WELCOME TO THE TRAINING

ON KILN OPERATION &

OPTIMISATION
Raw mix characteristics
 What is cement ?
Cement is a substance (often a ceramic) that by a chemical
reaction binds particulates aggregates into a cohesive structure.
( hydraulic binder). The quality of raw material is the main point
in maintaining of quality of cement. The mineral compounds
containing the main components of cement: lime, silica, alumina
and iron oxide are used in cement manufacturing process.
Therefore it is usually necessary to select a measured mixture of a
high lime component with a component which is lower in lime,
containing however more silica, alumina and iron oxide
(clay component). The purpose of calculating the composition
of the raw mix is to determine the quantitative proportions of the
raw components, in order to give the clinker the desired chemical
and mineralogical composition
 Factors influencing the cement quality

1. Mechanical handling of clinker

2. Chemical and mineralogical
composition of raw mix
3. Chemical and mineralogical composition
of clinker
4. Burning process & cooling process
quality
5. Chemical composition of fuels (ash)
6. Circulation phenomena (volatiles)
Process flow sheet

CBA analyzer

CBA analyzer

X ray
analyzer
 OPC, PPC, WC, OWC, SRC,SC

Cement quality – type of cement

Ordinary portland cement,
Pozalona portland cement
White cement,
Oil well cement,
Sulfate resistant cement,
Slag cement
Other cements for special application

Gpsum&fly ash or
Other additive quality

Clinker quality

Fuel chemistry

Raw mix design

 Characteristics of raw meal

Chemical Physical charateristics

characterictics Particle size & shape
Chemical composition particle size distribution
Homogenity

Mineralogical
Morphology
( crystal size of
minerals &
Cystal distribution)
 Chemical composition of cement raw materials and mix
lime marl clay sand rawmix
stone
Weight loss %
Ig loss 40-44 2 -42 1 - 20 Up to 5 32 - 36
%
SiO2 0.5 - 3 3 - 50 37 -78 80 - 99 12 -16
Al2O3+TiO2 0.1 - 1 1 - 20 7 -30 0.5 - 3 2 -5
Fe2O3 0.1 -0.5 0.5 -10 2 -15 0.5 - 2 Up to 2
+Mn2O3
CaO 52 - 55 5 - 52 0.5 – 2.5 0.1-3 40 -45
MgO 0.5 - 5 0.5 -5 Up to 5 Up to 0.5 0.3 - 3
SO3 Up to 0.1 0.1 - Up to 3 Upto 0.5 Up to 1.2
0.4
K2O Upto 0.3 0.1 - 4 0.5 - 5 Up to 1 0.2 – 1.4
Na2O Upto 0.1 Upto 0.1 – 0.3 Up to 0.5 Up to 0.3
0.2
Cl 0.01 – 0.1
Physical characteristics
of Raw meal
 Particle size & Particle size distribution
An efficient separator & efifcient grinding system narrow down
the particle distribution. Wide distribution means heterogenity in physical
and chemical characteristics of
raw meal.
Optical micrograph and super imposed size analysis
of quality audit standards
 Minerals in a lime stone
Calcite-rhombo quartz Silica sand

Calcite-cubic
Kaolinite
 Lime stone

Pure lime stone Impure lime stone imbedded

only Calcite > 99 % CaCO3 with silicates and other minerals
temperature

pure calcite

Impure calcite
CO2

heat

time
 Well developed quarry
In a well developed mine, the mines manager knows where what and how much is
available?
If quality is controlled in mines then the quality variation is minimised to a great
extent through mines blend program through griging or geostatics

Benches (10 M height)

Influence of efficient mining on quality From mines
(input to stacker)

Outlet of mill

Output of
blending
System& input
To raw mill

Std
LSF

time
Control on chemistry

Std of LSF =1
SIM=0.2

Std of ,CaO < 0.2

 Main parameters for raw mix design

Lime saturation factor = CaO / (2.8 SiO2+1.65Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3)

( LSF)
Here we have apply the formula (as per British Standard)

LSF = CaO-0.7SO3
(2.8*SiO2 + 1.2* Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3)

Silica modulus = SiO2 / ( Al2O3+Fe2O3)

(SIM)

Alumina modulus = Al2O3 / Fe2O3

AlM
 Lime saturation factor on clinker basis

If MgO is below 2 %

LSF = 100( CaO – free CaO+0.75 MgO)

(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)

If MgO is above 2 %

LSF = 100( CaO – free CaO+1.5 MgO)

(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)

> 99 –hard to burn, tendency to high free lime & C3S clinker , high early strength
high fuel consumption
< 99 , easy to burn , excess coating , excess liquid phase , possible brick infiltration
reduced cement strength , low free lime
acceptable standard deviation = 1.2
 Effect of modulie
Effects: Higher LSF

Imparts harder burning & entails higher fuel consumption.

Tends to produce unsound cement.
Increases C3S content, reduces C2S content.
Causes slow setting with high strengths of cement.
Improves the grind ability characteristics of clinker.

Lower LSF:
Low lime contents, lower will be strength

Effects :High Ms
Results in hard burning & high fuel consumption.
Causes Unsoundness.
Difficulty in coating formation.
Deteriorates Kiln Lining.
Results in slow setting and hardening of cement
Lower Ms:
Increases liquid phase.
This improves burnability of the clinker and the formation of coating in kiln
 Hydraulic modulus

HM= CaO/(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3)

Limiting Range:- 1.7-2.3
The Hydraulic Modulus of good quality cements was approximately
2. Cement with HM<1.7 showed mostly insufficient
strength and cement with HM>2.3 and more had poor
stability of volume. It was found that with an increasing
HM, more heat is required for clinker burning.
The strengths, especially initial strengths step up and also the
heat of hydration rises. Simultaneously the
resistance to chemical attack decreases. At times
the Hydraulic Modulus is still used. Later for
a better evaluation of the cement, the Silica ratio,
Alumina ratio were introduced; to certain degree these
ratios supplement the hydraulic modulus.
Effects: Higher MA
Imparts harder burning & e tails higher fuel
consumption.
Increases the C3A and reduces C4AF contents
Increases both C3S and C2S (C3S>C2S)
Reduces the liquid phase and kiln output
Tends to render quick setting and strong at early ages.
Increases viscosity of liquid phase in raw mix
MA determines the role of Fluxes in raw mix
MA <1.23: - Al2O3 acts as Flux
MA >1.23: - Fe2O3 acts as Flux
Lower MA
If MA is too low and raw mix is without free silica,
clinker sticking and balling is high.

Parameters influencing the burnability:

1. Residue on 212-micron sieve.

2. Residue on 90 micron sieve
3. Size distribution of free silica
4. Degree of homogeneity (both chemical & mineral)
5. Liquid phase of clinkering temperatures.
6. Moisture content of raw meals
 Characterization of kiln feed

1. Mineralogical Make-up
2. Reactivity and Burnability.
3. Volatility.
4. Optimum fineness & specific surface for effective burning.
6 Level of free quartz , calcite and its size distribution.
7 Sensitivity of free quartz content & size with KF burnability.
8 Minor elements level (Mg, Na ,K, S, P) & their effect on
kiln feed burn ability and volatility.
 In homogeneous homogeneous

Kiln feed uniformity index (KFUI)

KFUI= n ( C3S actual - C3S target )2
n
i-n
C3S actual = the calculated C3S of one instantaneous daily sample of kiln raw mix feed
C3S Target = the C3S target established for the mill product
n = number of samples ( calculation of average C3S is done monthly)
Target for KFUI is < 10
( an instantaneous sample is one made up of 5 consecutive increments taken at short intervals)
 Homogenising systems

3.1 Variabilitv and standard deviation

The normally accepted method of measuring variability is in the form of a term called
standard deviation. The standard deviation of a property can be calculated by taking a
number of measurements on the property (such as LSF, SR etc.), and applying the
following formula:-
Σ(X -X) 2

σ= N-1

Where X is the measured variable (e.g. LSF)

X is the variable mean (or average)
N is the number of measurements or observations
Table 1 illustrates a worked example using actual kiln feed LSF data:-

Blending ratio = Std in/ Std out , = 1 for an ideal blending system.
 Different stacking system

Stacking and reclaiming sytem is selected on the basis of material characteristics like
Moisture , variability in mines, size and size distribution of particles.
 Circular stock pile

Reclaiming zone

Blended zone

Stacking zone
 Longitudinal stock pile

End cone problem

 End cone problems Linear stock pile

Blending ratio = S in /S out Well blended slice without end cone

More variation, high std

Less variation, low std

Blending silo
 “Average” clinker composition

MgO 1.80
SO3 0.54
∼ 95 %
K2O 0.63
CaO 65.4 ∼5% Na2O 0.25
SiO2 22.2
TiO2 0.27
Al2O3 5.0
Fe2O3 2.8 Mn2O3 0.09
P2O5 0.14
Cl- 0.01
F- 0.08

LOI: 0.3 %
 Milestones in clinker formation

Dehydration

Decarbonation

Belite formation
Liquid phase
formation
Alite
formation

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Temperature [°C]
 Clinker manufacture

Mineral phases in raw meal Mineral phases in clinker

• Calcite – CaCO3 • Alite

• Dolomite – • Belite
CaMg(CO3)2
• Aluminate
• Quartz – SiO2
• Ferrite

Temperature
• Clay minerals

Pressure
• Free lime(un wanted)
Time
• Micas
• Feldspars • Periclase(un wanted)
• Aluminum oxide • Alkali
• Pyrite sulfates(unwanted)
• Iron oxide
• Gypsum / anhydrite
 Potential clinker composition

The chemical analysis presents a picture of the composition of

the oxides in the clinker. There are four mineralogical phases
are C3S (alite), C2S (belite), C3A (Aluminate), C4AF (Ferrite) in
the clinker which can be derived from chemical analysis
according Bogue formula. Some other minute phases also
exist in clinker C2(A,F), Free lime, MgO (periclase)
(Note: C3S- gives initial strength, C2S- final strength,
C3A- setting time, C4AF- some setting property & color)
the clinker of Portland cement approximately contains the
following composition.
Microphotograph of clinker
 Parameters for good clinker:
% Free- % MgO %(K2O, %SO3
% CaO Na2O)
T.CaO
64-66 <1.5 <2.0 <1.2 <0.5
MINEROLOGY:
Alite 45-55%, C3A 9-11%, C4AF 12%
Phase Stabilisation:
β/ α / ά only for belite and not significant for others.
Average Crystal size: 35-40 micron
Crystal Morphology:
Alite: prismatic hexagonal
Belite: round
C3A: Fine crystals in matrix.
Crystal Distribution:
Minimum clustering, total porosity: 25-30%
Litre weight: 1150-1350 g/l
Granulometry : not more than 15% below 0.5mm
To achieve the goal of smooth kiln operation it is necessary to know

• which parameters in the raw mix influence kiln operation

• How and why they influence operation
• What can be done about it

Three concepts in the reation between raw meal characteristics and

Kiln operation is treated , namely.

• the burnability of raw mix

• the clinker formation treated as a physical agglomeration process and
•The circulation phenomenon of volatile matter in a kiln system
 Required burning zone temperature

RBT = 1300 OF+4.51C3S – (3.74C3A +12.64 C4AF )

Clinker liquid phase ( % L.P)

At 1340 OC ,( AR< 1.38 ) L.P = 8.2 A – 5.22 F + M + K + N +S

At 1340 o C , (AR > 1.38) L.P = 6.1 F + M + N +K + S
At 1400 o C, L.P = 2.95 A+2.20 F+M+N+K+S
At 1450 O C L.P = 3.0 A +2.25 F+M+N+K+S

Potential free lime ( PFL)

PFL = ( 6.77+(0.05C3S))-((0.15C3A)+(0.56C4AF)

To make a good clinker the liquid content must be optimum

and with right viscosity.
 Variation in % liquid phase at 1338 deg c
With change in Silica ratio and alumina ratio at 100 % LSF
3

2.5 15 %
Alumina ratio A/F

2 20%
25 %
30 %
35 %
1.5 40 %

15 %
1

0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Silica ratio S/ ( A+F)
 Influence of minor components on liquid properties

Minor Influence on liquid formation

components

MgO Can increase the liquid phase present at burning zone

temperature

K2O , Na2O Forms a separate liquid to the main oxide flux at

and SO3 around 1250 deg c . At higher temperatures it is partially
miscible and results in both a higher viscosity and
higher surface tension. Overall effect is to accelerate
the formation nodules at a lower temperature but restrict
their growth resulting in dustier clinker.
Mn2O3 Behaves similarly to Fe2O3 in increasing the level of
flux and reducing its viscosity

Cl, F Lowers the liquid viscosity

Trace metals Can either increase or decrease both liquid viscosity

and surface tension depending upon the
electronegativity of the ions and alumina ratio .
Raw material particles
Raw material particles
Before the reaction
during the reaction
Schematic illustration
Of clinker at 1400 deg C
 Radial cross section of rotary kiln

Free board

Passive layer

Active layer
Higher the rpm more the area of active layer which reduces
free lime due to intense stirring there by improving
better heat exchange.It also improves nodulisation.
 Influence of revolutions / minute on kiln operation

Lower rpm , high % filling , less active high rpm , low % filling , more active
Layer , high free lime, high radiation Layer , low free lime and low radiation
losses losses

Optimum % filling = 9 – 11 with raw meal retention time of 20 -25 minutes

unfavorable favorable
 Influence of revolutions / minute on kiln operation
High degee of filling brings the surface of the charge closer to the flame
envelope. In this case there is a chance of chars trapped inside the charge causing
localised reduced conditions and increases volatile cycle.

unfavorable favorable
Sequence of chemical reactions in cement rotary kiln,
temperature and energy input
 Properties of liquid

Properties of the liquid phase Temperature has the most

pronounced effect on liquid-phase viscosity. Increasing the
burning temperature by 93degrees C (199degrees F), reduces
liquid viscosity by 70% for a regular Type 1 clinker. This simple fact
explains why hotter-than-normal temperatures are beneficial
to clinkering yet potentially harmful to the refractory
lining, as shown in Photo 1.MgO, alkali sulphates, fluorides,
and chlorides also reduce liquid-phase viscosity. Extreme caution
should be exerted when insufflating calcium chloride into the burning
zone as a way to reduce alkali in the clinker. The injection
of sodium carbonate into the burning zone also is detrimental
to the refractory lining.Free alkali and phosphorus increase
liquid-phase viscosity, but this effect is offset by MgO and SO3. Only
Clinkers with sulphate-alkali ratio lower than 0.83 and low MgO would
experience the negative effects of high liquid viscosity.
The liquid-phase viscosity increases linearly with the alumina-iron ratio.
For a given burning temperature, high C3A clinkers tend to nodulize
better than low C3A clinkers. Moreover, the liquid phase is considerably
less damaging to the refractory lining when the liquid is viscous.
Another important property of the liquid phase is its surface tension, or its
ability to "wet" the lining. The surface tension has a direct impact
on clinker fineness, coating adherence to the lining and clinker quality.
High surface tension values favor nodule formation and liquid penetration through
the nodules. The resulting clinker contains less dust
(fraction below 32 mesh) and lower free lime content. A liquid phase
with high surface tension has less tendency to wet the brick surface,
therefore reducing clinker coatability or adherence to the lining.
Alkali, MgO, and SO3 reduce liquid surface tension, as does temperature. Sulphur
and potassium have the strongest effects, followed by sodium
and magnesium. Therefore, MgO, SO3, and K2O are good coating promoters.
Conclusions Although the amount of liquid phase in the burning and transition zones of the kiln
is important to clinker formation and brick performance, the
rheological properties of the melt are even more important.
The rheological properties of the clinker melt control parameters,
such as clinker mineral formation, clinker coatability, clinker fineness,
cement strength, and refractory depth of infiltration.
It is then very important to keep fuel and raw materials properties and flame
temperature as steady as possible. Whenever introducing
drastic changes in raw material or fuel properties, the
refractory lining must be changed accordingly to meet the differences
in clinker coatability and burnability. This proves particularly true
when adding slags, kiln dust, or solid wastes to the kiln.
 Milestones in clinker formation (2)
• Belite formation (700 – 1200 °C)
– 2 CaO + SiO2 Ca2SiO4
– Solid state reaction
– Reaction rate depends on contact surface between reactants
(diffusion of Ca2+)

Raw meal fineness: 15 % R90&1.5% R212

Raw material Marl Limestone, sand

SiO2
CaO

Reaction rate Fast Slow

Ratio of 90 µ / 212µ = 8 −9 must never be distributed

 Milestones in clinker formation (3)

• Alite formation (1250 – 1450 °C)

– Ca2SiO4 + CaO Ca3SiO4
– Reaction rate depending on:
• Quantity and viscosity of the melt
• Diffusion distance between the reactants

• Formation of liquid phase (1250 °C)

– Pure system Al2O3 – CaO eutectic point at 1338 °C
– In clinker system other elements (e.g. MgO, Na2O) 1250 °C
 Milestones in clinker formation (3)

• Alite formation (1250 – 1450 °C)

– Ca2SiO4 + CaO Ca3SiO4
– Reaction rate depending on:
• Quantity and viscosity of the melt
• Diffusion distance between the reactants

• Formation of liquid phase (1250 °C)

– Pure system Al2O3 – CaO eutectic point at 1338 °C
– In clinker system other elements (e.g. MgO, Na2O) 1250 °C
 Relevance of the liquid phase

• Significance for
– Clinker granulation
– Coating (but also formation of rings)
– Rate of alite formation

• Typical amount 20 –30 %

– Dry: ≤ 23 %
– Normal: 23 – 27 %
– Wet ≥ 27%

• Viscosity:
– Decreases with increasing temperature
– Depending on composition and minor elements
• Reduced by Na2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, MnO
• Increased by SiO2, Al2O3
 What is free lime ?
Have you seen a clinker with 0 % free lime ?
Free lime exists ,Is it because mis match of stoichiometry ?
Or is it because of unreacted calcite ?
Is it possible to reduce the free lime by increasing the liquid % ?
Or by reducing the LSF ?
Is it possible to reduce the free lime by overburning or heating the kiln
beyond the reaction temperature ?
1700
0.5 %
C

1600
1
O
temperature

Free lime
γ C3S formation
1500
1.5

1400 2
1300
2.5
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Liter weight, gms/liter
 How to determine what constitutes a coarse grain?

The following particle sizes have been found critical for residual free lime

Quartz and silicates : + 45 microns

Calcite : + 125 microns

It has been found that at 1400 deg C an increase in the amount of coarse
Particles results in the following increase in free lime

+ 1 % quartz + 45 microns leads to + 0.93 % free lime

+ 1 % Calcite + 125 microns leads to + 0.56% free CaO

The following formula may be used for estimating the free CaO at 1400 Deg C
CaO 1400
0
C = 0.33.( LSF – 95)+1.8.(Ms -2) + 0.93.SiO2(+45 mic) +0.56.caCO3(+125 mic)
 BEFORE AFTER — burning harder
• decrease in free lime
• low porosity, difficult grindability
• large alite
• possible poor nodulization
• variation in alkali sulfate
content
Clinker/Kiln • large variations
• kiln on the hot side
Operation in free lime
• increase in alkalis and sulfate in
Possible • poor belite
kiln internal cycle, possible
Effects: distribution
surges, potential for buildups
• low porosity makes it hard to
cool
• lower clinker reactivity
• color differences, brown clinker
center
• increased water demand
• decreased early strength and
increased
Cement • possible erratic • admixture incompatibility later
Performance expansion strength during periods where
Possible results due to alkalis
Effects: free lime • abnormalities in setting
behavior are decreasing
• pack set due to static charge
(large alites)
 Before After — burning harder
• good distribution of free
• poor
Clinker lime
distribution of
Potential • good distribution of belite
free lime and
Effects: • better clinker uniformity
belite
• kiln is easier to control
• less variability, more
Cement • possible
uniformity
Performan erratic
• smaller alite crystals,
ce expansion
enhanced reactivity,
Potential results due to
possibly allowing lower
Effects: free lime
cement fineness.
 Effect of raw mix changes on resulting free lime
LSF = 98 LSF = 98 LSF = 98
MS= 2.5 MS= 2.5 MS= 2.5 % estimated
CaCO3 125 µ =7.2 % CaCO3 125 µ =5 % CaCO3 125 µ =5 %
SiO2 = +44 µ =1.2 % SiO2 = +44 µ =1.2 % SiO2 = +44 µ =1.2 % 8
17% .4900 12% .4900 12% .4900

4
CaCO3 125 µ =0.56 %
SiO2 = +44 µ =0.93 % 3

1
chemistry
O C

1400 1450 1500 1550

 Burnability index = C3 S/ ( C3A + C4AF)

% liquid

30

20

15

1300 1400 1500 Deg C

Formation and size of nodules and formation of C3S at various temperatures both
as a function of time.

Dmm D max

time
Amount of C3S

T1 T2 T3

T1> T2> T3

time
 Behaviour of volatiles

• Chloride reacts primarily with alkalis forming NaCl and KCl . Any chloride in
In excess of alkali will combine with calcium to form CaCl2.

• A part of the alkalis in excess of chloride combine with sulphur to form

Na2SO4, K2SO4 and double salts such as Ca2K2(SO4)2

• Alkalis not combined with chloride or sulphur will be present as Na2O and
K2O embedded in the clinker minerals

• Sulphur in excess of alklis combine with CaO to form CaSO4

 Kiln process
Volatile matter

Burning zone Back end etc

d e
ε V

c b K a

1.Evaporation factor ε = d/b = (b-c) / b = 1- c/b

2.Valve V = e / d = (a-c) / ( b-c)

3.Circulation factor K=b/a

4 .Residual component R=c/a

 Evoporation n factor = 1 - % within clinker
% at kiln inlet ( LOI free basis)

ε = 1 means all evoporates and nothing leaves with the clinker

ε = 0 means nothing evaporates and all leave with the clinker

Average evaporation factors of various compounds

KCl Cl-free Na2O Cl Alkali Excess
K2O SO3 SO3
Evaporatio 0.990 - 0.10 – 0.10 – 0.990 – 0.30 – 0.75
n factor 0.996 0.40 0.25 0.996 0.90
Pre heater 0.05 0.15 0.05 – 0.05 0.05 – 0.42
value 0.2 0.25
Filter 0– 0 – 0.10 0 – 0.15 0 – 0.10 0 -0.20 0.80
value 0.10
 Melting points and boiling points

K Na

compound Melting point Boiling point Melting point Boiling point

( O C) ( O C) ( O C) ( O C)
- oxide Decomp. 350 sublime 1275

- carbonate 894 Decomp. 850 Decomp.

- sulphate 1074 1689 884 -

- chloride 768 1411 801 1440

- hdroxide 360 1320 328 1390

 ASR – Alkali-Sulfur ratio

SO3
80
SO3 = = 1.1
Alk K2O Na2O
optimum + 0.5 .
94 62

The sulphur and alkalis is the total input. If ratio exceeds 1.1 it is held that an
amount of sulphur is present in the kiln material which is not covered b alkalis
and as excess sulphur will form CaSO4.
The amount of excess sulfur ( E.S) is expressed in grams SO3 per 100 Kgs
And calculated according to the equation

E.S = 1000 .SO3 – 850 .K2O – 650 . Na2O ( gr SO3/ 100 kg clinker)

The limit on excess sulfur is given to be in the range of 250 – 600 g / 100 Kg clinker
For easy burning raw mix the high value 600 gram SO3 / 100 kg clinker should
Present no problems for the kiln opeartion , but for hard burning raw mix the lower
Value is the limit. Above these limits , the sulphur will give rise to coating problems
In the pre heater tower.
The amount of excess sulphur ( E.S) is expressed in grams per 100 Kg clinker
And calculated according to the equation

E.S = 1000.SO3 - 850.K2O – 650 .Na2O ( gr SO3/ 100 Kg clinker)

The limit on excess sulphur is given to be in the range of 250 – 600 g / 100 Kg clinker
 Volatile Matter typical values for ε and V

symp K2O Na2O Cl SO3

ol
Evaporation factor ε 0.20 - 0.10 - 0.990- 0.35 – 0.80
0.4 0.25 0.996
Kiln Value

Wet module-op-kiln Vo 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6

-Wet dust –op-kiln Vo 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4

Long dry kiln Vo 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.4

1-stage kiln Vo 0.55 0.8 0.8 0.35

2-stages kiln Vo 0.7 0.85 0.85 0.6

4-stages kiln Vo -1 -1 -1 -1
 sympol K2O Na2O Cl SO3

Precalciner kiln -1 -1 -1 -1

Cyclone preheater Vc
value
-1 stage Vc 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.45

-2 stages Vc 0.2 0.45 0.2 0.3

-4 stages Vm 0.15 0.4 0.05 0.15-0.5

Dedusting cyclone Vkt 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.55

Value
Raw mill value Vt 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.3

Cooling tower value -1 -1 -1 -1

Elec precipitator 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.5- 0.8

value
Hard-burnt clinker limits the early strength
potential and promotes the late strength
potential.

This clinker does not need microscopy to

state a very hard burning regime, a bad
grindability and a modest early strength
potential. The clinker had been sent to be
investigated because of client complaints
about long setting times: Initial setting
time 200 min, final setting time 450 min.
How to assess and understand burnability (cont.)
• Characteristics considered to influence burnability:
– Chemical composition
LS
SR (quantity of liquid phase)
AR (viscosity of liquid phase)
Other influences: F, P2O5, MgO, SO3, alkalis
– Micro-homogeneity
Size and distribution of minerals in kiln feed

– Mineralogical composition

Easy to difficult to
react react

Clay Mica Feldspar Quartz “refractory” minerals

(mullite, corundum)
 Pictoral representation
Of clinker micrograph Mgo
C4AF
CaO

C3S

C3A

C2S
 What is portland cement clinker

• Macroscopic
A gray, granulated, rocky material
Grain size ≈ 0 – 50 mm

• Microscopic
A mixture of different mineral phases
Particle size ≈ 0 – 100 µm
 Uniform Nodule Sizes

Rather uniform-sized nodules are ingeneral an

advantage regarding burning efforts and uniform
degree of burning.
Quickly cooled clinkers are favourable for the early strength potential; no
alite is lost. The fine crystalline liquid phase prevents aluminate from an early
hydration. The influence of aluminate on the setting time is limited in quickly
cooled clinker.
 Dusty Clinker

Elevated amount of clinker fines are especially common in high LS or

high SR clinkers. A low AR and high S content can also contribute to
clinker fines. These fines are a heat carrier in the kiln atmosphere and
contribute to a flat temperature profile.
The setting time is in tendency shortened by elevated amounts of coarse
crystalline aluminate and extended by high burning efforts; compensating
influences are possible. Decomposition effects due to slow cooling impair both
early and late strength potential.
Dusty clinker impairs the clinker grindability in tube mills
above Blaine values of > 2000.
Increasing free lime contents ( ) which are still below the expansion
risk level lead to shortened setting times, to slightly elevated early
strength potentials and to a decrease of the late strength potential.
Free lime contents above 2% can create an expansion risk in concrete. Here we see crack
formations due to free lime hydration which are filled with portlandite. The volume increase
which accompanies the density change from 3.33 g/ccm of lime to 2.41g/ccm of portlandite
is visible.
 Clinker Granulometry
Clinker granulometry

100
dust only
90 fine, dusty
80
normal, some dust
70
coarse, no dust
passing / %

60
50
very coarse, no dust
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
sieve size / mm
Graph: Stefan Gross

The clinker portion < 1mm is in general taken as an indicator of the dust load in
the burning process. Large kilns are more likely to have dusty clinkers. High-
grade corrective components or in general corrective components that are
difficult to grind or homogenize tend to contribute to elevated amounts of clinker
fines.
 Reactions during clinker cooling

• Resorption of alite
– Liquid phase + C3S ⌫ C2S + C3A + C2(A,F)

• Decomposition of alite
– very slow cooling
– reducing conditions
– C3S ⌫ C2S + CaO

• Crystallization of liquid phase

– Slow cooling: large crystals – improved reactivity
 Cooling
Once the formation of the alit
C3S is complete, alit
ee
there is no further value in
prolonging the process at
this elevated temperature.
belite
belite
The objective
now is to halt
further growth of aluminat
the C3S crystals aluminat
ee
and to trap any
dis-solved MgO
present in the
amorphous
stage.
ferrite
ferrite
This final process is called
cooling, not just to reduce
the temperature, but to
freeze the crystal growth
and to convert the liquid
phase back to a solid for
easier transport.

At this point, C3A and C4AF

cool to form solids.
 Influence of cooling on clinker phases

Fast cooling
Well distributed Slow cooling
small crystals Larger crystals
 Clinker cooling

C3S
C3S

C2S

Clinker when it is quenched in cooler it creates micro cracks which

needs less energy for comminution during grinding.

Fig.1: Alite decomposition into
belite and free lime. 250 X
How fast must clinker be cooled ?
Clinker cooling takes place in two stages, the first
cooling stage occurring within the kiln, the second in the clinker cooler.
The rate of cooling within the kiln depends upon the flame length, the position
in the kiln and the throughput and speed of the kiln charge. The temperature
of clinker at the outlet of the kiln is around between 1350 oC and 1200 oC.
If the flame is long, this part of the cooling process will be very slow and alite
and belite can grow into an excessive crystal size. In some cases,
(when the cooler efficiency is low) alite
partially decomposes into belite and free lime (see fig. 1).
The texture of the solidified liquid phase is quite dependent on the cooling
rate. During slow cooling, the crystals have time to grow. Ferrite and
aluminate form a coarsely grained matrix (see fig. 2). Alternatively, if the
cooling process proceeds quickly, the opposite is true - the crystals are fine
grained (see fig. 3).
Fig.2: Differentiated aluminate (grey) and ferrite (white)
caused by slow cooling. 640 X Fig.3: Finely grained aluminate
and ferrite duCooling can also proceed so quickly that the crystals can
only form in the submicroscopic range. Distinction between aluminate and
ferrite is no longer possible by microscopy but can be effected by X-ray
methods.
Why raw meals must be homogeneous?
If the raw meal is homogeneous enough, units of varying sizes will exist
which do not have the required chemical composition. It can be easily
deduced from the phase diagram for the system CaO - Al2O3 - Fe2O3 -
SiO2 the
phase compositions which can coexist assuming different volumes to have
different chemical composition. In figure A the different phase
assemblages in the system CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2 can be seen.
Minor components have major influence on
burnability and cement properties. Many of
them act as fluxes and mineralisers in
burning. They change the course of the
reaction , morphology of the clinker and
cement properties.
 Mineralisers

Mineraliser accelerates the C3S formation , increases rate of

conversion from C2S to C3S
Influence of minor components on the burnability of rawmeal , process and
Quality of cement
element Content volatile/nonvolatile Influence on Influence on Influence on quality
manufacturing hydraulic of cement, strength
process reactivity Early late
MgO 0.8 – 2.5 , non -volatile 1 – 1.5 % good C3S if it is less early sterngth up if Periclase
burability than 2.0% < 2.0% causes
expansion
good grindability late strength down
max limit -2.0% if > 2.0
SO3 0.2 – 0.9 % volatile Less the better C3S Setting accelearted Alkali
Max limit < 0.5 % C2S Early strength up sulfate is
If it is > 0.5 % coating C3A Late strength down easily
in preheater & kiln formed

P2O5 0.1 – 0.34 % volatile 0.1 – 0.3 C3S Early strength

Max=0.5. If more remarkably up if <
than 0.5% coating in 0.5%
preheater Early and late
strength down if >
0.5%
Na2O, 0.1 – 0.5 % 0.2 – 0.4 % good In adm amount Setting accelerated
K2O 0.4 – 1.2 % burnability.If it is >1% C3S Early strength up
volatile coating in preheater C2S Final strength down
C3A
TiO2 0.2 – 0.6 0.2 -0.4 % good In adm amount Setting retarder
burbality C3S Contardictary
If it is > 0.5 % coating results on strength
in preheater
element Content Influence on Influence on Influence on quality of
volatile/nonvolatile manufacturing hydraulic cement
process reactivity

Cl 50 – 80 ppm If >100 ppm coating C3A Accelerate setting

in preheater.Good Initial strength up
burnability Late strength
undefinite
Mn Good burability as it C3S Initial strength –up Cemen
is flux C2S Final strength - down t color
C3A change
to
C4AF green
0r blue
SrO, 900 ppm BaO reacts with Silica C3S Early strength up
BaO earlier than Cao. C2S Late strength down
Hence free lime
increases
F Max = 2%. If >2 % C3S Initial strength up
coating in preheater Final strength down
Burning improved
Thank you for your
kind attention

K.P.Pradeep kumar