2 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices

Applied Electronic I
Information:
Lecture Note http://www.faculty.iu-
By Dereje K. bremen.de/dknipp/
Source: Apple
Ref.: Apple
Ref.: IBM
Critical
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 dimension (m)
Ref.: Palo Alto Research Center
Fundamentals of Semicondutors 1
Introduction to Electronic Devices
2 Fundamentals of Semiconductors
2.1 Semiconductors General Information

2.1.1 General Material Properties
2.1.2 Structural Properties of Materials
2.1.2.1 Classification of semiconducting materials
2.1.2.2 The unit cell
2.1.2.3 Diamond crystal structure
2.1.2.4 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices
2.1.3 Basics of Crystal Growth
2.2 Basics of Solid State Physics

2.2.1 The Hydrogen Atom
2.2.2 Energy bands
2.2.3 Band structure in Semiconductors
2.2.4 Energy-Momentum Diagram
2.2.5 Electron energy in a Solid
Introduction to Electronic Devices, Fall 2006, Dr. Dietmar Knipp
2.2.6 Material and Carrier Properties

2.2.6.1Carrier Concentration in Semiconductors
2.2.6.2 Density of States
2.2.6.3 Fermi-Dirac Statistic
2.2.6.4 Fermi Energy in Solids
2.2.7 Intrinsic carrier concentration
2.2.8 Donors and Acceptors
2.2.9 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductor
2.1.10 Compensated Semiconductors
2.1.11 Minority and Majority Carriers
2.2.12 Degenerated and Non-degenerated Semiconductors
2.2.13 Bulk Potential
2.1 Semiconductors General Information
The purpose of this part of the lecture is to introduce the solid state physics
concepts, which are needed to understand semiconductor materials and
semiconductor devices. This part of the lecture is kept as comprehensive as
possible.

Solid-state materials can be grouped in terms of their conducttivity or resistiviy.
Accordingly three classes of materials can be difined: Insulators,
Semiconductors and conductors. The conductivity of semiconductors is
generally sensitive to temperature, illumination, radiation, magnetic fields and
impurity atoms.
Range of electrical
conductivities σ.
Corresponding
resistivity:
ρ = 1σ
Classification of materials in terms of their conductivity or resititivity.

Periodic table of semiconductor materials
All materials listed in this periodic table are of interest for electronic
applications. However, silicon (Si) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are the most
most important materials. Germanium (Ge) is only of interest for niche
applications. Silicon has substituted germanium mainly due to the properties
of silicon oxide.
Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

GaAs is a compound semiconductor, meaning it is an alloy of gallium and
arsenic. GaAs is non-toxic in its solid state phase. GaAs is a III/V
semiconductor, because it is composed of material out of column III and
column V of the periodic table. GaAs can be seen as a alloy of gallium and
arsenic. Other important materials out of the group of III/V semiconductors are
Indium Phosphide (InP), and Gallium Nitride (GaN).
The electrical and the optical properties of III/V compound materials are
different from the properties of silicon. The materials are of main interest for
high speed electronics, photonics, optical communication and high-end solar
cells.
2.1.2 Structural Properties of Materials

In order to “build” electronic devices we have to understand the electronic
transport of charges in the material. However, the electronic properties of
electronic material highly depend on the strucutral properties of the material.
Based on the strucutral propeties of the material different classes of materials
can be distinguished:
Amorphous materials, polycrystalline materials and (mono)crystalline
materials.
The structural order of materials highly depends on the fabrication method and
temperatures. In general, the higher the structural order of the material the better
the charges can move in the semiconducting material.
Amorphous Poly crystalline (Mono)Crystalline

materials materials materials
No long-range Completely ordered Entirely ordered

order in segments solid
Ref.: R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals

The periodic arrangement of atoms is

called lattice!
A unit cell of a material represents the
entire lattice. By repeating the unit cell
throughout the crystal, one can generate
the entire lattice.
A unit cell can be characterized by a
vector R, where a, b and c are vectors
and m, n and p are integers, so that
each point of a lattice can be found.
Primitive unit cell. R=ma+nb+pc
The vectors a, b, and c are called the
lattice constants.

Different unit cells based on cubic unit cells
Simple Body centered Face centered

cubic unit cubic unit cell cubic unit cell
cell
(bcc) (fcc)
Silicon and germanium have a diamond

crystal structure.
The silicon structure belongs to the
class of face center cubic unit cells. A
silicon unit cell consists of eight silicon
atoms.
The structure can be seen as two
interpenetrating face centered crystal
sublattices with one sublattice displaced
Diamond lattice. from the other by one quarter of the
distance along the body diagonal of the
cube.
Most of the III/V semiconductors

grow in a zincblende lattice, which is
identical to a diamond lattice except
that one of face center cubic cell
sublattices has gallium atom and the
other arsenic atoms.
Zincblende lattice.
Miller Indices
of some
important
planes in a
cubic crystal.
Crystal properties along different planes are different and the electrical,
thermal and mechanical properties can be dependent on the crystal
orientation.
Indices (Miller indices) were introduced to define various planes in a crystal.

Example: Determine the crystal plane
The plane has interceptions

at a, 3a and 2a along the
three coordinates. Taking the
reciprocals of the intercepts,
we get 1, 1/3 and ½. The
three smallest integers have
the ratio 6, 2, and 3. Thus,
the plane is referred to be the
(623) plane.

Conventions how to define Miller indices:
(hkl): For a plane that intercepts the x-axis on the negative side of the origin
such as (100).
[hkl]: For a crystal direction, such as [100] for the x-axis. By definition, the
[100]-direction is perpendicular to the (100)-plane, and the [111]-direction is
perpendicular to the (111)-plane.
Ref: M. Shur, Introdcution to Electronic Devices

Conventions how to define Miller indices:
{hkl}: For planes of equivalent symmetry such as {100} for (100), (010), (001),
(100), (010) and (001) in cubic symmetry.
Ref.: M. Shur, Introdcution to Electronic Devices
95% of the material used in semiconductor

industry is crystalline silicon. Before
growing the silicon ingots, the material
(SiO2, sand) is purified.
The most common growth method is the
Czochralski method. The crucible contains
poly crystalline material, which is heated by
radio frequency induction up to 1412°C.
The system is typically filled with an inert
gas like argon to prevent contamination of
the single crystalline ingot.
A silicon <111> rod is used as the seed for
the growth of the silicon crystal.
Simplified schematic drawing

of the Czochralski puller.
Photo of an ingot. The

ingot has a diameter of
200mm. After pulling the
single crystalline ingot the
material is sawed into
wafers of 300-500µm
thickness.
A more detailed description of the growth of crystalline materials is

given in chapter 11 of M.S. Sze‘s book „Semiconductor devices,
Physics and Technology“.
2.2 Basics of Solid State Physics

To understand the properties of semiconductors it is essential to understand
the properties of their constituent atoms.
Based on Bohr‘s model the atom consists of a core, which contains basically
the complete mass of the atom. The shell is nearly without a mass. Despite the
fact that nearly all the mass is concentrated in the core the diameter of the core
is small with 10-15m in comparison to the diameter of the shell
10-10m=0.1nm=1Å (Ångström).
The core consists of neutrons and protons. The core is positively charged. The
shell (electron shell) is negatively charged due to electrons on is orbital. Overall
the atom is not charged or neutral.
The electrons behave like satellites. The electrons circulate around the core on
defined orbitals. The electrons are stabilized on their orbitals due an equilibrium
of centrifugal and Coulomb forces.
We will discuss the consequences of the model based on a hydrogen atom,
which is the simplest atom.

Due to the equilibrium between the centrifugal forces and the electrostatic
forces a direct relation exists between the velocity of the electron and the
radius to the core. The velocity of each electron is related to radius of the
orbital. As an electron can have different energies, the electron can have
different radius to the core of the atom. However, the model has the following
problems:
Centrifugal
v force
Based on classical electrodynamics it
can be expected that a charged
q1
electron particle on a orbital leads to the
formation of a magnetic dipole, which
Electrostatic radiates energy. Due to the loss of
force
energy the particle would be more
r
+ attracted by the core, which leads to a
core q2 spiral like projection. Finally, the
particle would fall into the core of the
atom.
Schematic diagram of a hydrogen atom


To solve this inconsistency Nils Bohr proposed the following postulate: The
energy levels of an atom and therefore the radius of the orbitals are quantized.
The allowed energy levels for a hydrogen atom are given by
EB Hydrogen energy levels

En = − 2 n = 1,2,3,.....
n
where EB is the Bohr energy and n is the principle quantum number. The
Bohr energy is given by
q2
EB = Bohr engery
8πε 0 aB
where aB is the Bohr radius. q is the charge of the electron, which is the
elementary charge and ε0 is the permittivity. Electron energies between these
energy levels En are not allowed.

As the electron energies are quantized the radius of the energy levels are
quantized as well. The energy levels for each element are unique.
The formation or the splitting of these energy levels allows the formation of
energy bands. The energies between the defined energy levels are called the
forbidden energy bands.
The unit of the energy is usually given in electronvolt (eV). The quantity eV
(electron volt) is an energy unit corresponding to the energy gained by an
electron when its potential is increased by 1V (1eV=1.6*10-19AVs=1.6*10-19J).
The Bohr radius is given by
ε 0h2
aB = Bohr radius
π ⋅ me q 2
where h is the Planck constant and me is the mass of the electron.
Bohr's atom model can be combined with Einstein's photon theory (2. Bohr‘s
Postulate). The energy difference between two energy levels n and m is given by
En − Em = h ⋅ f n,m n>m Photon energy
where En corresponds to the higher energy level. The transition from a higher to
a lower energy level leads to an energy loss. The energy can be released in the
form of a photon, where f is the frequency of the emitted light. The frequency and
the corresponding wavelength of the light is given by
q 4 me 1 1
f n ,m = 2 2⋅ 2− 2
8ε 0 h m n Frequency of the emitted light.
c
λn,m = Wavelength of the emitted light.
f n ,m
2.2.2 Energy Bands

Moving from a single atom to a solid.
For an isolated atom, the electrons have discrete energy levels. As a number of
p isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid, the orbitals of the outer
electrons overlap and interact with each other. This interaction includes
attraction and repulsion forces between the atoms. The forces between the
atoms cause a shift of the energy levels. Instead of forming a single levels, as it
is the case for a single atom, p energy levels are formed. These energy levels
are closely spaced. When p is large the different levels essentially form a
continuous band. The levels and therefore the bands can extend over several
eV depending on the interatomic or molecular spacing.
Schematic illustration of the

splitting of the degenerated
states into a continuous band
of allowed states.

Energy Band in semiconductors
We will now move from

the general description
of the band structure in a
solid to the more specific
situation for silicon. An
isolated silicon atom has
14 electrons. Of the 14
electrons 10 occupy
deeper energy levels.
Therefore, the orbital
radius is smaller than the
intermolecular
separation forces in the
crystal. The 10 electrons
Schematic representation of an isolated
are bound very strongly
silicon atom
to the atoms.

The 4 remaining valence band electrons are bound weakly and can be
involved in chemical reactions. Therefore, we can concentrate on the outer
shell (n=3 level). The n=3 level consists of a 3s (n=3 and l=0) and a 3p (n=3
and l=1) subshells. The subshell 3s has two allowed quantum states per atom
and both states are filled with an electron (at 0 Kelvin). The subshell 3p has 6
allowed states and 2 of the states are filled with the remaining electrons.

Schematic diagram of the

formation of the energy
bands in silicon as the
interatomic distance
decreases and the 3s and
3p subshells overlap. At a
temperature of absolute
zero, the electrons
occupy the lowest energy
states, so that all states in
the lower band (valence
band) will be full and all
states in the upper band
(conduction band) are
Schematic diagram of the formation of the empty.
energy bands in silicon as a function of the
lattice spacing Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

The bottom of the conduction band is called Ec and the top of the valence
band is called Ev. The energy difference between the bottom of the
conduction band and the top of the valence band is called bandgap energy
Eg. The bandgap energy Eg=(Ec- Ev) between the bottom of the conduction
band and the top of the valence band is the width of the forbidden energy
gap. Eg is the energy required to break a bond in the semiconductor to free an
electron to the conduction band and leave a hole in the valence band.
A deficiency of an electron in the valence band is considered to be a hole.
The deficiency in the valence band maybe be filled by a neighboring electron,
which results in an shift of the deficiency location. A hole is positively charged.
Both the electron and the hole contribute to the current flow.
2.2.4 Energy Momentum Diagram

Energy-band diagram for Silicon and Gallium Arsenide
If an electron is excited to the conduction band it can move freely in the crystal,
since the electron can be treated like a particle in free space. The propagation
of the free electron can be described by the wave function, which is the solution
of the Schrödinger equation. The wave function for a free electron is given by
ψ = A1 exp(ikx ) + B1 exp(− ikx ) Wave function
where k is the wave vector, which is given by
p
k= Wave vector
h 2π
P is the momentum of the electron. Due to this expression the electron energy
can be given as a function of the wave factor. We speak about the k-space
representation. The energy bands can now be determined as a function of the
k-vector.

Electron energy in free space
me v 2
En =
2
Energy of a free electron
p = me v
Energy momentum diagram for a
Momentum of a free electron free electron
En: Energy of a free electron

me v 2 p2
me: mass of a free electron En = =
v: velocity of the electron
2 2me

Electron energy in free space
h
λ= DeBroglie equation
me v
Dualism of waves and matter for
hk electromagentic waves.
p=
2π k: wave vector
We can rewrite the equation so that the wave vector is expressed in terms of
the momentum of the electron.
p Wave vector
k=
h 2π

Energy-band diagram for for Silicon and Gallium Arsenide
Silicon GaAs
Ref.: M.S. Sze,

Semiconductor
Devices
Indirect semiconductor Direct semiconductor

Electron energy in a Solid
For a solid the electron energy near the conduction band minimum can be
approximated by a parabolic function similar to an electron in free space.
However, the electron energy of an electron in a solid is quite different from the
energy of an electron in free space. The energy of an electron can be given by:
h2k 2
En (k ) = EC + 2 Energy of a electron in the
8π ⋅ mn conduction band
where mn is the effective mass of the electron. The effective mass can be
calculated by:
1
mn = Effective mass of an electron
∂ En ∂ p
2 2

Narrowing the parabola,
corresponds to a larger second
derivative, the smaller the
effective mass.
Energy-momentum relation-ship
of a special semi-conductor with
an electron effective mass of
mn=0.25m0 in the conduction
band and a hole effective mass
of mp=m0. The actual energy-
momentum relationship (also
called energy-band diagram) for
silicon and gallium arsenide are
much more complex.

The actual energy-momentum relationship (also called energy-band diagram) for
silicon and gallium arsenide are quite different from the energy momentum
diagram of a free electron. Nevertheless, the general features like the bandgap
between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band can
be observed. Second, the minimum and the maximum of the conduction and
valence band are parabolic. For silicon the maximum of the valence band occurs
for p=0, but minimum of the conduction band is shifted to p=pc. Therefore, in
silicon in addition to the energy Eg, which is necessary to excite an electron an
momentum pc is necessary. For GaAs the maximum in the valence band and the
minimum in the conduction band occur at the same momentum (p=0).
Gallium arsenide is called a direct semiconductor, because it does not require

a change in momentum for an electron transition from the valence band to the
conduction band.
Silicon is called an indirect semiconductor, because a change of the

momentum is required in a transition.
With the gained knowledge we can schematically explain the enormous

differences in conductivity of insulators, semiconductors and conductors in
terms of energy bands.
Metals or conductors are characterized by a very low resistivity. Depending
on the material two different schematic energy band diagrams exist.
The conduction band is either partially filled (e.g.

for Cu) or the valance band and the conduction
band overlap (e.g. Zn, Pb).
Electrons are free to move with only a small
applied electric fields.
Energy Band diagram

in a conductor
For an insulator the valence electrons are strongly bonded to the neighboring
atoms. This bonds are difficult to break and consequently there are no free
electrons, which can participate in an current flow.
Insulators are characterized by a large bandgap. All energy levels in the
valance band are occupied, whereas all energy levels in the conduction band
are empty.
Thermal energy or an applied
electrical field is not sufficient to raise
the uppermost electron in the
valence band to the conduction
band.
One of the best insulators is silicon
oxide.
Energy Band diagram

in an insulator

Materials with an bandgap of 0.6eV to 4.0eV are considered to be
semiconductors (room temperature). Most of the materials have bandgaps
between 1.0eV and 2.0eV (room temperature).
Silicon has a bandgap of 1.12eV, Gallium arsenide has a bandgap of 1.42eV.
Therefore, the conductivity of a (intrinsic) semiconductors is low at room
temperature. The thermal activation energy is not high enough to excite an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
At room temperature the thermal

activation energy is a fraction of the
bandgap,
Ethermal=kT=0.0256eV=25.6meV,
so that a small number of electrons
get thermally excited, which contribute
Energy Band diagram
to a moderate current flow for in a semiconductor.
low/moderate electric field levels.
2.2.6 Material and Carrier Properties

Intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors
The material is considered to be an intrinsic semiconductor if the materials
contains a relatively small amount of impurities.
The material is considered to be an extrinsic semiconductor if the materials
contains a relatively large amount of impurities.
Semiconductors in Thermal Equilibrium
In the following it is assumed that the semiconductor is an intrinsic

semiconductor. Influences of impurities on the semiconductor properties are
neglected. Further, it is assumed that the semiconductor is in thermal
equilibrium, which means that the semiconductor is not exposed to additional
excitements like light, pressure or electric field. The semiconductor material is
kept constant temperature throughout the entire sample (no temperature
gradient exists in the semiconductor material).

In the following the carrier concentration in the conduction and the valence band
will be calculated. The carrier concentration is given by:
ECtop
n= ∫ N e (E )⋅ Fe (E )dE Electron concentration

ECbot
EVtop
Hole concentration
p= ∫ N h (E )⋅ Fh (E )dE
EVbot
where n and p are the electron and hole concentration [1/cm3] (Number of
electrons and holes per unit volume. Ne(E) and Nh(E) are Density of States
(Allowed energy states per energy range and per unit volume). Fe(E) and Fh(E)
are the Fermi-Dirac distributions for electrons and holes. The Fermi-Dirac
distribution is a probability function, which indicates whether a state is occupied
by an electron or a hole.
In the first step the product of the Density of States Ne(E), Nh(E) and the Fermi-
Dirac Distribution Fe(E), Fh(E) is calculated. The product states whether the
states in the conduction and the valence band are occupied by free electrons
and holes. The product corresponds to a carrier density for a given energy. In
order to determine the overall carrier concentration the integral over all energies
(conduction and the valence band) has to be determined.
2.2.6.1 Carrier Concentration in Semiconductors

Schematic Band Diagram, Density of States, Fermi-Dirac Distribution and
Carrier Concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor in thermal equilibrium
Schematic Density of Fermi-Dirac Electron and

Band Diagram States Distribution hole Density
2.2.6.2 Density of States

The density of states can be calculated by the Schrödinger equation.
However, the derivation of the density of state function will not be
discussed here. Further information is given by M.S Sze, Semiconductor
Devices, Appendix H.
4π
N C (E ) = 2me3 (E − Ec ) Density of states for electrons
h3
4π
NV (E ) = 2mh3 (EV − E ) Density of states for holes
h3
The Density of States is determined by a single material parameter, which
is the effective mass of the electron or the hole. Therefore, the density of
states for electrons and holes are very often different.

The Fermi-Dirac statics describes the probability that an electronic state for a
given energy E is occupied by an electron. The Fermi-Dirac Statistic is symmetric
around the Fermi energy EF. The Fermi energy can be defined as the energy at
which the Fermi-Dirac distribution is equal to ½. In general, the Fermi-Dirac
statistic is strongly temperature dependent. With decreasing temperature the
transition gets “sharper”. It
means that in practical terms an
electronic state is very likely to
be occupied by an electron if
the energy of the electron is a
few kT higher than the Fermi
energy. Consequently it is very
k: Boltzmann constant, unlikely that an electronic state
T: temperature in Kelvin,
is occupied by an electron if the
EF: Fermi energy
energy is a few kT below than
the Fermi energy.

So far the Fermi-Dirac distribution was only introduced for electrons. The
Fermi-Dirac distribution for holes is given by:
Fermi Dirac Distribution F(E)
1.0 1
Fe (E ) =
Fh(h) 1 + exp(E − EF kT )
Fe(E)
Fermi energy for electrons
0.5
Fh (E ) = 1 − Fe (E ) =
0 1
=
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
1 + exp(EF − E kT )
Energy E-EF [eV]
Fermi energy for holes

Thermal equilibrium
A semiconduting material is in thermal equilibrium, if the temperature at each
position of the crystal is the same, the overall current through the material is 0,
and the solid state is not illuminated. Furthermore, we assume that no chemical
reaction is taking part.
As a consequence the Fermi energy throughout the material is constant.
EF = EF ( x, y, z ) = const. Thermal equilibrium
E E E
Ec
EF
EC EF
EC
EF
EV EV EV
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Fermi levels for conductors (metal), semicondcutors and insulators.
How can we apply now the concept of the Fermi level do different materials like
conductors, insulators and semiconductors?
In the case of a conductor the Fermi level is in the conduction band. Therefore,
the conduction band is always occupied with electrons.
The situation is quite different for insulators and semiconductors. In the case of a
semiconductor it is assumed that the material is an intrinsic semiconductor. As a
consequence the Fermi level is (approximately) in the middle of the bandgap.
However, the bandgap of an insulator is much larger than the bandgap of a
semiconductor.
The bandgap for a semiconductor is in the range of 0.6eV to 4eV, whereas the
bandgap of an insulator is larger than 5.0eV. For example silicon oxide, which is
the insulator in microelectronics, has a bandgap of 9.0eV. As a consequence it is
very difficult to overcome such a high energy barrier.
2.2.6.5 Boltzmann distribution

To calculate the carrier concentration for electrons and holes the Fermi-Integral
has to be solved.
n = N C ⋅ ℑ1 2 (− (EC − EF ) kT ) Electron concentration
p = NV ⋅ ℑ1 2 (− (EF − EV ) kT ) Hole concentration
However, the Fermi integral cannot be solved analytically. Therefore, an

approximation is used to determine the carrier densities. The approximation is
called the Boltzmann distribution.
n ≈ N C ⋅ exp(− (EC − EF ) kT ) for EC − EF ≥ 2kT
Electron concentration, Boltzmann distribution
p ≈ NV ⋅ exp(− (EF − EV ) kT ) for EF − EV ≥ 2kT
Hole concentration, Boltzmann distribution

2.2.6.5 Boltzmann distribution

Instead of using the energy dependent Density of States a new parameter is
introduced, which is the effective Density of States. The effective Density of
States is again defined for electron and holes. The effective Density of States is
independent of the energy. Therefore, the effective Density of States is a pure
material parameter.
3
 m kT  Effective Density of States
N C = 2  2π e 2  in the conduction band
 h 
3
 m kT  Effective Density of States
NV = 2  2π h 2  in the valence band
 h 

We already distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. The
material is considered to be an intrinsic semiconductor, if the material contains
a relatively small amount of impurities. Under such conditions the number of
electrons per volume in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes
per volume in the valence band. Therefore, an intrinsic carriers concentration ni
can be defined.
n = p = ni
Intrinsic carrier
concentration
Electron, hole and intrinsic carrier concentration. Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

Based on the intrinsic carrier concentration an intrinisc energy can be
determined. For an intrinsic semiconductor in thermal equlibrium the intrinisc
energy is equal to the Fermi energy.
EF (n = p = ni ) = Ei
The electron and hole concentration is given by
p ≅ NV ⋅ exp(− (E F − EV ) kT ) n ≅ N C ⋅ exp(− (EC − E F ) kT )

NV ⋅ exp(− (Ei − EV ) kT ) = N C ⋅ exp(− (EC − Ei ) kT )
So that we can derive the following expression for the intrinsic energy.
EV + EC kT  NV 
Ei = + ln  Intrinsic energy
2 2  NC 

The intrinsic energy is again a pure material parameter. The intrinsic energy is
not affected by light exposure or pressure. The intrinsic energy is constant for a
semiconductor even if the material is not in thermal equilibrium anymore (e.g. a
voltage is applied to the sample).
At room temperature the second term is much smaller than the first term.
Therefore, the intrinsic energy is very close to the middle of the bandgap
(EC-EV)/2=Eg/2. For silicon the intrinsic energy deviates from the middle of the
bandgap by Ei-(EC+EV)/2≈-kT/2=-13meV. The intrinsic energy is shifted towards
the valence band. For Gallium Arsenide the situation is opposite and the
intrinsic energy is slightly shifted towards the conduction band: Ei-
(EC+EV)/2≈3kT/2=39meV

Based on n=p=ni the intrinsic carrier
concentration can be expressed in terms of the
effective density of states for the electrons and
holes.
 EC − Ei 
N C = ni ⋅ exp 
 kT 
 E − EV 
NV = ni ⋅ exp i 
 kT 
So that the intrinsic concentration

results to the following expression:
 Eg  Intrinsic carrier
ni = N C NV ⋅ exp − 
concentration
Intrinsic carrier concentration
 2kT  for silicon and GaAs.

In the next step the expression for the carrier concentration (electrons) can be
modified by describing the effective density of states as a function of the
intrinsic carrier concentration. As a result a expression for the carrier
concentration can be derived which does not require knowledge of the effective
density of states for the material.
n ≅ N C ⋅ exp(− (EC − E F ) kT ) for EC − EF ≥ 2kT
 E − Ei 
N C = ni ⋅ exp C 
 kT 
Electron concentration
 E − Ei 
n = ni ⋅ exp F 
 kT 
 Ei − EF 
p = ni ⋅ exp  Hole concentration
 kT 
2.2.8 Donor and Acceptors

When a semiconductor is doped, the semiconductor becomes extrinsic and
impurity levels are introduced. In the following the influence of acceptors and
donors on the material properties will be discussed. We will focus here on the
doping of silicon.
If we introduce donors like arsenic and

phosphorus in a silicon single crystal a silicon
atom is replaced by an donor atom with five
valence electrons. The arsenic or phosphorus
atoms form covalent bonds with its neighboring
silicon atoms. The 5th electron has a low binding
energy to become a conducting electron. The
arsenic or phosphorus atom is called a donor and
the silicon becomes n-type because of the
Schematic silicon addition of the negative charge carrier.
lattice for n-type
doping with donor
atoms (arsenic or
phosphorus).
If we introduce acceptors like boron in the silicon

lattice a silicon atom is replaced by a boron atom
with three valence electrons. Additional electrons
are „accepted“ to form four covalent bonds. The
boron atom is considered as an acceptor and the
silicon becomes p-type because of the addition of
the positive charge carrier.
Schematic silicon
lattice for p-type
doping with donor
atoms (boron).


Elements out of column III and column V of the perodic table are of
particualr interest to intentionally dope silicon. Elements out of column III
form acceptor states, whereas elements from column V tend to form donor
states.

The introduction of donors like arsenic in the silicon lattice leads to the
formation of energy levels very close to the bottom of the conduction band. At
room temperature the thermal energy kT is high enough to thermally excite the
excess electron to the conduction band. As a consequence positively charged
localized states are left in the material and free and mobile electrons are
created in the conduction band. A donor state is neutral when it is occupied by
an electron and becomes positively charged if the state donates its electron to
the conduction band. Under such conditions the energy level of the donors is
very close to the conduction band.
EC
Energy
ED Donor levels
Schematic energy band
representation of a
EV semiconductor with donor ions.
Distance

With increasing donor concentration the Fermi level will shift closer to the
bottom of the conduction band. Therefore, the energy difference between the
Fermi level and the conduction band (EC-EF) gets smaller with increasing donor
concentration.
Schematic Density of Fermi-Dirac Electron and

Band Diagram States Distribution hole Density
M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

An analog behavior is observed for increasing acceptor concentration. The
higher the acceptor concentration the closer the Fermi level will move to the
valence band. At room temperature the thermal activation is already high
enough to active an hole from the valence band. As a consequence the
acceptor ions get negative and holes are created in the valence band. An
acceptor is negatively charged when it is occupied it is occupied by and
electron and becomes neutral after accepting an electron from the valence
band.
EC
Energy
Schematic energy band

EA Acceptor levels representation of a
semiconductor with
EV acceptor ions.
Distance
The product of the electron and hole concentration is equal to the square of
the intrinsic carrier concentration if the semiconductor is in thermal
equilibrium. In this case it does not matter, whether the semiconductor is an
intrinsic semiconductor or an extrinsic semiconductor. In the second case the
semiconductor is doped by acceptors or donors.
If the semiconductor is intrinsic the following relationship applies
Intrinsic semiconductor
p = n = ni and p ⋅ n = ni2
in thermal equilibrium
Doping of a semiconductor leads to the following relationship

Extrinsic semiconductor
p ≠ n, p ≠ ni , n ≠ ni and p⋅n = ni2 in thermal equilibrium
If a semiconductor samples is uniformly doped (no internal electric field) and

no electric field is applied (external electric field) the semiconductor is neutral.
In this case charge neutrality applies. To preserve charge neutrality, the total
negative charges (electrons and ionized acceptors) must equal the total
positive charges (holes and ionized donors).
n + NA = p + N D Charge neutrality
If we assume that the material is only doped by donors so that NA=0 the
equation is simplified to n=p+ND. Therefore, the semiconductor is an n-type
semiconductor. The hole concentration can now be calculated by
Hole concentration for an
pn = ni2 nn n-type semiconductor
where the index n indicates that we deal with a n-type semiconductor.
The following expression for the electron concentration can be derived:
nn =
1
2
(
N D + N D2 + 4ni2 ) Electron concentration for
an n-type semiconductor
In most of the cases we can assume that the Donor concentration is higher
than the intrinsic carrier concentration so that the expression is reduced to
Complete ionization for an

nn ≈ N D n-type semiconductor
If the electron concentration is approximately equal to the Donor

concentration complete ionization can be assumed. Complete ionization is
observed for (shallow) donors and acceptors, which means that the
introduced impurities form defect levels very close to the bands.
Consequently we get the following term for the hole concentration :
pn = ni2 N D
So that the Fermi level can be calculated by using the Boltzmann distribution
N  Fermi level for an n-type

E F ≈ EC − kT ⋅ ln C  semiconductor
 ND 
The analog behavior can be observed for a p-type doped semiconductor. If

we assume that donor concentration is ND=0 we get the following expression
for the holes: p=n+NA. The electron concentration can be described by
Electron concentration for

n p = ni2 p p an p-type semiconductor
Subsequently the following expression is obtained for the hole concentration :
1
(
p p = N A + N A2 + 4ni2
2
) Hole centration for an p-
type semiconductor
If we again assume that the defect levels are very close to the band (valence
band) most of the acceptors will be ionized so that
Complete ionization for an

pp ≈ N A p-type semiconductor
So that the Fermi level can be calculated by using the Boltzmann distribution
 NV  Fermi level for an p-type

E F ≈ EV + kT ⋅ ln  semiconductor
 NA 

Various impurities in silicon and gallium arsenide
Si Measured ionization
engeries for various
impurities in silicon and
GaAs.
GaAs

Influence of the Doping Concentration on the Fermi Level
The energetic position of the Fermi level depends on the concentration of the
dopants and the temperature. With increasing temperature the Fermi
distribution is getting broader so that the Fermi level is closer to the intrinsic
energy level. With increasing doped concentration the Fermi level shifts
closer to the bands (conduction and valence band). This behavior is similar
for all semiconductor materials.
Influence of the
temperature and the
doping concentration on
the Fermi level in silicon.
2.2.10 Compensated Semiconductor
So far either n-type or p-type semiconductors were considered in the

discussion. However, every often in microelectronics the material is doped by
donors and acceptors. For example a p-type wafer is doped with arsenic (n-type
region) so that a pn-junction is formed. In this case the semiconductor is
compensated. In order to preserve charge neutrality both dopant concentrations
have to be considered.
n + NA = p + N D Charge neutrality
However, in most of the cases the concentration of one dopant species is much
higher than the concentration of the other species so that the semiconductor
properties are determined by the higher dopant concentration.
2.2.10 Compensated Semiconductor
ni2
ND > N A
Assumption:
1
[
nn = ⋅ N D + N D2 + 4ni2
2
] pn =
1
2
[
⋅ N D + N D2 + 4ni2 ]
(n-type
semiconductor) N D >> ni ⇒ nn ≈ N D N D >> ni ⇒ pn ≈ ni2 N D
Majority carriers Minority carriers

(n-type semiconductor) (n-type semiconductor)
ni2
N A > ND
Assumption:
1
[
p p = ⋅ N A + N A2 + 4ni2
2
] np =
1
2
[
⋅ N A + N A2 + 4ni2 ]
(p-type N A >> ni ⇒ p p ≈ N A N A >> ni ⇒ n p ≈ ni2 N A
semiconductor)
Majority carriers Minority carriers

(p-type semiconductor) (p-type semiconductor)
2.2.11 Minority and Majority Carriers

As complete ionization can assumed for typical dopants like arsenic or boron the
concentration of free carriers is more or less controlled by the dopant
concentration. If for example silicon is doped by arsenic the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band is much higher than the concentration of holes
in the valence band. In this case the electrons in the conduction band are
majority carriers and the holes in the valence band are minority carriers. As
the name implies, the electrons represent the majority of carriers and the holes
represent the minority of carriers. The analog behavior is observed for boron
doped material. Here the concentration of holes in the valance is much higher
than the concentration of electrons in the conduction band. Consequently the
holes are the majority carriers, whereas the electrons are the minority carriers.
Electrons are majority and holes are minority carriers in n-type materials!
Holes are majority and electrons are minority carriers in p-type materials!
For bipolar electronic devices like diodes (e.g. solar cells, LED) or bipolar
transistors the electronic transport is controlled by the minority carriers, because
the electronic transport is limited by the number or the lifetime of minority
carriers.
2.2.12 Degenerated and Non-degenerated Semiconductors

For most of the electronic devices the electron and hole concentration is
much lower than the effective density of states in the conduction or the
valence band. The Fermi level is at least 3kT above the valence band or 3kT
below the conduction band. In such a case we speak about a non-
degenerated semiconductor.
For very high levels of doping the concentration of dopants gets higher than
the effective density of states in the valence or the conduction band. In such
a case the semiconductor is degenerated and the Fermi levels shifts into the
conduction or the valence band. Under such conditions the equations which
were derived here does not apply any more.
However, the fabrication of degenerated semiconducting materials can be
necessary. For example the fabrication of laser diodes require population
inversion, which can only achieve if the semiconductor is degenerated.
2.2.13 Bulk potential

In following we will introduce the bulk potential. The bulk potential is an
important parameter if it comes to the explanation of bipolar devices like
diodes or bipolar transistors. The bulk potential is directly related to the Fermi
level in a material. Therefore, the position of the Fermi level can be expressed
by the bulk potential or vice versa.
The electron and the hole concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor can be
expressed in terms of the intrinsic carrier concentration.
 E − Ei   Ei − EF 
n = ni ⋅ exp F  p = ni ⋅ exp 
 kT   kT 
Instead of using the energy difference between the intrinsic energy level and
the Fermi level the term can be substituted by the bulk potential.
1
ϕb = − ⋅ (Ei − EF ) Bulk potential
q

The bulk potential is a measure of the energy difference between the intrinsic
energy level and the Fermi level. „Bulk“ implies that this parameter is related to
the bulk/volume properties of a semiconductor. The complementary term
would be the surfec potential, which corresponds to the potential at the surface
of a semiconductor. The term surface potential will be introduced in chapter 6,
Furthermore, the Boltzmann equation can be simplified by using the
temperature voltage
Vth = kT q Temperature voltage
so that electron and hole concentration results to
n = ni ⋅ exp(ϕb Vth ) Electron concentration
p = ni ⋅ exp(− ϕb Vth ) Hole concentration
Therefore, the bulk potential is directly related with the carrier concentration.

In order to directly relate the bulk potential with the material properties we
have to rewrite the equation. For an n-type semiconductor the bulk potential
results to
 1
ϕbn = Vth ⋅ ln  ( )
2 
N D + N D + 4 ⋅ ni 
2
 2 ⋅ ni 
In most of the cases the Donor concentration is large than the intrinsic carrier
concentration so that:
 ND 
ϕbn ≈ Vth ⋅ ln  > 0 Bulk potential for an n-type semiconductor
 ni 
Accordingly we can derive an expression for an p-type semiconductor.
 NA 
ϕbp = −Vth ⋅ ln  < 0 Bulk potential for an p-type semiconductor
 ni 
References
Michael Shur, Introduction to Electronic Devices, John Wiley & Sons;

(January 1996). (Price: US$100)
Simon M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices, Physics and Technology, John

Wiley & Sons; 2nd Edition (2001). (Price: US$115)
R.F. Pierret, G.W. Neudeck, Modular Series on Solid State Devices,

Volumes in the Series: Semicondcutor Fundamentals, The pn junction
diode, The bipolar junction transistor, Field effect devices, (Price: US$25
per book)

2 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices

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2 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices

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Applied Electronic I

2.1 Semiconductors General Information

2.2 Basics of Solid State Physics

2.2.6 Material and Carrier Properties

2.2.13 Bulk Potential

2.1 Semiconductors General Information

2.1.1 General Material Properties

2.1.1 General Material Properties

Classification of materials in terms of their conductivity or resititivity.

2.1.1 General Material Properties

2.1.1 General Material Properties

2.1.2 Structural Properties of Materials

2.1.2.1 Classification of semiconducting materials

Amorphous Poly crystalline (Mono)Crystalline

No long-range Completely ordered Entirely ordered

Ref.: R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals

2.1.2.2 The unit cell

The periodic arrangement of atoms is

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.2 The unit cell

Simple Body centered Face centered

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.3 Diamond crystal structure

Silicon and germanium have a diamond

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.3 Diamond crystal structure

Most of the III/V semiconductors

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.4 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.4 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

The plane has interceptions

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.1.2.4 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

Ref: M. Shur, Introdcution to Electronic Devices

2.1.2.4 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

Ref.: M. Shur, Introdcution to Electronic Devices

2.1.3 Basics of Crystal Growth

95% of the material used in semiconductor

Simplified schematic drawing

2.1.3 Basics of Crystal Growth

Photo of an ingot. The

A more detailed description of the growth of crystalline materials is

Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices

2.2 Basics of Solid State Physics

2.2.1 The Hydrogen Atom

Schematic diagram of a hydrogen atom

2.2.1 The Hydrogen Atom

EB Hydrogen energy levels

2.2.1 The Hydrogen Atom

where h is the Planck constant and me is the mass of the electron.

2.2.1 The Hydrogen Atom

En − Em = h ⋅ f n,m n>m Photon energy

2.2.2 Energy Bands

Schematic illustration of the

2.2.3 Band structure in Semiconductors

We will now move from

2.2.3 Band structure in Semiconductors

2.2.3 Band structure in Semiconductors

Schematic diagram of the

2.2.3 Band structure in Semiconductors

2.2.4 Energy Momentum Diagram

ψ = A1 exp(ikx ) + B1 exp(− ikx ) Wave function

where k is the wave vector, which is given by