DEPARTMENT: MEDICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE TITLE: AC OSCILLATORS ELECTRONICS

COURSE CODE: ELT 203

Task: 1) Explain what oscillation is and discuss various types of oscillations

2) Discuss the requirements for oscillation

3) Explain various oscillation circuit, operation and applications

4) State the application of oscillators

Group two members

Names: Admission number

1. Fridah Jacob D|UPMET|19001|005

2. Hosea kipruto D|MET|18001|008
3. Mumbi zipporah D|UPMET|19001|051
4. Samuel juma D|UPMET|19001|022
5. Agnes kavata D|UPMET|19001|030
6. Jeremiah muli D|UPMET|19001|019
7. Fiona akoth D|MET|18001|013

PRESENTED TO: Madam Joyce Langat

DATE: 4th\December\2018
AC OSCILLATORS

Oscillator: is an electronic device for generating an ac signal voltage.

Oscillation; is a signal produced by the oscillator.

Oscillators generate sinusoidal or non sinusoidal waveform from very low

frequencies up to very high frequencies. An oscillator is a circuit that generates
alternating voltage of desired frequency and amplitude .It converts dc energy to ac
voltage .They also have a wide applications for example to test a stereo amplifier,
an audio signal generator which generates 20khz to 15khz at the transmitter and
47mHz to 230MHZ frequency at receiver end.

Oscillators are classified into two main groups namely;

I. Sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators

II. Non sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators
Non sinusoidal oscillators; they produce an output which has square, rectangular
or saw tooth waveforms.

a) Saw tooth diagram above

Sinusoidal oscillators: are oscillators which produce an output having sine
waveforms.

b) Sine waveform
Under sinusoidal oscillators it is also divided into two types of oscillations namely

 Damped oscillations
 Non damped oscillations
Damped oscillations; this are electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time.

Undamped oscillations; are electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains

constant with time.

THE OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT

It is also called LC circuit or tank circuit. The oscillatory circuit of two reactive
elements e.g. an inductor or a capacitor; both are capable of storing energy and
discharge the energy to produce an emf .inductor stores energy in its magnetic field
while capacitor stores energy inform of chares.

OPERATION OF OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT

Suppose the capacitor in this circuit is already charged using an external DC source
(battery). In this situation the upper plate of the capacitor has deficit of electrons
whereas the lower plate has excess electrons. The capacitor holds some
electrostatic energy and there is a voltage across the capacitor. In figure below.

When the switch s is closed, the capacitor discharges and the current flows through
the inductor. Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a
maximum value. Once the capacitor discharges completely, the magnetic field
around the coil is maximum.

Now, let us move to the next stage. Once the capacitor is discharged completely,
the magnetic field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to
Lenz law. The capacitor is now charged with positive charge on the lower plate
and negative charge on the upper plate.
Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a magnetic
field around the coil.

This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of

electrons or an oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L and C
produce continuous oscillations.

Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories:

1. Tuned circuit oscillators; these oscillators use a tuned circuit consisting of

inductors (L) and capacitor (C) and are used to generate high frequency
signals. Thus they are also known as radio frequency (RF) oscillators. Such
oscillators are Hartley, colpitts, clapp oscillators etc.
2. RC oscillators; there oscillators use resistors and capacitors which are used
to generate low or audio frequency signals. Thus they are also known as
audio frequency (A.F) oscillators. Such oscillators are phase shift and wein
bridge oscillators.
3. Crystal oscillators; these oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to
generate highly stable output signals with frequencies up to 10MHZ. the
piezo oscillator is an example of a crystal oscillator.
4. Negative resistance oscillators; these oscillators use negative resistance
characteristic of the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator
is an example of a negative resistance oscillator.

There three basic requirements for a oscillatory circuit;

 Feedback circuit; is required to sustain oscillations which are in
positive feedback loop.
 Amplifier; is required to provide the necessary gain for the signal. It
also receives dc power and changes it to ac power for supplying to the
tank circuit.
 Tank circuit; is a frequency determining circuit which is used to
maintain the desired output frequency depending on the type of
oscillator to be used.
 Illustration of the oscillator circuit

Tank circuit

Amplifier
Output

Feedback
Circuit

Types of sinusoidal oscillators circuits;

1. Tuned collector oscillator circuit

Characteristics
The combination of L1 and C1 in the collector forms the tuned circuit (tank
circuit). Thus it is referred as tuned collector oscillator. The frequency of
oscillation is the frequency which is depends on the values of L1 and C1. As
shown in the circuit, the coil L2 is magnetically coupled with the tank circuit
coil L1. Coil L2 is known as feedback coil. The coils L1 and L2 form the
primary and secondary windings of transformer respectively. The capacitor
CL provides low reactance path to the oscillations.
OPERATION

When the switch is closed, the collector current starts increasing. It charges the
capacitor C1. Once the capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through inductor
L1. This charging, discharging process happens at the frequency given in equation
below

𝑓𝑜=1/2ℿ⎷𝐿1𝐶1

By mutual induction, these oscillations induce some voltage in the coil L2. The
induced voltage in the L2 has the same frequency of tank circuit. But its magnitude
it depends upon the coupling between L1 and L2 and number of turns in the coils.
This voltage is applied as a base voltage to the transistor which is amplified and
fed to the collector circuit. Thus the losses in the tank circuit are compensated
(ensuring undamped oscillations). A phase shift of 180 is created between voltages
of L1 and L2 due to transformer action. Then a phase shift of 180 happens between
base emitter and collector circuit due to transistor properties. Thus the phase of
feedback is same as the phase of tank circuit.

APPLICATION

 Are used in RF oscillator circuits.

 Used in mixers.
 Used as frequency demodulators.
 Is used in signal generators.

2) COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

One of the main properties of colpitts oscillators is that it has two Capacitors and
one placed across a common inductor (L) and centre of the two capacitors are
tapped. In its oscillatory circuit it contains C1, C2 and L2. Therefore, frequency of
oscillations is determined by the values of C1, C2 and L and is given by;
Colpitts circuit

NB: C1, C2, L is also the feedback circuit that produces a phase shift of 180
degrees.

OPERATION

In case the circuit is turned on, the capacitor C1 and C2 are charged. When the
capacitors are fully charged they discharge through L setting up oscillations of
frequency. The output voltage of the amplifier appears across C1 and feedback
voltage is developed across C2. The voltage across it is 180 degree out of phase
with the voltage developed across C1 (Vout).

APLICATIONS

 It is used for generation of sinusoidal output signals with high frequencies.

 Used for applications in which Undamped and continuous oscillations are
desired for functioning.
 It is used for the development of mobile and radio communication.
3) HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator whose frequency of oscillation is
determined by the tuned circuit. The tuned circuit consists of the capacitor and
inductor. The features of the Hartley circuit are the tuned circuit consists of a
single capacitor in parallel with the two inductors which are in series.

Circuit of Hartley oscillator

Operation

When the circuit is turned on the capacitor is charged. So when it is fully charged,
it discharges through coil L1 and L2 setting up oscillations of frequency
determined by the output voltage of the amplifier appears across L1 and feedback
voltage across L2. The voltage across L2 is 180 degree out of phase with the
voltage L1 (Vout).
APPLICATIONS

 The Hartley oscillator is suitable for oscillations in RF (radio frequency)

range up to 30MHZ.
 Hartley oscillators are mainly used as radio receivers. Also note that due to
its wide range of frequencies, it is the most popular oscillator.
Wien bridge oscillator
 Wien bridge oscillator is a type of phase shift oscillator that generates sine
waves. It also comprises of four arms connected in a bridge form or fashion.
Operation
The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for all frequencies in
the range of 10Hz to about 1MHz. It is the most frequently used type of audio
oscillator as the output is free from Circuit fluctuations and ambient temperature.
The circuit of Wien bridge oscillator. It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with R-
C bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms R1 C1, R3, R2 C2 and tungsten
lamp Lp. Resistances R3and Lp are used to stabilize the amplitude of the Output.
The transistor T1serves as an oscillator and amplifier while the other transistor T2
serves as an inverter (i.e. to produce a phase shift of 180º).The circuit uses positive
and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback is through R1C1, C2 R2 to the
transistor T1.The negative feedback is through the voltage divider to the input of
transistor T2. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the Series element
R1C1 and parallel element R2 C2 of the bridge.
 Advantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
1. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied just by changing RC
network
2. High gain due to two-stage amplifier
3. Stability is high
Disadvantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The main disadvantage of the Wien-bridge oscillator is that a high frequency of
oscillation cannot be generated.

Crystal oscillator
Is an electronic that is used to generate an electrical signal of precise frequency
by vibrating crystals mechanical resonance made of piezoelectric material. Of
the various types of piezoelectric crystal, quartz is most commonly used
because it’s inexpensive and readily available in nature. Most communications
and digital applications require the use of oscillators with extremely stable
output. Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output fluctuation
experienced by conventional oscillators.

Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz wafer held between

two metal plates and housed in a package as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (b).a
Piezoelectric Effect

o The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and exhibits a

property called the piezoelectric
o When a changing an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal, it
vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage. In the other word, the
frequency of the applied ac voltage is equal to the natural resonant
frequency of the crystal.
o The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration. This
phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect.
The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from collector
to the base so that it is excited in the series-resonance mode
 APPLICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS:

 Oscillators are a common element of almost all electronic circuits.

They are used in various applications, and their use makes it possible for
circuits and subsystems to perform numerous useful functions.
 In oscillator circuits, oscillation usually builds up from zero when
power is first applied under linear circuit operation.
 The oscillator’s amplitude is kept from building up by limiting the
amplifier saturation and various non-linear effects.
 Oscillator design and simulation is a complicated process. It is
also extremely important and crucial to design a good and stable oscillator.
 Oscillators are commonly used in communication circuits. All the
Communication circuits for different modulation techniques—AM, FM, PM—
the use of an oscillator is must.
 Oscillators are used as stable frequency sources in a variety of
electronic applications.
 Oscillator circuits are used in computer peripherals, counters,
timers, calculators, phase-locked loops, digital multi-meters, oscilloscopes,
and numerous other applications.