ENGNG2024 Electrical Engineering

STEADY STATE OPERATION OF DC MACHINES

1. INTRODUCTION

Electric DC machines, as indeed any other type of electric machine, can be used to
either produce electric energy from the input mechanical energy, or to convert electric energy
into output mechanical energy. These two possible operating regimes are called generation and
motoring. As already mentioned, DC machines used to be in the past the major source of DC
power. In order to produce electric power DC machines were operated as generators.
Nowadays, however, use of DC generators is becoming more and more rare. DC power is
obtained instead by means of power electronic converters. The remaining applications of DC
machines are today restricted to motoring. In this operating regime a DC machine is operated
as a DC motor: it consumes DC power, while delivering at its shaft mechanical power. The
shaft drives a certain load, that is characterised with the load torque.
A DC machine consists of stationary part, called stator, and rotating part, called rotor.
Both stator and rotor are equipped with one winding. Stator winding is supplied from a DC
voltage source and the role of this winding is to produce magnetic flux in the air gap of the
machine. This flux is stationary in space. Rotor winding is again supplied from a DC voltage
source (for motoring): DC supply is connected to the rotor winding through a special
assembly, that is composed of brushes and commutator. Brushes are stationary, while
commutator is fixed to the rotor and hence rotates together with the rotor. This assembly
enables supply of electric power from stationary power supply to rotating winding on rotor.
Principle of operation of this assembly is illustrated by means of Fig. 1. Rotor winding is shown
in a very simplified manner, as consisting of just one coil, connected to two segments of the
commutator. Motoring action is assumed and the current is therefore delivered to the rotor
winding through the stationary brushes and rotating commutator. Two positions of the rotor
winding are shown in Fig. 1. Terminal current (current brought to the brushes) and the winding
current are illustrated in Fig. 2. As can be seen from these two figures, current inside the rotor
winding is reversed (commutated) after each half-revolution of the rotor. Current inside the
rotor is therefore AC, while the terminal current is DC. Frequency of the current inside the
rotor winding equals frequency of rotation.

θ θ
A B

ia = Ia ia ia = Ia ia

i=Ia i=−Ia

B A

Fig. 1 - Current reversal (commutation) in rotor coil by means of the commutator.

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ia Ia i Ia

0 θ = ωt 0 π 2π θ=ωt

− Ia

Fig. 2 - Terminal current and current through rotor coil.

Note that such a situation regarding frequencies in the two windings is the only possible
one that satisfies the condition of average torque existence. Since the stator winding is supplied
with pure DC current of zero frequency, the machine can develop an average torque if and
only if the rotor winding frequency equals the frequency of rotation. This means that it is not
possible to realise an electric machine with DC currents flowing in both stator and rotor
windings. Such a situation would result in the possibility of developing an average torque at
zero speed only. At zero speed however converted power equals zero and therefore such a
machine could not do the process of electromechanical energy conversion.
Let the stator winding, which is called excitation or field winding as well, be supplied
with constant DC voltage equal to Vf . Current that flows through this winding is in steady-
state operation determined with
If = Vf /Rf (1)
Flux produced in the air gap of the machine is, neglecting saturation of the magnetic circuit,
proportional to this current. Hence
Φf = c1 If (2)
It has to be emphasised that the excitation winding can be replaced with permanent magnets.
Many of the modern DC motors rely on permanent magnet excitation and in such a case there
is not any possibility of changing the excitation flux, since it is fixed by the magnet properties.
Rotor rotates at certain angular speed ω [rad/s], in the stationary flux produced by the
excitation winding. Thus, according to the basic law of electro-magnetic induction, e = B l v
(where v is linear speed, B is flux density and l is length of the conductor), there is an induced
electromotive force (emf) in the rotor winding
E = c2 Φf ω = k If ω (3)
Induced emf is proportional to the flux (i.e., excitation current) and to the speed of rotation,
through a constant determined with constructional features of the machine. Speed of rotation ω
is the so-called angular speed of rotation in [rad/s] and it is correlated with the speed n in
revolutions per minute [rpm] through ω = ( 2π 60) n . As rotor winding (often called armature
winding) is supplied from a DC voltage source and as the winding is of certain resistance, then
the voltage equilibrium equation for the armature winding (index a) is
Va = Ra Ia + E (4)
According to the basic law of electromagnetic force creation, if a conductor that carries
current I moves in the flux of flux density B, then an electromagnetic force F = B I l acts on
the conductor. As rotor winding rotates in the flux density produced by the excitation winding,
an electromagnetic torque is produced, equal to
Te = c2 Φf Ia = k If Ia (5)
This electromagnetic torque is the reason why the rotor rotates. If there is load connected to
the shaft of the machine, then this load opposes rotation with its torque, called load torque TL.

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In any steady-state condition electromagnetic torque and load torque are equal and act in the
opposite direction. While electromagnetic torque acts in the direction of rotation, load torque
acts in the opposite direction, as illustrated in Fig. 3 for two possible directions of rotation, and
expressed with the following relation:
Te = TL (6)
Angular speed of rotation in [rad/s] is correlated with speed in [rpm] through the
already given scaling factor
n [rpm] = (60/2 π) ω [rad/s] (7)

Te Te
ω ω

rotor rotor

TL TL
forward motoring reverse motoring

Fig. 3 - Directions of electromagnetic torque, load torque and speed in motoring.

Note that constant of proportionality in expressions for induced emf and

electromagnetic torque, k, is the same as long as speed in expression for emf is given in rad/s.
Input and output powers of the motor are electrical and mechanical powers,
respectively, and are given with the following expressions:
Pin = VaIa + Vf If (8)
Pout = Te ω (9)
The difference of the two powers represents power loss in the machine, which includes
mechanical loss, iron loss and loss in the windings. In what follows mechanical loss and iron
loss will be frequently neglected, but copper loss will always be accounted for. Power loss in
the machine and the efficiency are given with
Ploss = Pin - Pout (10)
η = Pout / Pin (11)
Equations (1)-(11) completely describe steady-state operation of a DC motor. Standard data
that are given for a DC motor on its nameplate are so-called rated values of output power,
armature voltage and current, excitation voltage and current, and speed of rotation in rpm.
Rated values will always be identified in examples with index n. Note that, as rated power is
always output power, rated power for a motor is mechanical output power.
Load torque that an electric motor drives can be either speed independent (say, crane
lifting a load) or speed dependent. Frequently met speed dependent load torques are either
linearly proportional to speed or proportional to speed squared (pumps, compressors, fans,
etc.). These three types of load torques are illustrated in Fig. 4. If the load torque is constant,
then it follows from (5) that product of excitation current and armature current is constant as
well. This is the simplest case and all the examples will assume that a DC motor drives a
constant speed independent load torque.
Depending on how excitation winding and armature winding are supplied from DC
voltage sources, various types of DC motors may be identified. Two of the types that are
nowadays in wide application are separately excited DC motor and series excited DC motor.
The third one, rarely used nowadays, is the shunt excited DC machine. In a separately excited

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DC machine, two voltage DC sources are used. Shunt and series excited DC machines require
only one voltage source, with the stator and rotor winding connected in parallel and in series,
respectively. These three DC machine types are considered in more detail in what follows.

TL = kω
TL
TL = const.

TL = kω2

ω
Fig. 4 - Illustration of various types of load torques.

2. SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

Excitation winding and armature winding of a separately excited DC motor are

supplied from two independent DC power sources. A separately excited DC motor is described
in steady-state operation with the following set of equations, that essentially only summarise
again (1)-(6)
Va = E + Ra I a
Vf = Rf I f
Φ f = c1I f
(12)
E = c2 Φ f ω = kI f ω
Te = c2 Φ f I a = kI f I a
TL = Te
Equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor is shown in Fig. 5. Mechanical, speed-
torque characteristic of the motor (speed against electromagnetic torque) can be derived from
(12) as follows:
Va = E + Ra Ia = kI f ω + Ra Ia Þ I = (V
a a )
− kI f ω Ra

( )
Te = kI f I a = kI f Va − kI f ω Ra
Va Ra
ω= − Te
kI f (kI f )2
(13)
If both voltages have rated values then
I fn = V fn R f
Van Ra
ω= − Te
kI fn (kI fn )2
Speed-torque characteristic, with rated voltages applied to both windings, is the so-called
natural operating characteristic and is shown in Fig. 5 with bold trace. Equation (13) enables
examination of available speed control methods for a separately excited DC motor, that are
beyond the scope here. As can be seen from the speed torque characteristic, speed slightly
decreases, in a linear manner, as load is increased. The highest value of the operating speed is
under no-load conditions (i.e., load torque equal to zero). Rated operating point is indicated in

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Fig. 5 as well. Speed drop in a separately excited DC machine from no-load condition to full
(rated) load conditions is typically a few tens of rpms.

Example 1:
A separately excited DC motor has the following rated data: 500 V, 100 A, 1000 rpm.
Armature resistance is 0.5 Ω. Excitation flux is constant and equal to rated. Calculate
rated torque and rated power of the motor and evaluate efficiency of the motor in the
rated operation if power loss in the excitation winding is 5 kW.

Solution:
As rated voltage and rated armature current are known, then from (12) one can calculate induced

Þ
electro-motive force in rated operating conditions:
an = E n + R a I an E n = V an − Ra I an = 500 − 0.5x100 = 450 V

E n = kI fn ω n = kI fn
2π
60
nn Þ kI fn =
En
2π
= 30 x 450 / (1000π ) = 4.3
nn
60
Rated torque is then
Ten = kI fn I an = 4.3 x100 = 430 Nm
Rated power is mechanical (output)power,
2π
Pn = Ten ω n = 430 x x1000 = 45030 W
60
Input power is the power delivered to the armature winding (500 V times 100 A)
plus the power delivered to the excitation winding (5 kW). The efficiency in rated
operation is ratio of output to input power. Hence
η n = Pn / Pin = 45030 / (50000 + 5000) = 45.03 / 55 = 0.819

Example 2:
Separately excited DC motor, 230 V, armature resistance = 0.2 Ω, operates under
no-load conditions at 1200 rpm. Under rated conditions armature current is 40 A.
Find the rated speed and rated electromagnetic torque of the motor. Excitation flux is
constant and rated.

Solution:
Speed is in this example known for no-load operating conditions. If there is not load connected to
the shaft of the motor, then load torque is zero. From (12) it follows that electromagnetic torque is
zero as well. As electromagnetic torque is proportional to the armature current, then zero torque
indicates that armature current is zero. No-load point is denoted with index ‘0’. Hence
E 0 = Van − Ra I a 0 = Van

E 0 = kI fn
2π
60
n0 Þ kI2π
E0
fn =
V
= an = 30x 230 / (1200π ) = 183
2π
.
n0 n0
60 60
Then for rated operating conditions
E n = Van − Ra I an = 230 − 0.2 x 40 = 222 V

E n = kI fn
2π
60
nn Þn n
En
=
2π
. π ) = 1150 rpm
= 30x 222 / (183
kI fn
60
Ten = kI fn I an = 183
. x 40 = 73.2 Nm

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Example 3:
A separately excited DC motor, whose rated data are 440 V, 120 A, 970 rpm, armature
resistance = 0.16 Ω, is loaded with such a load torque that the armature current is 40
A. Find the speed and torque of the motor for this operating condition. Excitation flux
is constant and equal to rated.

Solution:
Rated data for voltage and current apply to the armature. When excitation flux is constant, as the case
is here, excitation winding data are not needed and are hence not given. The motor in this question
operates in an operating point other than rated. However, initial calculations always have to deal with
rated operating point, in order to find necessary values for subsequent calculations.

For rated operating point

Van = E n + Ra I an Þ E n = Van − Ra I an = 440 − 0.16 x120 = 420.8 V

E n = kI fnω n = kI fn
2π
60
nn Þ kI fn =
2π
En
= 30 x 420.8 / (970π ) = 4.14
nn
60
Ten = kI fn I an = 4.14 x120 = 497 Nm
2π
Pn = Tenω n = 497 x x 970 = 50484 W
60
In new operating point
E1 = Van − Ra I a1 = 440 − 0.16 x 40 = 433.6 V

E1 = kI fnω 1 = kI fn
2π
60
n1 Þn 1
2π
E1
= = 30x 433.6 / (4.14π ) = 1000.13 rpm
kI fn
60
Te1 = kI fn I a1 = 4.14 x 40 = 165.6 Nm
2π
P1 = Te1ω 1 = 165.6 x x1000.13 = 17343.8 W
60
The two operating points are illustrated in Figure 5.

Ra Ia
Va = E + Ra Ia

Rf Vf = Rf If

Va E If E = k If ω

Vf Te = k If Ia

ω
ω1
ωn

Te1 Ten Te = TL
Fig. 5 - Equivalent circuit and natural speed torque curve of a separately excited DC motor.

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Example 4:
A separately excited DC motor has the following rated data: 500 V, 100 A, 1000 rpm.
Armature resistance is 1 Ω. Excitation flux is constant and equal to rated.
a) Calculate rated torque and rated power of the motor.
b) Evaluate efficiency of the motor in rated operation if power loss in the excitation
winding is 5 kW.
c) The motor drives a load such that the armature current is 40 A. Calculate torque and
speed for this operating regime. Determine efficiency of the motor in this operating
point.
d) Plot speed - torque curve and denote the two calculated points.

Solution:
Note that parts a) and b) are the ‘exam’ version of the Example 1, with minor changes and additions!
a) As rated voltage and rated armature current are known, then from (12) one can calculate induced
electro-motive force in rated operating conditions:
V an = E n + R a I anÞE n = V an − R a I an = 500 − 1x100 = 400 V

E n = kI fn ω n = kI fn
2π
60
nn Þ kI fn =
En
2π
= 30 x 400 /(1000π ) = 3.82
nn
60
Rated torque is then
Ten = kI fn I an = 3.82 x100 = 382 Nm
Rated power is mechanical (output) power,
2π
Pn = Ten ω n = 382 x x1000 = 40 kW
60
b) Input power is the power delivered to the armature winding (500 V times 100 A)
plus the power delivered to the excitation winding (5 kW). The efficiency in rated
operation is ratio of output to input power. Hence
η n = Pn / Pin = 40000 /(50000 + 5000) = 40 / 55 = 0.73 = 73%
c) The load torque is now smaller, since current is only 40 A. As torque is directly proportional to the
armature current through the constant kIfn (which is 3.82) then the new torque is 40 A/100 A times the
rated torque, i.e. 152.8 Nm. Further
E = V an − R a I a = 500 − 1x 40 = 460 V

E = kI fn
2π
60
Þ
n n = 60 E /(2πkI fn ) = 30 x 460 /(πx3.82) = 1150 rpm

Output and input power are, respectively

2π
Pout = Te ω = 152.8 1150 = 18.4 kW
60
Pin = V an I a + 5000 = 500 x 40 + 5000 = 25 kW
η = 18.4 / 25 = 0.736 = 73.6%
d) The two operating points are as indicated in Fig. 5.

3. SHUNT EXCITED DC MOTOR

A shunt excited DC motor is the motor where the excitation winding and the armature
winding are connected in parallel and supplied from the same voltage source. The equivalent
circuit is illustrated in Fig. 6. As long as the supply voltage is constant and rated (this is the
assumption valid here; voltage variation is a mean of speed control, that is beyond the scope of
interest at present), all the equations given for a separately excited DC motor remain valid. It is

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only necessary to replace individual voltages for the excitation and the armature winding in
(12)-(13) with one and the same value V of the supply voltage. The torque-speed curve of the
shunt motor is therefore the same as the one for a separately excited DC motor and remains to
be as given in Fig. 5.

Ra

Ia

V Rf E

If

Fig. 6 – Equivalent circuit of a shunt excited DC machine.

Example 5:
A shunt excited DC motor, whose rated data are 440 V, 122 A, 970 rpm, armature
resistance = 0.16 Ω, excitation winding resistance = 220 Ω, is loaded with such a load
torque that the terminal current is 42 A. Find the speed and torque of the motor for this
operating condition.

Solution:
Note that in the case of the shunt motor the rated current is the terminal current. That is , the given
rated current is the sum of the rated armature and rated excitation winding current. Since the rated
voltage and excitation winding resistance are known, the rated excitation current is 440/220 = 2 A and
is the same regardless of the motor loading. Thus the rated armature current is 122 – 2 = 120 A, and
the armature current for the new operating point is 42 – 2 = 40 A.
Note that the rated motor data and the armature currents are now the same as in the Example 3 for a
separately excited motor. Hence the solution is the same as well, with rated armature voltage symbol
being replaced with the rated voltage symbol.
V n = E n + R a I an ÞE n = V n − R a I an = 440 − 0.16 x120 = 420.8 V

E n = kI fn ω n = kI fn
2π
60
nn Þ kI fn =
En
2π
= 30 x 420.8 /(970π ) = 4.14
nn
60
Ten = kI fn I an = 4.14 x120 = 497 Nm
2π
Pn = Ten ω n = 497 x x970 = 50484 W
60
In new operating point
E1 = V n − R a I a1 = 440 − 0.16 x 40 = 433.6 V

E1 = kI fn ω 1 = kI fn
2π
60
n1 Þn 2π
1
E1
= = 30 x 433.6 /(4.14π ) = 1000.13 rpm
kI fn
60
Te1 = kI fn I a1 = 4.14 x 40 = 165.6 Nm
2π
P1 = Te1ω 1 = 165.6 x x1000.13 = 17343.8 W
60
The two operating points remain to be as illustrated in Figure 5.

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4. SERIES EXCITED DC MOTOR

In a series excited DC motor, as the name suggests, excitation winding and armature
winding are connected in series and fed from a single DC power source. Equivalent circuit of a
series excited DC motor is illustrated in Fig. 7. Due to series connection of the two windings,
equations (1)-(6) now become
(
V = E + Ra + R f I )
Ia = I f = I
E = kI f ω = kIω (14)
Te = kI f I a = kI 2

Te = TL
As excitation winding current is one and the same as armature current, then operation of a
series motor with variable load torque results in variable flux in the machine. Electromagnetic
torque is therefore proportional to the current squared, while emf is proportional to the
product of current and speed. Mechanical torque-speed characteristic is derived using the same
procedure as for a separately excited DC motor:
( )
V = Ra + R f I + E = Ra + R f I + kIω ( ) ÞI = V
( Ra + R f ) + kω
kV 2
Te = kI 2 =
[( R ) ]
2
a + R f + kω (15)
For rated voltage supply
kVn 2
Te =
[( R ) ]
2
a + R f + kω
Torque-speed curve is shown in Fig. 7 as well, with bold trace (rated operating point is
indicated in the Figure 7). It substantially differs from the curve valid for a separately excited
motor. Small variation of the torque produces large variation in operating speed. Note that
series DC motor must not be ever allowed to run unloaded. As follows from (15), operation
with zero electromagnetic torque results when speed approaches infinity. This means that, if a
series motor is allowed to run without load, its rotor speed will reach such a high speed that
the motor will eventually disintegrate.

Rf Ra
I Te

V Vf
Va E Ten
Vn

ωn ω

Fig. 7 - Equivalent circuit and torque-speed characteristics of a series excited DC motor.

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It should be noted that all the calculations regarding operation of a series DC motor
remain the same as in the case of a separately excited DC motor as long as operation with the
constant load torque is considered. However, if the load torque is speed dependent, then
change of load torque implies quadratic change of armature current, while in the case of the
separately excited motor the change is linear.

Example 6:
A series DC motor has armature and excitation winding resistances of 0.2 Ω and 0.1 Ω,
respectively. Rated motor date are 1000 rpm, 40 A and 450 V. Calculate rated torque,
rated power and efficiency in rated operation.

Solution:
From rated data
E n = Vn − ( R a + R f ) I n = 450 − (0.1 + 0.2) x 40 = 438 V

E n = kI n ω n Þ k = E ( I πn
n n n )
/ 30 = 0.10456
2 2
Ten = kI n = 0.10456 x 40 = 167.3 Nm
Pn = Ten ω n = 167.3xπx1000 / 30 = 17520 W
Pin = V n I n = 450 x 40 = 18000 W
η n = Pn / Pin = 17520 / 18000 = 0.9733
Difference between input and output power is 480 W and this must
2
equal loss on resistances of the two windings: (0.1 + 0.2)x40 = 480 W.

Example 7:

A series DC motor operates under rated conditions with 161.2 Nm torque, 1000 rpm
speed, 41 A current and 420 V voltage. Resistance of excitation and armature winding
is 0.2 Ω. Find the speed and current of the motor if the torque is now 87 Nm.

Solution:
Note that this example does not involve speed control and serves the purpose of illustrating
calculations for the case when load torque changes with speed. From the given data
En = Vn − RI n = 420 − 0.2x 41 = 4118
. V

Ten = kIn2 = 161.2 Nm Te1 = kI12 = 87 Nm Þ TT e1

= 87 / 161.2 =
I12
I n2
en

I1 = I n Te1 Ten = 41 87 / 161.2 = 30.12 A

E1 = Vn − RI1 = 420 − 0.2x 30.12 = 413.98 V

En = kI nω n E1 = kI1ω 1 Þ E1 nI
= 11
En nn I n
E1I n 413.98x 41
n1 = nn = 1000 = 1368.4 rpm
E n I1 4118
. x 30.12

Example 8:

A series DC motor, 220 V, 1500 rpm, 270 A has combined resistance of armature and
field winding of 0.11 Ohms. The motor drives a load that is characterised with constant load
torque, equal to the motor rated torque. Find the rated torque and rated power of the motor.

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Solution:
E n = Vn − ( Ra + R f ) I n = 220 − 0.11x 270 = 190 V

E n = kI nωn Þ kI n = En ( πnn / 30) = 1.21

2
Ten = kI n = 1.21x 270 = 326.6 Nm
Pn = Tenωn = 326.6 xπx1500 / 30 = 51.3 kW
Pin = Vn I n = 220 x 270 = 59.4 kW
η n = Pn / Pin = 51.3 / 59.4 = 0.86

5. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Q1. A series DC motor operates under rated conditions with 161.2 Nm torque, 1000 rpm
speed, 41 A current and 420 V voltage. Combined resistance of excitation and
armature winding is 0.2 Ω.

a) Sketch the equivalent circuit of the series DC motor, derive its torque-speed
characteristic and show graphically toque-speed curve.
b) Calculate rated power of the motor and its efficiency in rated operation.
c) Find the speed and current of the motor when the load torque is 87 Nm. Determine
output power and efficiency in this operating point.

Q2. A series DC motor, 420 V, 41 A, 1000 rpm, has armature and excitation winding
resistances of 0.12 Ω and 0.08 Ω, respectively.
a) Calculate rated torque and rated power of the motor.
b) The motor drives a load whose torque is proportional to the speed of rotation
squared, TL = 0.015 ω2. Determine operating speed, current and torque of the motor
for this load torque.

Q3. a) Sketch equivalent circuits of (i) separately and (ii) series excited DC motors and
write the basic steady-state equations for each type.

b) A separately excited DC motor has the following rated data: 500 V, 100 A, 1000
rpm. Armature resistance is 0.5 Ω. Excitation flux is constant and equal to rated.

i) Calculate rated torque and rated power of the motor.

ii) The motor drives a load such that the armature current is 40 A. Calculate
torque and speed for this operating regime.

iii) Plot speed - torque curve and denote the two calculated points.

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Q4. a) Sketch equivalent circuits of (i) separately and (ii) series excited DC motors and
write the basic steady-state equations for each type.

b) Explain the role of commutator in DC machines using simple representation of rotor

winding with just one turn and sketch the waveform of current in the turn assuming
that current at rotor terminals is constant DC.

c) A separately excited DC motor has the following rated data: 400 V, 100 A, 950 rpm.
Armature resistance is 1 Ω. Excitation flux is constant and equal to rated. Mechanical
losses and iron core losses can be neglected and armature voltage is constant and equal
to rated. Calculate rated torque and rated power of the machine whose data are given.
If the motor now drives a load such that the armature current is 50 A, calculate speed
of rotation, torque and output power for this operating regime. Plot to scale torque-
speed curve and denote the two calculated points.

Q5. a) A series DC motor has armature resistance of 0.12 ohms and excitation winding
resistance of 0.08 ohms. When the motor operates at 1000 rpm the current is 41 A and
the torque is 176 Nm. The motor is supplied from a constant 420 V DC source.
Calculate the current and the speed when the motor operates with torque equal to 87
Nm.

b) Sketch equivalent circuits of (i) separately and (ii) series excited DC motors and
write the basic steady-state equations for each type.

c) Explain the role of commutator in DC machines using simple representation of rotor

winding with just one turn and sketch the waveform of current in the turn assuming
that current at rotor terminals is constant DC.

Q6. A 220-V dc shunt motor draws 10-A at 1800-rpm. The armature circuit resistance is
0.2-Ω and the field winding resistance is 440-Ω.

a) Calculate the torque developed by the motor under the above conditions.

b) If the field current is unchanged, determine the speed and line current when the
motor produces a torque of 20-Nm.

c) Derive an expression representing the motor speed [rpm]-torque [Nm]

characteristic and then determine the machine no-load speed.

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