Experiment No.

STEAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

submitted to

Mr. Paul Rodgers

M.E.73 Instructor
Dept. of Mech. Eng'g., U. P.

submitted by

Dennis Noel G. De Lara

B. S. Mech. Eng'g., 92-10165

Date of Performance: February 25, 1997

Submission Deadline: March 4, 1997
Date Submitted: March 3, 1997
 Table of Contents

I. Summary of the Experiment ...................................................................... 3

II. Description of the Apparatus Used in the Experiment ............................. 3

III. Method of Testing ...................................................................................... 5

IV. Discussion and Interpretation of Data and Results ................................... 5

V. Tables and Graphs of Data and Results ..................................................... 7

VI. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 9

VII. Recommendation and Technological Advances ....................................... 9

VIII. Appendix ................................................................................................ 13

I. Summary of the Experiment

Steam Flow Measurement is an experiment about the determination of fluid flow by virtue of
the measured pressure drop across an orifice of known dimensions. The activity actually sought to
verify theoretical results on fluid flow by correlating it with the experimental data obtained on pressure
drop.

The fluid used in the experiment is steam. The problem was to determine the amount of steam
that condensed for a certain time interval and (for a certain measured pressure drop). This will yield
us some average value of the steam volume flow rate. In theory, the flow rate is a function, among
others, of the pressure drop across the flow meter (the orifice). The experiment tried to verify if the
measured amount of steam that condensed for a given time interval agrees with theoretical values.

Marked variations in the steam flow rate were observed for different pressure differences. It
indicated at once the functional dependence of flow rate with the pressure drop. As expected, the
experimental values did not match exactly the theoretical ones, but the trend between the discharge
and the pressure drop matched with theory.

II. Description of the Apparatus Used in the Experiment

The main apparatus used in the experiment employed the orifice-type of determining the
discharge. The flow apparatus consists of a water reservoir, a water pump, a boiler, a constriction in
the tube (the orifice), a condenser (or heat exchanger), and another reservoir to collect the water
flowing out.

A water pump brings water to the boiler. The boiler vaporizes the fluid into steam and delivers
it to the orifice. The high-pressure fluid experiences a pressure drop after leaving the orifice. The
low-pressure water vapor leaving the orifice reaches the water-cooled condenser (or a heat exchanger)
and heat is released to the surroundings. This heat exchange causes the steam to condense. The
condensed fluid (or liquid water) flows out of the tube to another reservoir. The amount of volume
that condensed for a given time interval (1 minute) measures the discharge. A schematic diagram is
shown in the next page.

A sharp-edged orifice was used in the experiment. It is so-called because of the sharp, pointed
structure at the constriction (like a pencil). This is in contrast with square-edged orifices wherein
the thin plate resembles a rectangle.

3
 Orifices are made up of very thin metal plates with respect to the diameter of the pipe. In this
experiment, the thin plate is approximately twice .2 mm while the diameter is 13.84 mm. The
orifice thickness is only about 3 % of the pipe diameter. Pressure taps tells us the location where the
pressures are measured (for upstream and downstream). At the downstream side of the orifice, the
pressure is measured at the vena contracta section where the minimum flow area exists.

Heat Orifice Heat

Boiler Condenser

Pu Pd Tube
P B
A

Reservoir Reservoir
Schematic Diagram of the Flow Meter Apparatus

upstream 17.50 mm 11.00 mm

pressure tap vena contractal tap

Upstream Downstream
Q
0.25 inches 13.84 mm

Orifice Plate

0.20 mm

The Orifice
Note: The drawing is not drawn to scale.

4
III. Method of Testing

The experiment was conducted with the end view of getting different values of discharge for
different values of pressure in the upstream and downstream sections of the orifice. It was first
necessary to boil the water until enough steam pressure is achieved. Meanwhile, the heat exchanger
was submerged in water by letting the fluid fill it.

When high-pressure steam is already available, the pressure at the upstream side of the orifice
was controlled using a valve at the boiler. At first, a pressure of 1 inch mercury at the upstream was
desired. The pressure reading that resulted in the downstream side was recorded. A graduated
cylinder was placed in the discharge tube of the heat exchanger to collect the water that condensed
after passing the heat exchanger. Water was collected for a period of 1 minute while making sure
that the pressures indicated at the upstream and downstream sections were constant throughout the
water collection process. This was necessary because the pressure drop has to be constant to properly
and accurately relate it with the discharge obtained.

After this has been done, the upstream pressure was adjusted until a new pressure of 2 inches
of mercury was obtained. The process then repeated -- the downstream pressure and the discharge
were taken again. The water coolant at the heat exchanger continuously flows in (and flows out) to
replace the hot water obtained for every discharge taking process.

When the upstream pressure has reached 6 inches of mercury, the whole process is repeated
again but this time, the upstream pressure starts at 6 inches of mercury down to 1 inch.

IV. Discussion and Interpretation of Data and Results

Based on the experimental data gathered, the discharge through the pipe increases as the
pressure drop within the orifice region increases. This is just logical considering the energy equation.
If the pressure head decreased, there must be a corresponding increase in either the velocity head or
the potential head. But since the potential head difference is negligible, the velocity head will
increase. This will mean greater discharges (the cross sectional-area of flow is constant).

Theoretical results indicate that the discharge through the pipe must increase as the pressure
drop increases, all other important variables remaining constant. Hence, the experiment verified
the theory in this respect. However, the theoretical values of the discharge does not agree with the
experimental values. In fact, the actual discharge values are relatively greater than what is thought
to be the correct one. There are many possible reasons for this discrepancy.

5
 First and foremost, water pumping was observed during those times when the discharge was
being measured. It is necessary to pump water since there can't be an infinite supply of steam
flowing through the pipe. Since water pumping is necessary, there is this tendency for the discharge
to increase abruptly and unnecessarily during those times when the water reservoir in the boiler
goes down. Another possible consideration is the temperature of the coolant. A cooler coolant can
extract heat more readily than a hotter coolant. In fact, if the "coolant" is hotter than the steam, heat
transfer would be from the "coolant" to the steam. This will mean no condensation, and hence, no
liquid discharge. If the coolant is very "cold", it helps in speeding up the condensation process,
thereby practically increasing the liquid discharge. Therefore, the discharge could have been higher
because of the coolant temperature. During the experiment, there were moments when so much
steam is readily formed from the coolant that the steam looked like heavy smoke. The coolant
temperature must have been varying throughout the experiment.

In analyzing for the discrepancy between the actual and the theoretical results, let us consider
the theoretical basis for the calculation of the discharge. The mass flow rate was derived to be
dependent on many parameters, some easily obtained while some determined from test: the area of
the orifice edge, the flow coefficient, the thermal expansion coefficient, the expansion factor for
orifices, the density of the fluid at the upstream side of the orifice, and the pressure drop, among
others. We can easily compute for the orifice area (knowing the orifice dimensions) and the pressure
drop, considering the installed manometers are accurate. The flow coefficient is dependent on the
pipe diameter, the diameter ratio, and the Reynolds number. Changes in Reynolds number (or in
viscosity) may affect the flow coefficient considerably. The thermal expansion coefficient depends
on the kind of material and the temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the coefficient.
The expansion factor for orifices depends on the diameter ratio, ratio of specific heats, pressure
drop, and upstream pressure. The assumed specific heat ratio used in the calculations is 1.4. It may
actually vary according to the change in temperature of the fluid. The density of the fluid can be
obtained from the steam tables. Again, these values depend on the temperature and pressure of the
fluid, which may actually vary. To compute for the discharge knowing the mass flow rate, it is
necessary to divide it by the density of water leaving the condenser and flowing out of the tube.
This density depends on the water temperature and pressure at that instant.

No wonder, the theoretical value of the discharge can be subjected to serious errors if the
values obtained from the constants are not taken properly.

In tables 3 and 4, line 1, the pressure difference is negative. Theoretically, this is not possible,
hence the placing of NA in those lines. However, positive values of pressure drop can be verified
by the decrease in density of the fluid.

6
V. Tables and Graphs of Data and/or Results

Table 1. Comparison Between the Steam Pressure and the Corresponding Discharge Obtained
Experimentally

Pressure
Volume (ml) Discharge
Upstream Downstream (mm Hg)
(in Hg) Up Down Ave.Up Down Ave. (ml/s)

1 26 28 27 105 100 102.5 1.71

2 46 48 47 140 140 140 2.33

3 70 68 69 182 200* 191 3.18

4 92 90 91 205 210 207.5 3.46

5 110 112 111 235 260* 247.5 4.12

6 134 134 134 268 265 266.5 4.44

Table 2. Comparison Between the Steam Pressure Difference and the Experimental Discharge in
S.I. Units

Pressure (Pa) Discharge

Upstream Downstream Difference (ml/s)
3409.75 3624.48 -214.73 1.71

6819.50 6309.28 510.22 2.33

10229.25 9262.56 966.69 3.18*

13639.00 12215.84 1423.16 3.46

17048.75 14900.64 2148.11 4.12*

20458.50 17988.16 2470.34 4.44

Note:
1. For tables 1 and 2, the Pressure heading represents the pressure of the fluid (steam) at different
points (upstream and downstream). The difference is the pressure upstream minus that of
downstream. One mm of mercury gives a pressure of 134.24 Pa while 1 in of Hg gives a pressure
of 3409.75 Pa.
2. The Volume heading represents the volume of steam condensed after it passes the heat exchanger
for a time interval of 1 minute. The Discharge heading represents the average discharge for this
time interval.
3. The * above tells us that there was pumping of water when those values were measured.

7
Table 3. Theoretical Values of Discharge

Pressure (Pa) Expansion Density (g/m3) Mass Flow Rate Discharge

Difference Ratio Factor 1 2 (10-3 g/s) (10-3 ml/s)
(∆p) (∆p/p1) Y ρ1 ρ2 Ma Q

-214.73 NA NA NA NA NA NA

510.22 .075 .978 46.83 43.46 139.17 139.17

966.69 .094 .971 68.90 62.90 230.70 230.70

1423.16 .104 .968 90.10 82.06 319.11 319.11

2148.11 .126 .962 111.33 98.16 433.10 433.10

2470.34 .121 .963 132.96 116.87 508.09 508.09

Note:
1. The diameter ratio β is .46. The flow coefficient K is .65. The thermal expansion correction factor
E is 1.00. The orifice flow area is 31.67 x 10-6 m2.
2. The density of the water after it leaves the heat exchanger is assumed to be 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/ml.

Table 4. Correction Table for the Discharge

Pressure Difference (Pa) Discharge (ml/s) Correction

(∆p) Actual Theory (ml/s)
-214.73 1.71 NA NA

510.22 2.33 0.14 2.19

966.69 3.18 0.23 2.95

1423.16 3.46 0.32 3.14

2148.11 4.12 0.43 3.69

2470.34 4.44 0.51 3.93

Note:
1. Correction is the indicated value minus the true value.

8
VI. Conclusion

The determination of fluid flow through a pipe is not an easy matter. The accuracy of the
method of discharge determination using a constriction in the tube and measuring the pressure
drop depends on the geometry of the constriction and the various conditions of the flow. For a
sharp-edged orifice meter, the edge should remain sharp if the constants associated with it are to
remain constant. Other flow coefficients should be used taking into consideration the various
assumptions for which they can be applied. The downstream pressure should be measured at the
minimum area called the vena contracta a certain distance downstream from the orifice edge. This
means that the diameter at "point 2" and the pressure at "point 2" are not measured at the same
point.

Another important consideration in fluid flow measurement using an orifice is its limited
use. Big particles in the fluid can destroy the orifice and change the flow constants. Fluids containing
elements that may damage the orifice edge are not advisable. For optimum performance, the orifice
should be used only as intended.

The functional dependence of the discharge from the pressure drop means that the accuracy
of the measured discharge depends on the accuracy of the measured pressure drop. This implies
that pressure gages should be accurate and should be calibrated whenever necessary.

VII. Recommendation and Technological Advances

A. Recommendation

I believe that the performance of the orifice meter would be enhanced if devices that measure
other important parameters (fluid temperature, coolant temperature, temperature at discharge,
and others) could be installed in the fluid flow set-up. Another thing I would like to recommend
is the use of a strong glass as the material for the tube. It would help us see better what is
happening inside throughout the activity. I think that the performance of the experiment would
be better if we could design the apparatus such that there is considerable elevation of the tubes.
This will make sure that all the discharge (whether liquid or vapor) will surely come down to
the water collection reservoir, thus preventing liquid discharges from remaining stagnant within

9
 the tube. However, this set-up would introduce some changes in the mathematical discharge
formula because of the difference in potential heads. Lastly, I think it is better if the water
collection reservoir is such that water vapor immersed within the liquid water could still be
collected. It is possible that the discharge through the pipe consists of liquid water and vapor
water.

B. Technological Advances

Positive displacement flowmeters are being used to calibrate laboratory flowmeters.1

Accuracy of about ± .1% of the actual flow rate are achievable with this kind of devices. A
certain mass air flow meter that can measure even time-wise backflows of air is being used in
engines.2 It has a sensor element based on microsilicon technology. A high-response air flow
meter has been developed that can measure instantaneously the flow rate of four cylinders of
an engine at transient conditions.3 A new kind of thermal type mass flow meter measures
fuel vapor flow rate while a vehicle is running on the road.4

A hot-wire flow meter and an ultrasonic flow meter system is being used to measure
air flow rate in an SI engine.5 Using this, it is now possible to measure unsteady air flow in the
intake manifold including reverse flow. A no-moving-parts oscillating jet flow meter has
been incorporated in the design of a fuel-metering valve used in aircrafts.6 A servo-controlled
positive displacement flow meter has been found to be good for engine testing of fuel flow
measurement.7 A certain beam flowmeter with a strain-gauged spring steel beam measures
unsteady flow diesel engines.8 The data acquired is used to verify predictions by the SPICE
(Simulation Program for Internal Combustion Engines).

An air-fuel ratio meter having an extended range oxygen sensor has a fast response
9
c h a r Another thermal mass-flow meter has been developed that measures blow-by
a c t e r i s t i c .

gas in engines.10 A certain portable clamp-on flowmeter measures low-liquid flow rates in
small diameter pipes.11 The In Situ Permeable Flow Sensor measures the direction and
magnitude of full three-dimensional ground-water flow.12 A fluidic gas flowmeter employs a
laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to measure 2 dimensional velocity vectors.13

An electronic timing device automates a soap-bubble flow meter.14 This meter is being
used on manual mode on gas chromatography. A new flowmeter eliminates grounding
problems.15 Its design is based on a balanced electrode plane. A nuclear turbine flowmeter
measures the coolant flow rate in the fuel assembly of a nuclear reactor. It has the advantage of
no extra signal wires needed to measure the flow.16

10
C. References

1. Lucier, Peter E. et. al. "Positive displacement calibration for laboratory flowmeters." Published
by the Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Pennsylvania. SAE International Off-Highway
and Powerplant Congress and Exposition (September 1995). CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

2. Konzelmann, Uwe et. al. "Breakthrough in reverse flow detection -- A new mass air flow
meter using micro silicon technology." Published by the Society of Automotive Engineers,
Inc., Pennsylvania. SAE International Congress and Exposition (February 1995). CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

3. Furuyama, Mikio et. al. "Air flow characteristics during transient condition of SI engine
with multi-point injections type manifold." Published by the Society of Automotive Engineers,
Inc., Pennsylvania. SAE International Congress and Exposition (February 1995). CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

4. Haga, Junko et. al. "Development of a fuel vapor flow meter." Published by the Society of
Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc., Tokyo. JSAE Review, vol. 16, no. 2 (April 1995), p.
185. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

5. Kim, J. I. et. al. "Measurement of the abnormal flow rate in the intake manifold of an
engine." Published by the Korea Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Seoul. Autumn
Conference (November 1994). CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

6. Bennett, Joe. "Lightweight high-temperature fuel metering valves." Published by the Society
of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Pennsylvania. SAE Trans., vol. 102, section 1 (April 1993).
SAE Aerospace Atlantic Conference and Exposition. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

7. Kaub, Peter. "Selecting the proper fuel flow meter for engine testing." Published by the
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Pennsylvania. SAE Trans., vol. 102, section 3 (March
1993). SAE International Congress and Exposition. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

11
8. Davies, D. L et. al. "Flowmeter for measuring the unsteady bi-directional flow in the inlet
port of a turbocharged diesel engine." Published by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
London. Experimental Methods in Engine Research and Development '91 (December 1991).
CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

9. Moriyama, Akinobu et. al. "New measuring technology with an extended range oxygen
s e n s o r . " P u b l i s h e d b y Journal
t h e S o c i e t y o f A u t o m o t i v e E n g i n e e r s o f J a p a n , I n c . , T o k y o .

of JSAE, vol. 45, no. 11 (November 1991), p. 58. CD-ROM

U. P. College of Engineering Library

10. Sugi, Tokio. "Devices for automatic measurement of flow rate of engine blow-by gas."
Published by the Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc., Tokyo. JSAE Review,
vol. 11, no. 1 (January 1990), p. 75. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Engineering Library

11. Guilbert, A. R. et. al. "A novel ultrasonic/thermal clamp-on flowmeter for low-liquid flow
rates in small diameter pipes." Ultrasonics, v. 34 (June 1996), pp. 435-9. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

12. Ballard, Sanford. "The in situ permeable flow sensor: A ground water flow velocity meter."
Ground Water, v. 34 (March/April 1996), pp. 231-40. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

13. Nishigaki, Masashi et. al. "The measurement principle of the fluidic gas flowmeter."
Measurement Science and Technology, v. 6 (June 1995), pp. 833-42. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

14. Arenas, A. et. al. "A time-integration-based measurement circuit for a soap-bubble flow-
meter using optical fibre sensors." Measurement Science and Technology, v. 6 (April 1995),
pp. 435-6. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

15. Scarpa, Thomas J. "Magmeter spotlights new technology." In Tech, v. 41 (Aril 1994), pp.
53-5. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

12
 16. van der Hagen, Tim H. J. J. "Proof of principle of a nuclear turbine flowmeter." Nuclear
Technology, v. 102 (May 1993), pp. 167-176. CD-ROM
U. P. College of Science Library

VIII. Appendix

A. Pressure Conversions

T h e s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f m e r c u r y , γHg, at standard is 134242.11 N/m3. Therefore, 1 mm Hg and

1 inch Hg are equivalent to

1 mm Hg = γHgh = (134242.11)(.001)
1 in Hg = γHgh = (134242.11)(.0254)

1 mm Hg = 134.24 N/m2
1 in Hg = 3409.75 N/m2

For example, in table 1, line 1, the upstream and downstream pressures are 1 inch Hg and 27
mm Hg, respectively. The equivalent pressures are

1 inch Hg = 3409.75 Pa
27 mm Hg = (27)(134.24) = 3624.48 Pa

These are the values shown in table 2, line 1.

B. Experimental Value of the Discharge

The experimental discharge value is computed by knowing the volume of water that condensed
for a certain time interval.

In table 1, line 1, the volume is 102.5 ml. For a period of 1 minute, the average discharge is

Q = 102.5/60 = 1.71 ml/s

C. Pressure Difference

The pressure difference across the orifice is the pressure at upstream minus the pressure at
downstream.

∆p = pressure difference = p1 - p2

where p1 = upstream pressure and p2 = downstream pressure

13
 In table 2, line 2, the pressure difference is

∆p = p1 - p2 = 6819.5 - 6309.28 = 510.22 Pa

D. Diameter Ratio

For the orifice in this experiment, the diameter ratio is defined to be

β = D2/D1

where β is the diameter ratio, D2 is the diameter of the orifice, and D1 is the diameter of the
pipe. In the experiment, D1 = 13.84 mm and D2 = 6.35 mm. Therefore β = .46. This diameter
ratio corresponds to .70 in table 5-13 in the book. This means that the location of the vena
contracta tap from the downstream side of the orifice is (.70)(13.84) = 9.7 mm which is close
to 11 - 2(.2) = 10.6 mm.

E. Expansion Factor Y

The expansion factor φ for venturi and flow nozzles become Y for orifices if ∆p/p1 < .3. But
this is actually the case, as can be seen in table 3:

Y = 1 - (0.41 + .35β4)(∆p)/(p1k)

where k = the specific heat ratio = cp/cv = 1.4

cp = specific heat at constant pressure, and cv = specific heat at constant volume

For example, in table 3, line 3, ∆p/p1 = .094. Therefore, the value of the expansion factor is

Y = 1 - (0.41 + .35β4)(∆p)/(p1k) = 1 - (0.41 + .35(.46)4)(.094/1.4) = .971

This is the value indicated in table 3, line 3.

F. Fluid Density

The fluid densities indicated at table 3 are derived from the steam tables assuming that the
steam is saturated at the given pressure. This enables us to approximate the density at different
points by knowing the pressure at those points.

For example, in table 2, line 2, the pressure at upstream is 6819.50 Pa. In the steam tables, a
pressure of 5628 Pa gives a vapor specific volume of 25.22 m3/kg while a pressure of 7,384 Pa
gives a vapor specific volume of 19.52 m3/kg. Linear interpolation between these values gives
a value of the specific volume at 6819.50 Pa, hence a density 46.83 kg/m 3. This density is
indicated in table 3, line 2.

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G. Ideal Mass Flow Rate

The ideal mass flow rate is the mass flow rate for an incompressible, frictionless flow.

Mi = A2M(2ρ1∆p).5

where

Mi = ideal mass flow rate

A2 = area at point 2 = πD22/4 = π(6.35 mm)2/4 = 31.67 x 10-6 m2
M = (1-β4)-.5
ρ1 = density at point 1
∆p = pressure difference = p1 - p2

H. Actual Mass Flow Rate

The actual mass flow rate is the real mass flow rate for compressible, non-frictionless flows.
In this experiment, the actual mass flow rate across the orifice (and at any other point) is
given by the following formula:

Ma = A2(K)(E)(Y)(2ρ1∆p).5

where

Ma = actual mass flow rate

K = flow coefficient
E = thermal expansion correction factor

and the other variables are as defined previously. In the experiment, K is assumed to be .65
(p. 71) and E is 1 (Fig 5-5). In table 3, line 4, Y = .968, ρ1 = 90.1 x 10-3 kg/m3, and ∆p =
1423.16 Pa. Therefore,

Ma = A2(K)(E)(Y)(2ρ1∆p).5
Ma = (31.67 x 10-6)(.65)(1)(.968)[2(.0901)(1423.16)].5
Ma = 319.11 x 10-6 kg/s = 319.11 x 10-3 g/s

For steady flow, the mass flow rate remains constant. Therefore, this value is equal to the
discharge times the density. Assuming the density of water that condensed is 1000 kg/m 3 or
1 g/ml, the discharge is

Q = Ma/ρ = (319.11 x 10-3 g/s)/(1 g/ml) = 319.11 x 10-3 ml/s

This value is indicated in table 3, line 4.

15