere and earthquakes.
 Learn to use GeoMapApp, an easy-to-use mapping program focused on marine geology and
geophysics.
 Learn to use Microsoft Excel to visualize data sets.

Materials:
Lab Computer Workstation
Pencil

Overview

1) The topography of the Earth is the result of the balance between present and past tectonic activity and
exogenic forces that denude these landforms. Based on your textbook readings, you should now be
familiar with the three main types of plate boundaries. What are they? Name characteristic
topographic features are produced at each type of boundary or name two places on Earth
where each can be found.

1.

2.

3.

In this lab, you will be able to explore the Earth’s surface and relate what you know of these boundary
types to the topographic shape of the Earth’s crust.

EXERCISE 1: Plate Boundaries

Download the GeoMapApp onto your computer workstation (geomapapp.org). On the left hand side of
the screen, under “Download Links” select “Windows.” Then scroll to the bottom of the MS Windows

32
Installation page and select “Agree.” After you run the program you should see the following screen
(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Topography of the Earth’s surface.

Inside GeoMapApp, click on the Distance/Profile tool at the top of the screen:

You may need to patiently wait while GeoMapApp opens the profiling tool. Once it does, two new
windows will open: a Layer Manager window (Figure 2), which shows you what data layers you have
loaded into your viewing window, and a Global Grids window (Figure 3).

Figure 2: Layer Manager

33
Figure 3: Global Grids

Before you start, you will need to re-set the view by going to the Global Grids window by clicking on the
black downward facing triangle on the GMRT tab. Select the last option, Topography (Smith and
Sandwell v9.1). Your GeoMapApp 3.6.3 window view should have changed to show the topography of
the Earth and should show the continents in an orange/salmon color. The Global Grids window should
look like this:

Figure 4: Global Grids Topography (Smith and Sandwell v.9.1)

This shows you the color shading for the topographic scale in your GeoMapApp 3.6.3 window – the
salmon color is at elevation zero, or mean sea level. The highest elevations are in white, and the lowest
elevations (below sea level) are dark blue. Take a moment to make sure you can interpret this
topographic map and the color scale correctly. You can use the hand tool to move the map around, and
the magnifying glass tools to zoom in and out of specific areas.
Now that you can see the topography of the Earth, let’s examine the relationship between topography and
types of plate boundaries.

34
When you are ready, reclick on the distance/profile tab at the top of your screen and move your course
move your cursor to the GeoMapApp 3.6.3 window. Draw a line across the continent of South America
from west to east, making sure to include part of the ocean basins on both sides of South America (see
sample white line below).

Figure 5: White line across South America

A profile window will appear. When you first do this, the line might be drawn as a great circle. In the
new profile window, click the box specifying that you would like to draw the cross section along a
straight line:

Draw your profile on the graph below and make sure to label the axes appropriately.

35
 .

Based on what you know about plate dynamics, answer the following questions:

1. What type of major plate boundary does your cross section line capture on the Western side
of the South American continent?

2. Which two plates are involved, and what is their motion relative to one another? (Use the
“Plate Boundaries” link from Canvas)

3. What topographic features are located at the plate boundary? (hint: Mountain Range)

4. How do these features compare to the rest of the topography on the South American
continent captured in your profile?

Now let’s test your hypothesis. Return to your GeoMapApp 3.6.3 window and click on the DataLayers
tab. Select:
Geophysics
Earthquakes
Earthquake Locations
Global (USGS-ANSS Catalog)
Magnitude > 5.5 (1960-2016)

36
You will see many grey circles appear indicating the location of major earthquakes on the Earth from
1960-2016. At the bottom of the map a new table will have appeared showing the earthquake information
for each data point. Use the magnifying tool to zoom into your cross section area on the map (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Zoomed in cross section of South America earthquakes

Select the pointer tool and click on the earthquakes located along your cross section profile one at a time,
paying careful attention to the Depth column in the data table. Start at the coastline (left) and move into
the interior of the landmass (to the right).

5. What pattern do you see between the location of the earthquake and the depth of the
earthquake (Does depth increase or decrease as you move further inland)?

Select all of the records in the data table by using the command “Ctrl + a,” then copy the data using “Ctrl
+ c” to the clipboard. Now open Microsoft Excel, and select paste or use the command “Ctrl + v.” Your
data records will now be in Excel, and you can now plot all of the earthquakes in your cross
section area. Longitude can be used as a rough proxy for distance since your transect is
oriented East-West around the globe. To do this, select both the Longitude and Depth columns

37
in your Excel file and then choose the scatter plot option under the insert tab to create a scatter plot chart.

Your new data plot will appear on top of your data sheet. Right click on the Y axis and select “Format
Axis.” On the right hand side, you will see a window entitled Format Axis. Scroll to the bottom and
select “Values in reverse order.” Now you have a plot, along your cross section, of the depth of
earthquakes at this plate boundary. Draw your plot on the graph below and label your axis.

6. Explain what is happening at this plate boundary to produce such a distinct pattern of
earthquake locations.

7. At what depth is there a sharp decrease in earthquakes? Why do you think this happens?

38
Lab Exercise 6 Name _____________________
Aeolian Processes and Landforms Lab section ________________
GEOG 221 Lab instructor ______________

In this lab, you will

Identify Aeolian landforms
Describe how dunes and loess form
Match dune forms with dominant wind direction
Measure the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in two samples
Figure out where they came from
Calculate textural class based on particle size distribution
Understand how Aeolian landforms can record Earth history
Observe the distribution of Aeolian landforms in the U.S. and on Earth

Materials
Two samples of Aeolian material
Sieves
Balances
Particle size analyzer

Relevant reading
Arbogast, A. 1996. Stratigraphic evidence for late-Holocene aeolian sand mobilization and soil formation
in south-central Kansas, U.S.A. Journal of Arid Environments 34: 403–414.

McKean, R. L., R. J. Goble, J. B. Mason, J. B. Swinehart, and D. B Loope. 2015. Temporal and spatial
variability in dune reactivation across the Nebraska Sand Hills, USA. The Holocene 25: 523-535.

Reynolds, S. J. et al. Exploring Physical Geography. P. 295. First edition. McGraw Hill.

Introduction
This lab will focus on the ability of wind to move and shape the Earth surface. Although wind has a
thinner viscosity than water, it is still a significant geomorphic force. The effects of wind can be seen
most strongly in dry places where there are exposed landforms. Wind processes are called aeolian
processes, named after the Greek god of the winds (Aeolus).

Topic 1: Aeolian landforms

I. Dunes
This may surprise you, but the central Great Plains are full of sand dunes! The Nebraska Sandhills are the
largest dune field in North America, and many smaller dune fields exist throughout the region. The oldest
dunes have been dated to 10,000 years and are found near Lawrence, Kansas.

39
1.) Describe the spatial pattern of sand dune distribution in the Great Plains using the figure below.

Figure 1. From Arbogast 1996.

There are several shapes of dunes in our region. Dune shapes in general are dependent on sand supply,
wind strength, and vegetation as shown by Figure 2.

40
 Figure 2. Factors influencing dune formation.

II. Loess
Loess is the most common parent material in Kansas. Loess consists of silt-sized particles deposited by
the wind. Loess can be quite thick, with deposits in China reaching over 1 km deep. Although it does not
have a characteristic shape, because it just drapes over the ground surface, it is easy to identify loess by its
silty texture, erosional patterns and yellow-gray color.

2.) Where is loess found in Kansas? (Use the “parent material” link from Canvas)

Relationship between dunes and loess

Dunes and loess are often found in close proximity because both occur where the wind is picking up
particles, transporting them, and depositing them. Because sand is the heaviest particle, it is often
deposited first when wind speed slows, forming dunes.

Figure 3. Relationship of distance and Aeolian landforms. (Arbogast)

Topic 2: Measuring particle size distribution

Recall from the Soils Lab that sand, silt, and clay are names of mineral particles defined by size.

41
1) *Write the size ranges here for each type of particle in mm. (Use the “soil size” link from
Canvas)

minimum size maximum size

clay
silt
sand
larger particles

2) We will do a short exercise to measure the types of particles in two samples from Kansas. We will use
the particle size distribution to match each sample to the type of Aeolian landform that it came from.

-Which type of particle in the above table is lightest?

-Which is heaviest?

3) The classic way of measuring particle distribution

A sample taken from the Kansas River is provided at each work station. Use the sieves to separate the
different sized particles and record the weights below.

*Record the weights (masses) of each size class for sample A.

total mass of sample : _________ g

mass sand: _____________ g

mass silt: _____________ g

mass gravel: _____________ g

*Calculate the percent sand, percent silt, and percent clay for sample A.

% sand: ____________

% silt: ____________

% gravel: ______________

4) The new way

We will use the Malvern Mastersizer 3000 to measure the distribution of particles in our two samples
ranging in size from 10 nm to 3.5 mm, using laser diffraction. After the lab technician runs the
Mastersizer, record the observed curve in the Sample B graph on the next page.

One main type of data is provided: a continuous distribution indicating the particle size of your sample.
We previously used millimeters to determine particle size, but with the Mastersizer we are capable of
looking at an even smaller scale. Convert the particle size numbers in your previous chart to
micrometers (μm).

42
 minimum size maximum size
clay
silt
sand
larger particles

Sample B:

5) Identifying the source location of each sample.

1.) Given the particle size distribution from each sample, which sample took more wind energy to move?

On the next page is a map of maximum wind speeds in Kansas, with the locations of the two samples
marked (X and Y). This map is also available on KSOL. You don’t want to use the wind speeds to
answer this question. Instead, think of samples A and B originating from the western side of Kansas and
the wind blowing these two samples eastward. Use this to help with answering questions 2 and 3.

2.) Where did sample A come from and how can you tell?

3.) Where did sample B come from and how can you tell?

43
 Y

Figure 4. Wind speed map of Kansas. Also available in Canvas for high-quality image.

Topic 3: Identifying Aeolian landforms on Google Earth

1) The list of coordinates below will take you to various parts of the world to see examples of different
types of sand dunes. Examine each image and identify the type of dune, as well as the location on Earth.
(Use the “Dune Formation type” link from Canvas to help identify dunes)

latitude longitude altitude Type of dune Location

(km) (Country)
32.911034 -115.045006 2

14.064931 47.813351 2

-24.234498 14.701223 2

-20.551653 -70.04628 100 m

44
Lab Exercise 7 Name ____________________________
River Processes Lab Section _______________________
GEOG 221 Lab Instructor _____________________

Background:
The purpose of this lab is to explore how rivers work by using a streamtable. A streamtable is a miniature
representation of a stream system. Water flows and acts essentially the same way in any size stream (including the
small stream we will form on the streamtable and a large river such as the Mississippi River), so a streamtable may
be used to study even the largest or most remote streams on Earth.

Streams are characterized to by their shape and the amount of water that flows within them.

Some useful stream-related calculations:

Sinuosity: A unitless measure of how curvy the stream is.

Sinuosity (no units) = Curvy distance (cm)

Straight distance (cm)

Relief: Difference in elevation traveled by the stream.

Relief (cm) = highest elevation (cm) – lowest elevation (cm)

Gradient: Measure of the slope of the river over a particular distance.

Gradient (cm/cm) = Rise = Relief (cm)

Run Curvy distance (cm)

Velocity: The speed of the water. Measure this using something that will float on the water, such as a small paper
boat or leaf.

Velocity = distance travelled (cm)

time for travel (sec)

Discharge: Measure of how much water flows past a given location on the stream per second

Discharge = Velocity (cm/sec) * Cross-sectional Area (cm2)

Cross-sectional Area = width of stream (cm) * depth of stream (cm)

Stream Power: Rate that energy is dissipated on the bed and banks of a stream.

Ω = ρgQS where Ω = stream power, ρ= density of water, g = gravity, Q = discharge, S = slope.

Important Concepts:

Erosion: Removal of sediment from the streambed by the flowing water. This process changes the shape of the
streambed. Faster moving water tends to erode more material than it deposits.

45
Deposition: When sediment falls out of suspension in the water and is piled up on the bottom or sides of the
streambed, changing the shape of the streambed. Slower moving water tends to deposit more material than it
erodes, while faster moving water tends to erode more material than it deposits.

Channel slope changes: produce changes in sediment transport in river channels. Water moves more quickly
down steeper slopes and more slowly down more gradual slopes. If slope is increased, erosion results. If slope is
decreased, deposition results.

Channel Incision: When the channel bed drops in elevation.

“Hungry Water”: Occurs when there is a shortage of sediment availability. Results in channel incision and bank
erosion downstream.

EXERCISE 1: Basic Stream Observations

Your TA will have the table set up to an initial channel configuration with at least one full meander wavelength
and will allow it to run in steady-state for a few minutes while you observe the stream table. Pay special attention
to the velocity of the water and the movement of sediment in the channel. Now your TA will turn off the water
flow.

1) Sketch the channel that is formed in the stream table showing the path that the stream follows. Indicate
the direction and speed of water flow, by labeling where faster and slower water is traveling through the
stream bed. This is an important concept when learning what speeds of water are responsible for
deposition and erosion. Indicate where erosion is occurring by writing an ‘E,’ and indicate where
deposition is occurring by writing a ‘D.’

Once the channel is dry, use the measuring tape and laser-ruler setup to answer the following questions:

2) What is the length of the steam channel?

3) What is the sinuosity of your stream?

4) What is the gradient of your stream?

5) Measure and record the longitudinal profile of the dry channel below. Later, you will plot these
numbers on a piece of graph paper and staple it to the back of this lab.

46
Exercise 2: Impacts of Channelization

“Channelization” is commonly used as a catch-all term for channel modification. Channels may be both realigned
and enlarged through channelization. Often channelization means removal of a meander bend. Other projects
simply enlarge the channel in attempts, often misguided and unsuccessful, to increase flood flow conveyance
through the reach. Channel enlargement almost always fails, or at least requires frequent maintenance through
sediment removal, when channels carry significant coarse sediment loads.

In the United States, thousands of miles of river channels have been straightened in attempts to control flooding,
increase farmland drainage, and realign channels that conflicted with bridges and other built structures. Often
sediment transport processes are not considered in these projects, which is one reason they often fail or cause
serious offsite impacts. In Figure 1 you see a local Kansas-based example of this process. In this case on the
Delaware River, the reason for channelization was to facilitate agriculture in the floodplain.

Figure 1. Channelization on the Delaware River in

Kansas (adapted from Kansas Water Office, 2010).
The yellow line traces the original planform of the
river before it was engineered into the red channel
planform configuration.

Using the stream table, you will simulate channelization by cutting off a meander bend in your channel
configuration.

1) Write at least one hypothesis that states how you think the stream will respond.

47
 2) Explain how you could test it using the kind of observations you made in Exercise 1 and the background
-important concepts section above.

The TA will “channelize” the river in the stream table. Pay special attention to the velocity and erosion-deposition
dynamics. Re-start the stream table.

3) How does the river respond? Think about velocity and sediment transport!

4) Does your observation support or reject your hypothesis?

5) Write a short paragraph explaining the specific fluvial processes (listed above on page 1 and 2) responsible
for the channel responses you observed. In other words, what caused the river to respond the way that it
did?

Exercise 3: Impacts of In-Channel Gravel Mining

Although outlawed or heavily regulated in

many parts of the world, mining of sand and
gravel from stream channels is common in
some regions, including on the Kansas and
Missouri Rivers. In Figure 2 you see an
active dredging operation on the Kansas
River just downstream from Lawrence.

Using the stream table, you will simulate the

action of dredging sand from the bed of the Figure 2. In-channel dredging operation on the Kansas River.
Kansas River and observe the river response Note the large piles of sand on the bank. The material is
to this sediment removal. pumped from the dredge boat onto shore where it is sorted and
then trucked off site.

48
1) Write at least one hypothesis that states how you think the stream will respond.

2) Explain how you could test it using the kind of observations you made in Exercise 1 and the
background-important concepts section from page 1 and 2.

Now, your TA will assign each of you a specific monitoring task and re-start the stream table. The TA will
“dredge” the channel in the middle section of the table. Pay special attention to changes in velocity, erosion-
deposition dynamics, and bank width.

3) How does the river respond (upstream, in the dredged hole, and downstream)?

4) Does your observation support or reject your hypothesis?

5) Write a short paragraph explaining the specific fluvial processes (listed above on page 1 and 2)
responsible for the channel responses you observed. In other words, what caused the river to respond
the way that it did?

6) Re-measure and re-plot the longitudinal profile on your graph paper from the first exercise.

7) How has the profile changed from your first plot?

References: Kansas Water Office. 2010. Kansas River Basin Regional Sediment Management Section 204
Stream and River Channel Assessment. Available online at:
http://www.kwo.org/reports_publications/Reports/Rpt_Kansas%20River%20Basin_Final%20Report_II_compr
essed3.pdf

49
Lab Exercise 8 Name _____________________
Coastal Processes Lab Section ________________
GEOG 221 Lab Instructor ______________

Background:
The purpose of this lab is to allow students to explore coastal processes. A streamtable is modified to represent a
coastal zone. The streamtable is set to a very low slope, which is representative of conditions in many coastal
zones, including in the south-central United States where the Mississippi River enters the Gulf of Mexico.

EXERCISE 1: Delta Formation

Before the simulation begins, what hypotheses can you develop regarding what will happen at the point where the
river meets the ocean? What will happen to the velocity of the water as it meets the ocean? What will happen to the
sediment? Remember to think in testable terms.

1) Hypothesis:

2) Your TA will now turn on the streamtable. Observe the delta formation demonstration that your TA has started
in the streamtable. Describe what is happening to the water’s velocity and river sediment when it reaches the
sea?

3) What shape of delta is being formed (Draw and describe)?

4) Observe how the deposition varies throughout the delta through time. Is sediment added to the entire delta
surface uniformly, or does the location of deposition shift through time?.

5) Soon we will increase the sea level. Write a hypothesis on how a sea level rise may influence the formation of
the delta.

50
6) Your T.A will now increase the sea level. Observe how the delta formation changes. How has the delta
changed?

7) Soon we will decrease the sea level. Write a hypothesis on how a sea level decrease may influence the
formation of the delta.

8) Your T.A will now decrease the sea level. Observe how the delta formation changes. How has the delta
changed?

Exercise 2: Coastal Terrace Formation

When the relationship between mean sea level and the land surface is relatively stable over long periods of time
(i.e. no sea level changes, and no uplift or subsidence of the land), the energy dissipated by waves is concentrated
at one elevation along the land-sea interface. This produces an erosional feature called a wave-cut terrace, or
coastal terrace.

1) Pay close attention to where sediment is being eroded and deposited from. Your TA will start generating
medium size waves at a high sea level stage. Describe what happens as the waves encounter the coastline.
Where is sediment eroded and deposited?

2) Next the wave size will decrease. How does the sediment in the system respond?

3) Soon your T.A will increase the size of the waves. What are two ways that the size of waves can naturally
increase in nature?

4) Before the wave size increases, what hypothesis can you develop regarding how the coastline will evolve?

51
5) While the demonstration is occurring take note of how increased waves size alters the beach. Describe how
the beach has changed with increased wave size. Did large waves erode or build the beach?

6) How will large storms such as hurricanes impact a beaches sediment supply?

Soon your TA will lower the sea level stage and repeat the wave generation process.

7) Write a hypothesis describing what you think will happen.

8) Describe how the system responded. Where is sediment eroded and deposited?

Exercise 3: Wave Refraction and Coastal Straightening

1) Your TA will increase the irregularity of the coastline. Make a quick sketch of the coastline in the streamtable.

2) Before wave generation resumes, what hypotheses can you develop regarding how the
coastline might evolve over time? Remember to think in testable terms. Write your hypothesis.

3) While the wave demonstration is occurring, make notes on the processes you are observing. Where is
deposition occurring? Where is erosion occurring?

52
In lab 7 we demonstrated how mining of a stream bed will influence a river system. We will
Now dredge sand from the beach.

4) Write a hypothesis describing what will happen to the beach near the mined area.

5) Your T.A will now dredge a portion of the beach and continue wave simulation. Describe how the beach has
responded to the mined area. Where did deposition occur? Where did erosion occur?

Exercise 4: Dam Construction on a River

Now your TA will simulate the construction of a dam on the river.

Before the dam is constructed, what hypotheses can you develop regarding how the dam might
influence sediment transport to the delta? Remember to think in testable terms.

1) Hypothesis:

2) How will you test this hypothesis?

3) How does a dam influence delta development? Why?

4) Next your TA will remove the dam. How has this altered delta development?

53
Lab Exercise 9 Name ___________________________
Biogeography Lab section ______________________
GEOG 221 Lab instructor ___________________

In this lab, you will

Measure tree-ring width
Map the range limit for a species
Observe ecoregions
Calculate biodiversity
Describe the latitudinal diversity gradient
Observe global patterns of land use and anthropogenic biomes

Materials
Cross-sections of trees
Rulers
Magnifying glasses

Relevant reading
Exploring Physical Geography, Ch. 17 & 18

Introduction
Biogeography is the study of the spatial and temporal patterns of the distribution of living organisms on
Earth (including plants, animals, and microbes). It also includes understanding the biological and physical
processes responsible for these patterns. The chapter in the Arbogast textbook is called plant geography,
and indeed plants can be easier to study than other organisms, as they do not move and are visible to the
human eye. However, all organisms have spatial patterns that are studied in the field of biogeography.

Topic 1: Local biogeography and tree-rings

“Trees are wonderful things. They stand fixed in the landscape, often for centuries, making layers of
wood laid down in annual succession” (McCarroll and Loader 2004). The study of tree rings is generally
called dendrochronology (from dendro=tree, chronos=time, and ology=study of). Dendrochronology is a
strong sub-discipline of geography and relates to biogeography in several ways.

We will do a short exercise in dendrochronology following the scientific method.

Ask a question. ex: How do tree rings vary in depth?
Do background research. ex: Count rings on tree section.
Construct a hypothesis ex: If the rings are close together, then tree ring X grew rapidly for the
first 5 years of its life
Test by gathering data ex: measure ring width
Analyze your data
Communicate your results

1. Ask a Question!

54
2. Do Background Research: Choose one of the tree sections. Count the total number of rings. Note
the approximate age (number of rings from the center ring) of wide and narrow rings.

Which tree section: _________________

Total number of rings: _______________

*Note that the tree-rings vary in width.

3. Construct a Hypothesis.
List the factors that could cause variation in ring-width. List as many as you can think of but at least 3.

Write a hypothesis about the growth history of this tree specific to time periods. Note separation in
tree ring width. Describe a sequence of tree rings of at least 20 years. (ex: Tree ring X grew rapidly for
the first 5 years of its life then growth slowed for the following 8 years and then growth was intermediate
for the following 7 years.”)

4. Test by gathering data: Measure ring width on a ten-year section of tree growth containing both
narrow and wide rings.
Ring number Ring width (mm) Ring number Ring width (mm)
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10

5. Analyze your data: Make a graph of the data from step 4. Label axes. Provide numbers for axes.

55
6. Communicate your results:
a.) Based on the graph above describe the growth history for the 10-year period you plotted.

b.) How does this relate to your hypothesis?

Topic 2: The concept of a range limit

The species range limit is the basic unit of biogeography. The range limit is a very easy concept that is
very difficult to measure (much like the concept of a species itself). The basic idea is that an organism
will be found only in places where its absolute environmental requirements are met. Here is an example.

Figure 1. The range of sugar maple, Acer

saccharum. Source: Atlas of Relations Between
Climatic Parameters and Distributions of Important
Trees and Shrubs in North America by Robert S.
Thompson, Katherine H. Anderson, and Patrick J.
Bartlein, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
1650. (Original source: Little 1971)

1. Based on the tree-ring exercise from above, list some factors that might be determining the range
limit of sugar maple on its western edge? (hint: think about how temperature and precipitation vary
across the U.S.)

56
2. What about the southern edge?

Topic 3: Regional biogeography and ecoregions

Scaling up to the regional and then global levels, groups of organisms are often found together. We might
recognize these broadly as biomes, like forests, grasslands, wetlands. We can look at biomes in more
detail by figuring out exactly what types of organisms are found in a place. When we look very closely at
biomes, and include all of the geographic factors that make them unique, we can call them ecoregions.
The ecoregion concept is very important for conservation planning and making appropriate decisions
about land use.

Look at the global ecoregion map at the WWF website: http://worldwildlife.org/science/wildfinder/

Choose an ecoregion.

1. What is its name? __________________________________________________________

2. What is its code? __________________________________________________________

3. What type of vegetation defines it? ___________________________________________

4. Where is it found? ________________________________________________________

Note that the ecoregion concept can apply to marine as well as terrestrial ecosystems, although it is a
bit more complicated.

Topic 4: Global latitudinal diversity gradient

One of the strongest patterns of life on Earth is what has been called the latitudinal diversity gradient.
Biodiversity is the biological diversity in a place as indicated by numbers of different species. And
biodiversity varies predictably with latitude, where biodiversity decreases with increasing latitude. You
may be familiar with the concept of tropical biomes having greater biodiversity than temperate biomes.

This strong pattern has been documented and explored by several generations of biogeographers.
Although there are many good hypotheses to explain this pattern, a complete and simple answer has been
elusive.

An additional complicating factor is that we still do not know the total quantity, let alone the types, of
organisms that live on our planet. The number of organisms on Earth is one aspect of biodiversity.

There are several ways to measure and quantify biodiversity. Let us examine two common ways to
measure biodiversity for a group of organisms (trees) that we understand fairly well. First, we have to
delineate a study area. This can be called a plot.

57
 50m

50 m

1. Number of species ____________

2. Number of species per unit area. (Also known as S= species richness)

3. Shannon-Wiener index

where S is the total number of species and pi is the frequency of the ith species (the probability that any
given individual belongs to the species, hence p). Show work for full credit.

4. Based on this Shannon-Weiner Index, is this a high diversity or low diversity ecosystem? How
can you tell?

Now we are going to calculate S (species richness) across a latitudinal transect.

58
 Table 1. Survey of species presence across a latitudinal transect from Central America to Northern
Canada.

Species 3N 15N 33N 45N 72N

tree #1, Engelhardtia mexicana x
tree #2, Ficus sp. (fig) x x
tree #3, Pinus strobus (white pine) x x
tree #4, Psycotria macrophylla x
tree #5, Lauraceae family x x
tree #6, Dieffenbachia maculata x
tree #7, Socratea (palm) x
tree #8, Dipteryx panamensis x
tree #9, sugar maple, Acer saccharum x x
tree #10, black spruce, Picea mariana x x x
S (species richness)

*Graph the diversity of tree species. Label axes. X axis will be latitude, Y axis will be S, species richness

5. Write a hypothesis about what might be causing this pattern.

6. How would you test it?

Topic 5: Anthropogenic biomes of Earth

59
The traditional view of biogeography has emphasized the concept of “potential natural vegetation.” Thus,
we see maps of what type of plants would grow in a place if people did not live on the Earth: tallgrass
prairie, boreal forest, tropical rainforest. Geographers are increasingly studying the role of human land
use on the Earth surface, and some have developed a concept called an “anthropogenic biome.” The basic
idea is to look at the actual land cover on Earth rather than what could or would potentially be there.

Exercise A: Anthropogenic biomes

Load Google Earth Ellis and Ramankutty “Anthropogenic Biomes” coverage at the following link:
http://ecotope.org/anthromes/v2/maps/ and open the 2000 A.D. Google Earth file. Explore it and answer
the following questions.

1. How many colored subcategories of anthropogenic biomes are there? ________________

2. Which 2 categories represent the most altering land uses? In other words which land use
changes the landscape most significantly away from its natural structure. (Not which land use
dominates landscape by area but which alters it most from its natural environment).

3. Which category represents the least intensive human land use? (In other words which
landscape remains in its most natural context).

4. What anthropogenic biome exists within the city of Manhattan, Kansas?

5. What anthropogenic biome exists in the Flint Hills area?

6. Look at the ecoregion that you chose in topic 3 on page 56. Which anthropogenic biome is
there?

Ecoregion ___________________________________________________________________

Location ____________________________________________________________________

Anthropogenic Biome _________________________________________________________

60
Lab Exercise 10 Name _________________________
Geography of Soils Lab section ____________________
GEOG 221 Lab instructor __________________

In this lab, you will

Measure soil pH
Measure soil texture
Interpret soil texture data
Analyze soil series concepts
Name some threats to soil and calculate soil erosion rates
Analyze the spatial pattern of soil orders on Earth
Identify the twelve soil orders on Earth
Describe how the soil orders are classified

Materials
Plastic cups with lids
pH paper
Distilled water

Relevant reading
Exploring Physical Geography, Ch. 16

Introduction
Soil can be defined many ways, but broadly speaking it is the intersection of the biosphere and
lithosphere. One definition is that soil is the surface of the Earth’s crust that contains mineral material,
biological material, air, and water. Soils form slowly in place, developing structure that can stretch
several meters from the Earth’s surface. Some have called soils an important part of the Earth’s critical
zone (Figure 1).

Soils have physical and chemical characteristics that indicate how they formed and for what purposes
they may be used. Soils are described, classified, and named in a hierarchical system similar to that used
by biologists to describe organisms. The broadest categories are called soil orders.

Depending on their characteristics, soils offer a variety of possibilities and constraints for use by humans.
Agriculture is the largest global use of soil, but many types of professions (engineers, landscape
architects, planners, construction) need to pay attention to soil properties and management. One might
argue that all of us need to pay attention to soil, and stop treating it like dirt!

61
 Figure 1. THE CRITICAL ZONE: WHERE ROCK MEETS LIFE. The Critical Zone is Earth’s porous
near-surface layer, from the tops of the trees down to the deepest groundwater. It is a living, breathing,
constantly evolving boundary layer where rock, soil, water, air, and living organisms interact. Image from
http://criticalzone.org/

Topic 1: Measuring soil characteristics

Exercise 1: Measure the pH of soil

Get soil, make a 1:1 slurry of water and soil. Shake it in a plastic cup. Let it settle a bit. Measure the pH
with paper.

2) Record the pH here. ________________________________________

3) Is this acidic or basic? _______________________________________

4) Is this a suitable pH for agriculture (use your textbook or an internet resource for a hint)?

Exercise 2: Soil texture

Sand, silt, and clay are mineral particles in the soil defined by size.

5) Write the size ranges here. (Use the “soil size” link from KSOL)

minimum size maximum size

clay
silt
sand
larger particles

62
Soils develop structure from the Earth surface to several meters down. Soil horizons are distinct layers
that are visible in a soil profile. The basic soil sampling unit that assesses these horizons is the soil pedon.
Soil scientists at the Natural Resources Conservation Service frequently need to assess pedons in the U.S.
for a variety of chemical and physical attributes. There is a central facility that conducts these analyses in
Lincoln, Nebraska. Click on the “Pedon” link in KSOL A variety of pedon data is available through the
National Cooperative Soil Survey Pedon Data Map at the USDA website.

6) Where in the United States is this pedon located?

7) Find the percent sand, percent silt, and percent clay at a depth of 0-16 cm.

% clay: ____________

% silt: ____________

% sand: ______________

8) Find the percent sand, percent silt, and percent clay at a depth of 39-54 cm.

% clay: ____________

% silt: ____________

% sand: ______________

9) Find the appropriate classification of soil texture using the soil texture triangle (supplied by your TA).
What is the name for the textural class of this soil at each depth?

10) How does the texture of this pedon change with depth from the soil surface?

11) Describe a process that could cause this pattern (See your Reynolds course textbook. Look at page
517 for hints).

Topic 2: Landscape and regional analyses

Exercise 1: Analyze soil series concepts

The NRCS has mapped the soils in every county in the U.S. These are called soil surveys, and they are
available online through http://soils.usda.gov/survey/geography/ssurgo/

63
The basic soil mapping unit in the U.S. is the soil series, which can be thought of as a group of pedons or
polypedons. These soil series have names; usually place or proper names, and they occur in predictable
spatial patterns on the landscape within a region. http://www.soils.usda.gov/

Block diagrams (figure 2) are generalized representations of where soil series are found on the landscape.
Here is one from Otter Tail County, Minnesota.

Figure 2. Block diagram example.

1) What is the soil series in the highest topographic position?

2) Find the description of this soil series through the USDA website. This is a three to four
sentence description of the soil. OSD is the abbreviation for Official Series Description. There is a
series name search feature at the soil survey website. Follow this link:
https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/osdname.aspx then select View OSD by Series Name (with best-
match feature or wild card characters).

3) What is the soil series in the lowest surface topographic position (hint: only use soil series names
labeled on the surface)

64
4) Find the description of this soil series through the USDA website.

Exercise 2: Name some threats to soil and calculate soil erosion rates

Take the following webpage that looks at threats to soils from the World Wildlife Fund at
http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation. The site goes over the causes and
impacts of soil loss. Identify two of the threats to soil to help answer question 5.

5) Name two threats to soil.

Next, here is a soil erosion exercise. The basic idea is to calculate erosion rates based on land use type in
the U.S. Feel free to use a calculator. These are relatively simple calculations whereby area*rate=amount.
Circle the land type with the highest erosion rate

Table 1. Present-day contiguous U.S. soil erosion amounts by land type.

Land Type U.S. Area Erosion Amount Percent of Calculated Erosion
Rate (106 km2) (109 tons/year) Total Area Rate
(tons/km2/year)
Cropland 1.43 1.96 17.3

Pasture 0.47 0.37 5.7

Forest 2.38 0.42 28.7

Rangeland 2.61 1.38 31.6

Desert 1.38 0.0 16.7

Total

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Topic 3: Soil orders on a global scale
Exercise 1: Analyze the spatial pattern of soil orders on Earth
Go to lab 10 lab links in KSOL and click on the “Soil Orders” link
http://soils.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/
Then, go to the “Information about each of the 12 soil orders” to answer question 1.

1) Look at the soil profile for each of the six soil orders. Describe each soil order.

U Ultisol

S Spodosol

O Oxisol

V Vertisol

M Mollisol

D Aridisol

To answer question 2, click on “Geodiscoveries” in KSOL

2) Which soil order occupies the most area of Northern Africa?

3) What climate is it mainly associated with (Is it Arctic, Temperate, Arid, or Tropical)?

Topic 4: Soil orders of Earth

Let’s go back and look at the distribution of the different soil orders of Earth by using the following link,
which we used to answer question 1 on this page. http://soils.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/

Exercise 1: Identify the twelve soil orders on Earth

1) Which soil order would you expect to find the most of in Kansas? _________________________

2) Which soil order has the highest organic matter concentration in the surface soils?

3) Now choose one soil order not described above: _______________________________________

4) What percentage of global soil area does it occupy? ___________________________________

66
5) Draw its soil profile. (These can be found by clicking on the soil order and clicking on the
example of that soil order below the map. Ex: Inceptisol example #1)

6) Name one unique aspect of the soil.

Exercise 2: Describe how the soil orders are classified

Taxonomy and classification are the systems by which people organize their knowledge of the natural
world. The best known system of taxonomy is the biological classification of organisms on Earth.
Classification is a process where one begins with an unknown soil and uses a “key” and his/her
observations of the soil properties to gradually eliminate possibilities and identify the unknown type of
soil.

It may seem strange that we would need to do this—that anything would be unknown about the spatial
distribution of soil— when global maps of soil orders are readily available. However, soil taxonomy is a
dynamic discipline. Gelisols were made a soil order in 1996; they had previously been grouped with other
soils found in cold places, but the frozen properties of these soils became important enough to classify
them as an independent soil order (in the USDA system). There are subtleties about the boundaries and
types of soils, and land use decisions often hinge on these spatial relationships.

To illustrate the concept of a key, you will find the identity of an unknown object.

1) First pick out an object and draw it. Label the color of the object next to your drawing.

2) Using the taxonomic key provided on page 67, what is the appropriate number for your item?

67
 Hole
?

Yes No

Blue or Red? Blue or Red?

Blue Red Blue Red

> 1 inch? > 1 inch? > 1 inch? > 1 inch?

Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

68